Psychological theory of aging

2. Social and psychological approaches to old age

There is still no general theory of aging that would be acceptable to psychologists. All theories are essentially nothing more than “microtheories” that explain not the aging process as a whole, but only some of its aspects and levels. Modern psychology of aging looks like just a collection of theories and concepts.

Purely biological or exclusively social definitions of aging are a narrow approach to the aging process itself. J. Birren, having analyzed the literature on aging, came to the conclusion: biologists provide a definition of aging more often than psychologists, and sociologists never provide it.

The biosocial essence of a person gives grounds to consider personal and psychological changes in late age as a set of mutual influences of the biological and social in their genesis.

In accordance with this, J. Turner and D. Helms divide aging into three interrelated and overlapping processes: psychological aging - how an individual imagines his aging process (for example, young people may feel psychologically older); specific sensation psychological old age, which has both objective signs (decrease in intellectual abilities, narrowing of the emotional sphere) and subjective manifestations. The feeling of old age is realized in the specific attitude of an individual to the process of his own aging when compared with the aging process of other people. Here we can talk about the psychological asymmetry of one’s own and “other people’s” old age, when an individual imagines that he is aging faster or slower than everyone else; biological aging - biological changes in the body as we age (involution); social aging - how an individual connects aging with society; behavior and performance of social roles by older people.

According to K. Victor, the biological approach also focuses on the physiological side of old age, the psychological approach on the mental and mental aspects of aging, the social one studies old age in a social context in three areas: the individual experiences of an elderly person; the place of an elderly person in society; problems of old age and their resolution at the level of social policy.

Thus, in all these approaches it is possible to identify general ideas about issues that are socio-psychological: the process of aging of an individual as a member of a group and the experience of old age in the immediate social environment, the place of an elderly person in society, the individual’s attitude to his aging process, social adaptation to the aging process, change social status and social roles, the position of society in relation to aging and old people, the actual place of old people among others age groups, their functions in society.

In our country, the problem of aging was of interest not only to psychologists and doctors, but also to philosophers, for example, the phenomenon of death, ways to prolong life in line with the theory of Russian cosmism. The socio-economic aspects of the problem (attracting able-bodied pensioners to production activities), as well as medical-hygienic and medical-social ones, were developed until recently mainly by the Kyiv Institute of Gerontology. The issue of adaptation of older people to the retirement period was also raised there. Problems of socio-psychological adaptation of older people in boarding homes were studied within the framework of research programs by the Research Institute for the Examination of Working Capacity and Labor Organization of Disabled Persons (Moscow).

Currently they are working on aging problems at the Center for Mental Health of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Research Institute " International Center on the problems of the elderly" in Samara; the Gerontological Society of the Russian Academy of Sciences operates, working in Moscow, St. Petersburg, Novosibirsk and other cities. In 1997, the Research Institute of Gerontology of the Ministry of Health of Russia was created. At the same time, the main directions of scientific research are concentrated mainly in the medical and biological field.

In modern Russian psychology, only the school of B. G. Ananyev considers aging and old age from the point of view of developmental psychology and acmeology. According to Ananyev, it is necessary to study complex criteria for age periodization in a more comprehensive manner, to isolate biological, psychological and social components in them and to establish their relationships. In the course of research into the problems of mental aging, emerging connections between the latter and the social changes accompanying it are clearly noted. age period. The biosocial essence of a person gives grounds to consider personal and psychological changes in late age as a set of mutual influences of the biological and social in their genesis.

The problem of aging is studied within the framework of clinical psychology, and has practically not been studied by domestic social psychology, in contrast to foreign researchers who have developed several psychological theories of aging.

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A person, like all living beings, is born, grows and develops, reaches maturity, and then gradually begins to fade, grow old and die. Aging and old age are a normal, natural, physiological phenomenon; this is a certain period of ontogenesis. This age period, as well as each period of a person’s life - childhood, adolescence, maturity, has its own characteristics, its own age norm. In addition, the process of mental aging is individual. However, scientists identify some general patterns of human mental aging:

1. With age, there is a loss of psychological flexibility and ability to adapt. Both men and women become less pliable, they lose the desire to experiment in life. The love for the new, the unknown is replaced by the desire for stability and reliability. It has been proven that a year of unemployment can reduce the likely life expectancy of a person who loses a job by five years, resignation or retirement often literally kills people.

In the process of aging, there is a gradual decrease in adaptation, that is, the ability to adapt to difficult or unforeseen life situations - both big changes and major changes in life.

2. Researchers of this age also point to positive aspects in the aging process (along with the phenomenon of extinction, important adaptive mechanisms also arise). Many of these adaptation mechanisms are consistently fixed and naturally manifest themselves in the later stages of individual development. The severity of adaptation mechanisms largely determines the rate of aging of individual systems and the life expectancy of the organism as a whole. Learning to manage the aging process means learning to suppress the reduction of adaptive capabilities (body reserves), limitation of self-regulation mechanisms, disruption of metabolism and body functions, and stimulate the mobilization of important adaptive mechanisms.

