Coordination of the group in interaction with other groups. Optimization of speech processes in interaction with other mental processes

Chapter 6. Social and psychological phenomena

2. Psychology of human interaction. Interpersonal relationships

As a cell of analysis of social psychology, the situation of interaction between two or more people is considered.

Interaction- these are the actions of individuals directed towards each other. Such an action can be considered as a set of methods used by a person to achieve certain goals - solving practical problems or realizing values.

P. Sorokin warns that “if someone were to undertake an analysis of the mutual behavior of members of some social group, completely ignoring the mental processes occurring in the psyche of each member during this or that action and describing only the external forms of acts of behavior, then all social life would have escaped analysis entirely.”

Thus, the analysis of social relationships has two aspects: psychological and logical-semantic. Since any social interaction can be considered from these two points of view, it is advisable to start with an analysis of the most general and fundamental forms of social relationships, moving on to more specific ones - economic, political and other forms of social interaction.

There are two main levels of research on social interaction: the micro level and the macro level. The interaction of people with each other, in pairs, in small groups or interpersonal interaction is studied at the micro level. The macro level of social interactions includes large social structures, the main institutions of society: religion, family, economy.

Social life arises and develops due to the presence of dependencies between people, which creates the preconditions for the interaction of people with each other. People interact because they depend on each other. Social connection- this is the dependence of people, realized through social action, carried out with a focus on other people, with the expectation of a corresponding response from the partner. In social communication we can distinguish:

communication subjects(two people or thousands of people);
subject of communication(what the communication is about);
mechanism for regulating relationships.

Termination of communication can occur when the subject of communication changes or is lost, or when the participants in the communication disagree with the principles of its regulation. A social connection can act in the form of social contact (the connection between people is superficial, fleeting, the contact partner can easily be replaced by another person) and in the form of interaction (systematic, regular actions of partners aimed at each other, with the goal of causing a very specific response from side of the partner, and the response generates a new reaction of the influencer). Social relations- is a stable system of interaction between partners, which has a self-renewing character.

P. Sorokin emphasized that “mental and social interaction (exchange of ideas, feelings, desires, experiences) is possible:

in the presence of the psyche, sense organs (to recognize the experiences and thoughts of another person, we must see the expression of his face, eyes, hear his voice, laughter, words);
if interacting people express the same mental experiences in the same way, they understand the symbols themselves, which objectify mental states, in the same way.

The situation of contact between two or more people can take various forms: 1) simple co-presence; 2) exchange of information; 3) joint activities; 4) equal reciprocal or asymmetric activity, and activity can be of different types: social influence, cooperation, competition, manipulation, conflict and etc.

2.1 Interpersonal relationships and interactions

The lifelong dependence of people on each other places the problem of human relationships at the very core of human existence. People have a strong need for affiliation: to enter into long-term, close relationships with other people that guarantee positive experiences and results.

This need, being determined by biological and social reasons, contributes to human survival: our ancestors were connected mutual guarantee, which ensured group survival (both in hunting and in the construction of dwellings, ten hands are better than one);

social connectedness between children and the adults raising them mutually increases their vitality;
Having found a soul mate - a person who supports us and whom we can trust, we feel happy, protected, resilient;
Having lost a soul mate, adults feel jealousy, loneliness, despair, pain, anger, isolation, and deprivation.

Man is truly social, social creature living in conditions of interaction and communication with people.

The unit of interaction is called transaction. Berne wrote: “People, when together in a group, will inevitably talk to each other or show their awareness of each other’s presence. The person to whom the transactional stimulus is addressed will say or do something in response. We call this response the transactional response. A transaction is considered additional if the stimulus produces the expected response.”

In the structure of human interaction, E. Berne identifies the positions “Parent”, “Adult”, “Child”, on the basis of which the real process of interaction is built. Interaction from the position of a Parent presupposes a tendency to dominance, to competition, to the manifestation of power and a sense of high self-worth, to teaching others, to critical condemnation of other people, the government, etc. Interaction from the position of an Adult presupposes a tendency to equal cooperation, to recognition for oneself and others equal rights and responsibility for the outcome of interaction. Interaction from the position of the Child presupposes a tendency to submit, to seek support and protection (“obedient child”), or to emotional impulsive protest, rebellion, and unpredictable whims (“rebellious child”).

Various forms of interpersonal interaction can be distinguished: affection, friendship, love, competition, care, pastime, surgery, play, social influence, submission, conflicts, ritual interaction, etc.

Various forms of human interaction are characterized by specific positions.

Ritual interaction- one of the most common forms of interaction, which is based on certain rules, symbolically expressing real social relations and the statue of a person in a group and society. The ritual acts as special form interaction, invented by people to satisfy the need for recognition. Ritual interaction comes from the Parent-Parent position. Ritual reveals the values of the group; people express through ritual what touches them most, what constitutes their social value orientations.

The English scientist Victor Turner, considering rituals and rites, understands them as prescribed formal behavior, as “a system of beliefs and actions performed by a special cult association.” Ritual actions are important for ensuring continuity between different generations in a particular organization, for maintaining traditions and passing on accumulated experience through symbols. Ritual interaction is both a kind of holiday that has a deep emotional impact on people, and a powerful means of maintaining stability, strength, continuity of social ties, a mechanism for uniting people, increasing their solidarity. Rituals, rituals, and customs are capable of being imprinted on the subconscious level of people, ensuring the deep penetration of certain values into group and individual Consciousness, into ancestral and personal memory.