3. Old age is not a static state, but a dynamic process. It is associated with specific changes in living conditions, many of which have a negative connotation. Such changes include the loss of a well-known position associated with the work performed, a decrease in physical capabilities, worsening economic living conditions, changes in functions in the family, death or the threat of loss of loved ones, and the need to adapt to changes. The positive aspects of a change in life situation are manifested in the presence of a large amount of free time, the opportunity to freely do what you love, devote yourself to entertainment or hobbies, etc. Thus, during the period of late adulthood, a person is faced with the need to solve completely new problems for him associated with changing his life. social status, with role spontaneity, with its own age-related changes. There is a need to change the previous way of life, rebuild the existing dynamic stereotype of behavior, adopt a new social role, and change self-perception.

4. Except external changes, changes occur in the idea that a person had about himself. A new vision of oneself can prompt a restructuring of the subjective picture of the world. It is significant and important for a person that the world be familiar and safe. Feelings of helplessness and worthlessness are a source of fear and apathy.

Therefore, we can talk about large quantities psychological factors influencing the aging process. There is no one universal method adaptations to old age. The personality of the person himself, his behavior, habits, the need for social contacts and his usual lifestyle also play a big role here. So, for some, living together with children and grandchildren is optimal, for others - autonomy, independence, the opportunity to do what you love.

One of the first socio-psychological theories of aging is “ theory of dissociation" - was created by American scientists E. Cumming and W. Henry. In accordance with this theory, the motivation for work changes in an old person. All elderly people can be divided into three groups depending on the mental energy they have.

The first group includes those who feel sufficiently cheerful and energetic, continue to work, perform social duties, remaining in the same workplace as in adulthood.

The second group includes those who do not work for hire, do not perform public duties, but enjoy their own business, which they call a hobby. These people have enough energy to keep themselves busy.

The third group includes people with weak mental energy, who are really preoccupied mainly with themselves.

Thus, aging is a process of transition from extroversion to introversion, resulting in a loss of social connections.

As an alternative, a new one appears in 1994 "activity theory"(A. Havigharst and J. Maddox), according to which people, entering old age, retain the same needs and desires as in middle age, and resist any intentions aimed at excluding them from society. Therefore, a departure from public life cannot be an attribute of a happy old age. Only by maintaining active activity and accepting new functions to replace lost ones, in society or in interpersonal communication, can a person feel satisfied in old age. Prosperous aging involves maintaining activity and the ability to stop the “reduction” of social connections. This can be achieved either by staying active in midlife for as long as possible, or by retiring and living for a spouse or friends.

"Minority Theory" considers older people as a minority group in the population structure, which implies discrimination, low social status and other phenomena that characterize social minorities.

Two important factors - the special closeness between people belonging to a given age group, and their exclusion (or restriction) from interaction with other groups of the population - gave impetus to the formation of a symbolic "subculture theories» A. Rose.

According to this theory, culture becomes the core that unites older people, creates a special closeness between them and at the same time separates them from other age cohorts. The author argues that the culture of the elderly is a special one, determined by retirement, a decrease in family contacts, general concerns and problems, illness and illness, the organization of institutions for pensioners, the influence of stereotypes of elderly people that have developed in society and other factors that give rise to the subculture of old age.

In accordance with " theory of symbolic interactionism" J. Mead, the problem of aging and old age is a problem of mutual adaptation of individuals. For older people, this is an adaptation to the young, “generalized others,” who in this case act as a changed society as a whole, to the very state of their own old age.

On the other hand, society must adapt to the fact that older people are becoming a significant part of it, that its demographic structure is becoming the new kind. And if the adaptive abilities of old people have been developed over centuries, then for the first time society was faced with the need to adapt to its own old age and was not ready for this. Consequently, society’s adaptation to the new situation will be creative and stabilizing.

One of the latest theories, proposed as an alternative to the previous ones, is “ happy model (successful) old age" P. Baltes - built on the idea of ​​replenishing “losses” in old age through the processes of selection, compensation and optimization.

The essence of this theory is this. The reaction to biological, psychological and social changes (change of housing, environment, reduction of communication, loss of a partner, etc.) should be selection, selection, volitional decision. Even if a person is physically seriously ill, he is still not excluded from the decision-making process: which hospital he would like to be in, what kind of help he needs, what TV program he will watch, when and who to call, etc.

Compensation, the next component of the model, is included when any goals, abilities or activities are permanently lost for the individual. The point of compensation is to find other possible goals, abilities or activities that could replace the lost ones, i.e. achieve results in a different way. Compensation focuses on creating relevant goals and identifying opportunity resources.

Optimization involves strengthening, consolidating the product of activity or active resources to achieve the final goal, i.e. the most intense pursuit of an already defined goal or hope. In the process of optimization, the product of activity leads to new goals and their successful achievement. Thus, happiness is determined by having goals in general, minimizing losses and maximizing gains.

This model served as the basis for creating "theories of social-emotional selection" B. Carstensen, according to which the decrease in the number of social contacts throughout life is the result of changes in the motivation system. Social selection makes it possible to create a social environment that maximizes positive experiences and opportunities and minimizes undesirable negative phenomena. Thus, the active creation of the social environment makes it possible to predict social consequences and, therefore, control and self-efficacy of the individual.

Carstensen believes that the implementation of social contacts has three main goals: acquiring new knowledge, developing and maintaining a positive opinion about oneself, and regulating emotions.

Social selection processes are able to compensate for the losses that are inevitable in old age. Social features become more important than, for example, obtaining new information. On the one hand, the creation of new contacts decreases for various reasons (health status, change in living conditions), on the other hand, the elderly are very willing to get closer to other people (participation in the educational or creative process). Due to an increase in the amount of free time and a change in lifestyle, selection is intensified and already established relationships are optimized - older people pay more attention to contacts with children and grandchildren, neighbors, as well as with those with whom they did not communicate so intensively in pre-retirement age. The circle of acquaintances does not expand, but the quality of relationships changes.

American psychologist E. Erikson in "epigenetic theory" examines personality development throughout life. The individual's psyche is determined by sociocultural conditions. E. Erikson divides personality development into 8 stages, the last of which (65 years and older) is designated as late maturity. During this period, a person’s health deteriorates, he strives for solitude, and experiences the death of a spouse and friends of the same age. He faces not so much a psychosocial crisis as an integrative assessment of his entire life. Only in old age, according to Erikson, does real maturity come, allowing a person to appreciate previous experience and achievements. This is the pole designated by him as wisdom. At the other pole there are old people who have not realized themselves, realizing the impossibility of starting over. Two types of irritation prevail in them: regret about the inability to relive their life again and denial of their shortcomings and transferring them to the world around them.

For gerontology, this concept is interesting because the problems of older people are considered in it as a special psychosocial crisis determined by age, and are explained by analogy with the conflicts and frustrations of previous age periods.

B.G. Ananyev, studying the “paradox of the end of human life,” pointed out that the dying of forms of human existence often occurs earlier than “physical decrepitude” from old age. S.L. agrees with this position. Rubinstein, who believed that there are two main ways of human existence and, accordingly, two attitudes towards life. The first is life that does not go beyond the immediate connections in which a person lives (first mother and father, then friends, teachers, marriage partner, children, etc.). Here a person is entirely within his life and every attitude he has is an attitude towards individual phenomena, but not towards life as a whole. As a result, he does not switch off from life and cannot take a mental position outside of it to reflect on it.

The second method is associated with the emergence of reflection. It seems to pause this continuous process of life and takes a person mentally beyond its limits. The person seems to take a position outside of it.

Views of S.L. Rubinstein echo the concept of B.S. Bratusya, in which the personality is considered as an organ or instrument of familiarization with the generic essence of a person. In order to realize his tribal essence, a person must first of all be directed not at himself, but outward, at humanity, and for this, the meaning of his life must reflect some universal human values.

Thus, an analysis of modern theoretical research in the field of gerontology shows that old age can and should be a fruitful period of life and older generations are able to overcome the negative stereotypes established in the public consciousness.

Summarizing the concepts considered, we can assume that the position of an elderly person in society, his belonging to one or another group is determined by the charge of “psychic energy”, and the type of social activity is determined by life experience, social culture, personal characteristics and a productive attitude to evaluate one’s life according to the criterion of success , achievements, happy moments.

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY OF AGING AS AN INTERDISCIPLINARY FIELD OF KNOWLEDGE

1.1.1. The place of social psychology of aging in the system of scientific knowledge

Developing as an independent science, the social psychology of aging in our country has a very short story. It has a longer history abroad. Therefore, it is difficult to find “ready-made” forms of knowledge if we are currently observing the process of formation of completely new principles and approaches, their implementation in the practice of socio-psychological and developmental psychological research. However, none of the truths here are unconditional. Moreover, the question arises about the right to exist of the social psychology of aging as an independent scientific discipline, especially since the methodology, research methods and even terminology are in a state of clarification and coordination. Many questions relate to social gerontology, social psychology, social work theory, or other disciplines.

The very combination of words “social psychology of aging” indicates the specific place that this discipline occupies in the system of scientific knowledge. Having emerged at the intersection of sciences - psychology, sociology and gerontology - the psychology of aging retains a special status, that is, each of these disciplines includes it as an integral part. Moreover, the problems of old age are dealt with not only by psychologists, sociologists and doctors, but also by economists, demographers, political scientists, teachers, social workers etc. At the same time, the core of modern research into the aging process is often called social gerontology, and not gerontopsychology, because, firstly, it is associated with a complex of social sciences - social psychology and sociology, economics, demography, political science, ethics, etc.; secondly, studying the social aspect of aging is impossible without a preliminary answer to the question of what exactly is aging, that is, without a medical and biological understanding of involutionary processes during ontogenesis. But it was the penetration of social and then socio-psychological research into gerontology that allowed it to go beyond medical and biological problems.

As G. M. Andreeva points out, any social phenomenon (in our case, the widespread and inevitable aging of the population) has its own “psychological” aspect, since social patterns manifest themselves through the activities of people, and people act, being endowed with consciousness and will. Analysis of the connections between communication, interaction and activity is impossible outside the system of psychological knowledge. The uniqueness of the aging phenomenon lies in the fact that it concerns not only the population, large groups of people in general, but each individual person who has his own unique experience of aging and old age.

Another reason for the dual position of the social psychology of aging is the very history of the formation of this discipline, which arose at the crossroads of two main sciences - psychology and gerontology. Research carried out in this area is distinguished by a wide variety of starting positions and methodological approaches. However, work from all directions exposes the contradictory nature of the aging process.

The experience of collaboration between psychology and gerontology is relatively short. In the West, it begins with the publication in 1922 of the monograph “Aging” by the American psychologist J. Hall, who is one of the first researchers of the socio-psychological aspects of old age and the founder of a new interdisciplinary body of knowledge - social gerontology.

The term “social gerontology” was introduced into scientific use in the early 50s of the 20th century. R. Havighurst and R. Albrecht. Today this term is generally accepted, but the question of what exactly it means has remained controversial for a long time, and questions about the methodology and methods of researching this subject continue to be discussed.

In Russian science, the term “social gerontology” appeared much later than the development of the social aspects of aging began. Already in the works of I. I. Mechnikov and A. A. Bogomolets, in connection with the problem of extending human life, not only biological and medical, but also social issues were raised. However, only at the end of the 40s of the XX century. social problems aging began to be considered by domestic scientists as independent. The initiative to isolate the social aspect from the field of gerontology belongs in our country not to sociologists, as abroad, but to geriatricians and hygienists. Z. G. Frenkel’s work “Lengthening life and active old age” was one of the first in this direction.

Foreign social researchers studying the phenomenon of old age are unanimous that gerontological analysis should cover biological, psychological and social aspects aging, i.e. patterns of involution of living organisms, including humans, features of the intrapersonal experience of old age, the specifics of the situation of the elderly in various social groups ah and systems.

For us, the starting point is the question of the status of socio-psychological gerontological research. Should the social psychology of aging be considered a holistic interdisciplinary body of knowledge or a multidisciplinary body of data accumulated by other psychological and social sciences that in one way or another address the aging process? Of course, the social psychology of aging must be a scientific discipline in the full sense of the word, that is, a discipline that has its own categorical apparatus, principles of data collection and analysis, methods of their generalization and interpretation. At the same time, socio-psychological gerontological research is a moving, unfixed set of information and data drawn from traditional social, psychological and other disciplines. Basic Research, related to the interests of gerontology, do not have clearly defined boundaries. A multidisciplinary approach assumes that scientists from different fields of knowledge study the problems of old age. Each of these sciences already has its own categorical apparatus. At the same time, the development of the social psychology of aging and old age over the past few decades gives grounds to assert that this discipline is increasingly acquiring the character of an independent science, which has its own conceptual and methodological principles.

One of the first mentions in our country of the social psychology of aging dates back to 1974, when M.D. Alexandrova’s book “Social and Psychological Gerontology” was published, which emphasizes that the central place in this science is occupied by the problem of the personality of an old person.

Age-related changes, human aging is a real, extremely complex process that poses challenges to society, people, and science. large complex important problems. These are problems of personality, morality, the dynamics of professionalism and continuity of generations, problems of the individual and society. And it is no coincidence that human maturation, aging and old age have become the subject of study in many scientific disciplines. At the same time, it should be noted that each of them deals with only one aspect of the problem of old age and aging in the context of its own object and subject, considering these studies themselves as one of the possible directions.

Psychology has a special place in this regard - she studies the person himself in all the complexity of his relationships in society: changes in his condition, views, factors influencing aging and society’s attitude towards this phenomenon, - a society that becomes “the world of old people.” Society's knowledge of the specifics of the aging process, ways of continuing professional activities, the degree and nature of the involvement of older people in social relations, the level of their adaptation to their changing condition, position and place in society - all this is extremely important for ensuring easier adaptation of older people to their age-related changes, the age of “social loss”, the search for new opportunities.

The psychology of the elderly as a whole is not sufficiently developed (in developmental psychology, 90% of researchers are engaged in the psychology of children). Almost no standard textbook on developmental and developmental psychology contains a section devoted to the psychology of aging and old age; There are no corresponding sections in textbooks on developmental psychology.

Meanwhile, this period is a significant stage in human ontogenesis, and without its detailed study it is impossible to build a holistic concept mental development and, accordingly, the formation of the image of “positive aging”. The importance of studying the social psychology of aging is obvious. But science faces many unsolved problems here, including in the field of theoretical explanations and methodological approaches. The scientific data, schemes, and concepts developed abroad in this regard are, of course, of great interest, but their automatic transfer to domestic soil does not give full results due to the peculiarities of the social situation in Russia.

In the same time Special attention Today, the age-related psychology of aging and the social psychology of aging are connected not only with the differentiation and development of scientific knowledge, but also with the expansion and complication of social practices - assistance, counseling, accompaniment, psychotherapy, social protection etc. - in relation to older people and in relation to those who are associated with them in the family and at work. All this led to the creation of a new comprehensive practice-oriented science. Some authors believe that it should be social gerontology, but we would suggest calling it social psychology of aging.

In this regard, it is necessary to identify problems that can be solved by means of this field of knowledge. We proceed from the fact that, despite its borderline nature, the social psychology of aging is a part of psychology: general, developmental, clinical and social, work psychology, etc. Consequently, defining the range of its problems will mean highlighting psychological problems of those issues that relate specifically to the social psychology of aging. We can conditionally designate the tasks of social psychology of aging as the study of patterns of personal changes, behavior and activities of people, determined, firstly, by their inclusion in social groups, secondly, by the changes occurring with them associated with the aging of both themselves and other people, members of these groups, thirdly , the psychological characteristics of these groups themselves.

On the question of independence - “group of elderly”. The group of older people as an independent large social group is distinguished by the criterion of late age, based on the general principles of understanding the group. This group is characterized by some common features that are significant from the point of view of socio-psychological analysis. Almost all researchers identify two components in the content of the group: mental makeup(social character, mores, customs, traditions, tastes, etc.) and emotional sphere(needs, interests, moods). These concepts must be used to characterize psychological characteristics groups of older people.

Identifying what is common and typical for a “group of older people” is impossible by studying only the individual consciousness of group members, primarily because not all the features inherent in the psychology of the “group of older people” are inherent in each individual member of the group, each elderly person. In some cases, a particular representative may possess these general characteristics to a minimal extent. This is explained not only by the fact that group members differ among themselves in their individual psychological characteristics, in the degree of involvement in the most significant spheres of life for the group, etc. This discrepancy is equally explained by the fact that social psychology is greatly influenced by ideology, and the extent to which each individual assimilates this latter is also very different. Thus, the “mental makeup” of the group and the “psychic makeup” of the individuals included in it do not completely coincide. In the formation of group psychology, the dominant role is played by collective experience, recorded in sign systems, and this experience is not assimilated fully and equally by each person. The aging process is different for each person, and the same criterion does not necessarily apply to all older people. Thus, older people are not a homogeneous group, but rather a collection of subgroups, each of which has its own characteristics. Often subgroups are divided according to the severity of age-related difficulties, for example, those associated with a drop in income, deteriorating health and loss of loved ones.

Despite the fact that in last years Scientific and research interest in these problems has increased; there are big problems in the study of old age and aging, in particular in isolating subject of study.

On the one hand, there are conceptual ideas about old age as an important stage life path personality, characterized by special contradictions and normative tasks. The age period of aging and old age is conceptualized as a special stage of a person’s life, which has its own meaning, tasks and value. On the other hand, there is a significant number of works in which old age is viewed primarily as a period of decline, loss, and regression. The causes and mechanisms of the psychological characteristics of elderly and old people come down to biological and/or social changes. Thus, there is a significant gap that exists between these directions and the understanding of old age as a special period of human life. But this is also evidence of an acute shortage of research that would establish patterns and study the qualitative features of “positive aging” of people.

1.1.2. Problems of the theory of aging

Typically, the period of aging is considered as one of the stages in the life path of an individual, which is characterized by the wealth of experience accumulated in the past and has a number of new properties and characteristics that are not found in the early periods of development. At the same time, little is still known about the psychological mechanisms of aging and ways to neutralize the negative manifestations of this process. Old age, like any other, has its positive and negative sides, is associated with losses, but also has advantages, providing a person with the opportunity to live this period of his life more actively, realizing interests and inclinations within those boundaries that are optimal from the point of view of the capabilities and needs of an elderly person.

The study of the aging process, which has become the subject of study of various medical-biological, psychological and sociological schools, shows that during life there comes a certain point at which the process of development, i.e. enrichment and complication of functioning internal organs, as well as its corresponding support, slows down, and subsequently goes into the stage of regression, or involution, which is called “aging”.

Concepts about the essence, causes and mechanisms of aging have changed over time. This was associated not only with the development of scientific knowledge, but also with changes in the characteristics of aging in society. First of all, average life expectancy grew as a result of changes in living conditions and the social system, advances in medicine and other advantages of progress and civilization.

Modern ideas about aging are based on the following principles:

aging and old age are a natural process of age-related changes that occur during ontogenetic development at all levels of life;

aging of cells, organs, functional systems and mental processes happens unevenly. The law of heterochronicity of development and involution is universal and operates both at the interpersonal and intrapersonal levels. “Interpersonal heterochrony is expressed in the fact that individuals mature and develop unevenly, and different aspects and criteria of maturity have different meanings for them. Intrapersonal heterochrony is expressed in the inconsistency of the timing of biological, social and mental development" [ Con, 1988. - P. 71];

The aging process is accompanied by a weakening of homeostatic processes and at the same time the adaptation of all body systems to a new level of vital activity.

The aging process itself, obviously, begins from the moment the formation and development of a person begins. The aging process is embedded in the genetic program and is determined by the use and exhaustion of both energetic and psychological resources of a person. In the most general terms aging is understood as dynamic phenomena associated with the predominance of the rate of destructive processes over reconstructive ones, and old age - reaching a certain limit of these changes.

IN psychological literature, just as in philosophical, gerontological, there is no clear definition of who can be classified as “elderly” and “ an old man" A large period of late life, which can last 20 years or more, is poorly differentiated and vague, and is largely unknown. It can be roughly divided into old age, old age and longevity. In accordance with the classification of the WHO Regional Office for Europe, old age lasts for men from 61 to 74 years, for women - from 55 to 74 years, and old age begins at 75 years. People over 90 years of age are considered long-livers. The 65-year mark is often highlighted, since in many countries this is the retirement age.

Many researchers point out that the above gradation relates exclusively to biological age. Therefore, most of them come to the conclusion that the essence of age is not limited to the duration of existence, measured by the number of years lived. Quantitative indicators of age very approximately record the physiological and social “quality” of a person and his well-being. Calendar age serves as a basis for prohibiting or permitting various social roles or behaviors at appropriate ages. The fulfillment of these roles in accordance with certain social norms and regulations determines a person’s social age, which often does not coincide with the calendar age.

Biological age cannot be considered as some kind of external parallel to the social one, but not associated with it. Therefore, the psychological aspect of aging is often considered in relation to the sensory-perceptual and intellectual spheres, to personality characteristics, and the dynamics of creative productivity. In addition, when defining old age as the most essential feature serves as a socio-economic “threshold” - retirement, change in source of income, social status, narrowing the range of social roles.

The lack of a clear description of the definition of an elderly person is most likely due to the fact that the aging process occurs individually in each person. Many authors propose to indicate “young old age” when differentiating age categories (young old age) - approximately 65 - 75 years and “old age” (old old age) - 75 years and older. However, by the end of the 20th century. in developed countries there has been a tendency to increase average duration life, i.e. “young old age” can last up to 80 years. The main criterion is certain special characteristics that differ significantly among these age groups. For example, over the years there is a dynamic in the views of an aging person on the role that he plays in surrounding life. Limitation of physical capabilities with age and a feeling of constant malaise are respectively reflected in the mental sphere of an elderly person, determining his point of view on his place in society: there is a refusal of social activity and an active life position. Many researchers dispute virtually any of the old age boundaries proposed in the literature, since over the past few decades the concept of old age has undergone a significant shift: in many countries the health status of the population has noticeably improved and life expectancy has increased. Therefore, in the works of a number of researchers, people aged 75-80 years and even older are increasingly referred to as “old people”.

Many authors consider it possible to distinguish between concepts such as “old man” and “ old man": an old man is a person who, with age, has irreversibly lost his physical and mental strength. Even with extreme depletion of physical strength and irreversible damage to vital organs, an elderly person cannot yet be classified as an old person.

The most common opinion among authors is that there is no single criterion for old age. A group of people aged 60-75 years, which is characterized by a greater or lesser loss of material support and almost complete preservation of the ability to self-care, is defined as a group of older people. The second group is people aged 75-80 years and older with complete loss of ability to work, partially or completely lost the ability to self-care. This group is classified as old people.

In any case, the boundaries of old age will always be conditional, because psychological, biological or social boundaries will always remain individual. Moreover, as we age, the differentiation and individual organization of each person increases. Even within the same public group large functional and other differences are found.

Until now, as many authors point out, state statistical bodies of Western countries, labor and civil legislation, social services, etc. in their activities adhere to the definition of the milestone of 65 years as separating average age from an elderly person. In Russia, the terms “elderly people” and “persons over working age” are very common, which include women 55 years and older and men 60 years and older, i.e., those who have reached retirement age.

In S.I. Ozhegov’s dictionary the following interpretation of the concepts is given: “elderly” - “beginning to grow old”, “old age” - “the period of life after maturity, during which the body weakens” and, finally, “old” - “reaching old age”. Such definitions suggest that somewhere in our subconscious there is a clearly fixed norm, and we know approximately what a person should look like in old age.

So, to date, science has not formed a generally accepted definition of old age. As a result, the frequent interchangeability of the terms “elderly”, “elderly people”, “senior people”, “third age”, etc. does not contribute to adequate processing and use of the data obtained by researchers. It should be noted that the concept of the “third age” appeared in the 60s of the 20th century. instead of the concept of "older age" when concern arose social consequences aging population in Western European countries. This term emphasized the possibility of continuing to be active in society and maintaining the independence of the elderly. Some authors have introduced the term “fourth age”: they include people over 80 - 85 years old in this category. Some researchers consider it more convenient to use the term “aging people,” which indicates the gradualness and continuity of the process, rather than a certain and always arbitrarily established age limit beyond which old age begins. Therefore, in order to avoid disagreements, we propose to adhere to the generally accepted point of view, namely, not to separate “elderly” from “old” and in the future to talk about the group of elderly people in general, implying that each individual reaches old age at 60 years.

It is sometimes believed that old age is, first of all, a biological phenomenon that is accompanied by serious psychological changes. Many researchers view it as a set of losses or losses - economic, social, individual, which may mean a loss of autonomy during this period of life. At the same time, it is noted that this is a kind of culminating moment of accumulation of experience and knowledge, intelligence and personal potential of older people, allowing them to adapt to age-related changes.

Changes during aging occur at the biological level, when the body becomes more vulnerable, the likelihood of death increases; at the social level - a person retires, his social status, social roles, and behavior patterns change;

finally, on the psychological level, when a person realizes the changes taking place and adapts to them. This gives us reason to determine aging as a result of limiting the capabilities of self-regulation mechanisms, manifested in a decrease in the ability to compensate for primary changes in the regulation of genetic processes. Thus, the problem of aging is a problem of the harmonious functioning of a biological system - a system that is impossible without appropriate psychological tracking and appropriate adaptation of a person in the social space surrounding him.

In the ordinary consciousness and value system of Western people, the biological interpretation of the problem of aging is the only one, or at least the dominant one. WITH biological point From the point of view, the individual is considered mainly as a subject of reproduction: having realized this function, he becomes burdensome for his biological species. This approach leaves virtually no room, firstly, for the moral aspects of the problem of old age. Existing attempts by society to make it easier for the elderly in the final stage of their lives are too rational and formal and are limited to such measures as pension legislation, medical services, social services etc. Secondly, the peculiarity of man as a biological species is that in addition to the transfer of certain representative properties, man (homo sapiens) transmits not just biological information for the survival of a given species - humanity, but also information related to the cultural and social properties of the existence of a given species. This predetermines the special specificity of the human aging process, where, in parallel with the exhaustion of the effectiveness of certain biologically necessary factors for existence, a set of sociocultural properties is concentrated and manifested, which compensate for and sometimes determine the very existence of a biological organism.

There is still no general theory of aging that would be acceptable to psychologists. All theories are essentially nothing more than “microtheories” that explain not the aging process as a whole, but only some of its aspects and levels. Modern psychology of aging looks like just a collection of theories and concepts.

In our country, the problem of aging was of interest not only to psychologists and doctors, but also to philosophers, for example, the phenomenon of death, ways to prolong life in line with the theory of Russian cosmism. The socio-economic aspects of the problem (attracting able-bodied pensioners to production activities), as well as medical-hygienic and medical-social ones, were developed until recently mainly by the Kyiv Institute of Gerontology. The issue of adaptation of older people to the retirement period was also raised there. Problems of socio-psychological adaptation of older people in boarding homes were studied within the framework of research programs by the Research Institute for the Examination of Working Capacity and Labor Organization of Disabled Persons (Moscow).

Currently, they are working on aging problems at the Mental Health Center of the Russian Academy of Sciences, the Research Institute “International Center for the Problems of the Elderly” in Samara; The Gerontological Society of the Russian Academy of Sciences operates in Moscow, St. Petersburg, Novosibirsk and other cities. In 1997, the Research Institute of Gerontology of the Russian Ministry of Health was created. At the same time, the main directions of scientific research are concentrated mainly in the biomedical and geriatric fields.

In modern Russian psychology, only the school of B. G. Ananyev considers aging and old age from the point of view of developmental psychology and acmeology; The problem of aging is studied within the framework of clinical psychology and has practically not been studied by domestic social psychology.

There are several psychological theories of aging abroad. One of them is the behavioral-cognitive theory of aging. .

Here are a few questions that foreign (behaviourist-cognitive) psychology of aging considers:

How is it possible to identify “continuity” and “discontinuity” of activity and behavior in middle age and old age?

How does the elderly and old age“attached” to early life experiences?

Do cognitive processes (perception, learning, memory, etc.) change with age? If so, what is the nature of such changes and how does this affect functional competence in the elderly?

Which factors are more important in aging - cognitive, social or personal?

What changes and at what level of functional competence lead to dementia, “senility”?

How is “mental health” defined for the older population?

Are there basic criteria for intervention in the elderly and elderly?

1.1.3. Categories, object and subject of social psychology of aging

Considering the categorical apparatus of the social psychology of aging, we can identify general categories used in most scientific disciplines (development, adaptation); special, inherent mainly in psychological and social sciences, including social psychology (personality, individual, social group, age group, life activity); specific, used mainly in the social psychology of aging, many of which appeared in foreign research. For example, the term "intervention" (usually in a crisis situation) came into use in the 1970s (from the English intervention), replacing the term "treatment". The main categories, of course, should be recognized as “old age”, “aging”, “age”, etc. It is worth dwelling in more detail on one of them - “aging”.

Scientists studying the problems of aging note the complexity of the psychological state- late age. An exclusively biological or exclusively social definition of aging is a narrow approach to the aging process itself. Often both psychologists and biologists use life span as an independent variable. However, the former use it much less often than the latter. For this reason, definitions of aging offered by biologists have limitations for research in psychology.

Foreign authors consider aging as a process consisting of three components. Process biological aging, which leads to increased vulnerability of the body and a high probability of death, they defined it as senescing(from senescence - aging).

Along with it happen changes in social roles, which entails a change in behavior patterns and a change in social status. This type of aging is defined as eldering(from elder - old people, elders).

To these two processes we can add psychological aging, called geronting(from gerontology - doctrine of old age, gerontology). This process corresponds to the choice of ways to adapt to the aging process, decision making and coping strategies .

However, even earlier, B. G. Ananyev came to the same conclusion: it is necessary to study the complex criteria of age periodization in a more comprehensive way, to isolate in them biological, psychological and social components and establish their relationships. In the course of the study of the problems of mental aging, emerging connections between the latter and the social changes accompanying this age period are clearly noted. The biosocial essence of a person gives grounds to consider personal and psychological changes in late age as a set of mutual influences of the biological and social in their genesis. Thus, aging includes mutual influence and mutual conditioning of biological, psychological and social factors, associated with the individual existence of the individual and its age-related variability, with the increase in individual differences that occur over the years, with age-related decline and at the same time with the enrichment of mental capabilities, with the level of social activity affecting the aging process, etc.

So, aging can be divided into three interrelated and overlapping processes:

psychological aging - how the individual himself imagines the process of his aging (for example, young people may feel psychologically older); a specific feeling of psychological old age, which has both objective signs (decrease in intellectual abilities, narrowing of the emotional sphere) and subjective manifestations. The feeling of old age is realized in the specific attitude of an individual to the process of his own aging when compared with the aging process of other people. Here we can talk about the psychological asymmetry of one’s own and “other people’s” old age, when an individual imagines that he is aging differently from everyone else (for example, faster or slower);

biological aging - biological changes in the body with age (involution);

social aging - how the individual relates aging to society; behavior and performance of social roles by older people.

These levels, or layers, of aging content are not ignored by other approaches. For example, social, or socio-psychological, The approach studies old age in a social context in three areas:

individual experiences of an elderly person;

the place of an elderly person in society;

problems of old age and their resolution at the level of social policy.

In all of the above approaches, it is possible to identify general ideas about issues that are socio-psychological:

the process of aging of an individual as a member of a group and the experience of old age in the immediate social environment;

the place of an elderly and aging individual in a group and society;

the individual’s attitude towards the process of his aging;

social adaptation to the aging process and socialization in late life;

change in social status and social roles;

the position of society towards aging and old people;

the actual place of old people among other age groups, their functions in society, etc.

Elderly people, as a large group of society, have their own specifics and have a direct or indirect significant impact on the life of society. Therefore, for scientific purposes, they are allocated to a special social group for the organization of comprehensive comprehensive research their problems and the most effective solutions in this area. Due to this object research into the social psychology of aging is old man as a representative of social groups of older people in the structure of society and the system of social relations (as we agreed, in our work an elderly person is understood as an individual who has reached the age of 60).

Today, many scientists and practitioners are faced with the problem of insufficient knowledge in the field of behavior of older people and the need to study their social attitudes and experiences, attitudes towards them in society by different social groups, research into the role aspects of elderly and old people, contacts and activities, attitudes and functions of elders in the family, the role of professional and social activities in the lives of the elderly, i.e. with those issues that represent item studying the social psychology of aging, namely the adaptation and socialization of an elderly person in society.

Depending on specific goals scientific research social psychology of aging can be identified as the following most important interrelated directions:

the place and role of aging and old age in the life of the individual;

the social well-being of an elderly person, his capabilities and their implementation and use in the interests of the elderly person, his family and society;

the problem of relationships and interaction, solidarity of generations;

marital status of an elderly person.

The indicated areas of socio-psychological research (not all possible areas of research are given here) show that the social psychology of aging occupies a place at the intersection of various humanities, natural and social sciences - philosophical, medical, historical, etc. The psychology of aging is based on psychologically oriented concepts of aging , studies the influence of mental processes and conditions on aging and the course of old age, features of the psychological status of older people, the specifics of the impact on it and ways to optimize it.

The main task of the social psychology of aging is to understand old age as a period that does not exclude positive, progressive development of the individual, and to identify social conditions conducive to this.

The implementation of these tasks will help achieve the following goals: increasing the social status of older people, promoting self-actualization of older people, realizing their creative potential. Based on the knowledge of social psychology of aging, we develop practical recommendations to optimize the state and development trends of the individual and society.

There is still no general theory of aging that would be acceptable to psychologists. Existing “microtheories” do not cover the aging process as a whole, but only its various aspects and levels. The bottleneck of the concept of aging is its exclusively biological or exclusively social definition, which limits the use of this concept in psychology.

In this regard, it seems justified to identify three interrelated and overlapping components:
biological aging - biological age-related changes, leading to an increase in the body’s vulnerability and the likelihood of death;
social aging - changes in social status and corresponding behavioral characteristics;
psychological aging is a specific feeling of old age, which has both objective signs (decrease in intellectual abilities, narrowing of the emotional sphere) and subjective manifestations.

The feeling of old age is realized in a person’s attitude to the process of his own aging, which is correlated with the aging process of other people. Here we can talk about the psychological asymmetry of one’s own and “other people’s” old age, when a person imagines that he is aging faster or slower than everyone else.

According to K. Victor, the biological approach emphasizes the physiological side of old age, the psychological approach emphasizes the mental and mental aspects of aging, the social approach studies old age in the context of three directions:
individual experiences of an elderly person (old age within society, culture);
the place of an elderly person in society;
problems of old age and their resolution at the level of social policy.

Social gerontology, in turn, studies aging as a process in its biological and psychological dimensions, as well as problems of socioeconomic status and social roles of the elderly, and conducts a historical and cultural comparison of various ideas about old age and social relations.

The subject and tasks of social psychology and social gerontology partially coincide.

Mental aging is associated with social changes that accompany late age. The biosocial essence of a person gives grounds to consider personal and psychological changes in late age as the mutual influence of the biological and the social. It has been proven that mental aging is more harmonious the more preserved physical health and more favorable social conditions are. Of undoubted importance are the system of value orientations of the individual that has developed during life, life experience, professional activity, the whole complex of sociocultural factors, ethnic and gender characteristics. Successful adaptation to the loss of active social positions emotional stability typical of a middle-aged person and satisfaction with the opportunity to pursue one’s interests help.