Humanity has developed a huge number of different rituals throughout its history: religious ceremonies, palace ceremonies, diplomatic receptions, military rituals, secular ceremonies, including holidays and funerals. Rituals include numerous norms of behavior: receiving guests, greeting acquaintances, addressing strangers, etc. Ritual- this is a strictly fixed sequence of transactions, and transactions are made from the Parent position and are addressed to the Parent position, allowing people to feel recognized. If a person’s need for recognition is not fulfilled, then aggressive behavior begins to develop. The ritual is precisely designed to remove this aggression, to satisfy the need for recognition at least at a minimum level.

In the following type of interactions - operations- the transaction is carried out from the “Adult-Adult” position. We encounter operations every day: these are, first of all, interactions at work, school, as well as cooking, apartment renovation, etc. Having successfully completed an operation, a person confirms his competence and receives confirmation from others.

Labor interaction, distribution and performance of professional and family functions, skillful and effective implementation of these responsibilities - these are the operations that fill people's lives.

Competition- a form of social interaction in which there is a clearly defined goal that must be achieved, all the actions of different people are related to each other taking into account this goal in such a way that they do not come into conflict; at the same time, the person himself does not come into conflict with himself, adhering to the attitude of another team player, but nevertheless, the person has an inherent desire to achieve better results than other team members. Since a person accepts the attitudes of other people and allows this attitude of others to determine what he will do in the next moment, taking into account some common goal, he becomes an organic member of his group, society, accepting the morality of this society and becoming a significant member of it.

In a number of cases, a person, being in the same room with other people and performing seemingly joint activities, mentally remains in a completely different place, mentally talks with imaginary interlocutors, dreams about his own things - such a specific interaction is called leaving. Caregiving is a fairly common and natural form of interaction, but it is still more often resorted to by people with problems in the area of interpersonal needs. If a person has no other forms of interaction left except care, then this is already a pathology - psychosis.

The next type of approved fixed interactions is pastime, providing at least a minimum of pleasant sensations, signs of attention, “stroking” between interacting people. Pastime is a fixed form of transactions designed to satisfy people's need for recognition. The most common pastime from the Parent-Parent position: everything that deviates from the norm is discussed and condemned: children, women, men, power, television, etc., or pastime on the topic “Things” (comparing owned cars, televisions, etc.), “Who won yesterday” (football and other sports results) is a male pastime; “Kitchen”, “Shop”, “Dress”, “Children”, “How much does it cost?”, “Do you know that she...” - a predominantly female pastime. During such pastimes, partners and the prospects for developing relationships with them are assessed.

Sustainable interaction between people can be determined by the emergence of mutual sympathy - attraction. Close relationships that provide friendly support and feeling (that is, we feel loved, approved, and encouraged by friends and loved ones) are associated with feelings of happiness. Studies have shown that close, positive relationships improve health and reduce the likelihood of premature death. “Friendship is the strongest antidote to all misfortunes,” said Seneca.

Factors that contribute to the formation of attraction(affection, sympathy):

frequency of mutual social contacts, proximity, geographic proximity (most people enter into friendship and marriage with those who live in the same neighborhood, studied in the same class, work in the same company, i.e. with those who lived, studied, and worked nearby; proximity allows people to meet often, discover similarities in each other, and exchange signs of attention);
physical attractiveness (men tend to like women for their appearance, but women also like attractive men. They like beauty);
the phenomenon of “peers” (people tend to choose friends for themselves and especially marry those who are their peers not only in terms of intellectual level, but also in terms of attractiveness. Fromm wrote: “Often love is nothing more than a mutually beneficial exchange between two people, in which the parties to the transaction get the most that they can expect, taking into account their value in the market of personalities." In couples where attractiveness was different, the less attractive usually has a compensating quality." look for attractiveness, but women more often do the opposite, so young beauties often marry older men who occupy a high position in society);
the more attractive a person is, the more likely positive personal qualities are attributed to him (this is a stereotype of physical attractiveness: what is beautiful is good; people unconsciously believe that other equal conditions more beautiful ones are happier, sexier, more sociable, smarter and luckier, although not more honest or caring towards other people. More attractive people have more prestigious jobs and earn more);
Attraction can be negatively affected by the “contrast effect” - for example, to men who have just looked at magazine beauties, ordinary women, including their own wives, seem less attractive; sexual satisfaction with a partner decreases after watching pornographic films);
“reinforcement effect” - when we find traits similar to ours in someone, this makes the person more attractive to us; the more two people love each other, the more physically attractive they find each other and the less attractive all other people of the opposite sex seem to them);
similarity of social origin, similarity of interests, views are important for establishing relationships (“we love those who are like us and do the same as us,” Aristotle pointed out);
and for their continuation, complementarity and competence in an area close to our interests are necessary;
we liked those who liked us;
if a person's self-esteem has been wounded by some previous situation, then he will be more likely to like a new acquaintance who kindly pays attention to him (this helps explain why people sometimes fall so passionately in love after being previously rejected by another, thereby affecting their pride);
reward theory of attraction: the theory according to which we like those people whose behavior is beneficial to us, or those with whom we associate events that are beneficial to us;
the principle of mutually beneficial exchange or equal participation: what you and your partner get out of your relationship should be in proportion to what each of you puts into it.

If two or more people have a lot in common, a factor of intimacy is formed; if their connections improve, they do nice things for each other, sympathy is formed; if they see merit in each other, recognize the right for themselves and others to be who they are, respect is formed. Forms of interaction such as friendship and love satisfy people's need for acceptance. Friendship and love are superficially similar to pastimes, but there is always a clearly fixed partner for whom sympathy is felt. Friendship includes the factor of sympathy and respect; love differs from friendship by its enhanced sexual component, i.e.

love = sexual attraction + sympathy + respect;

in the case of falling in love, there is only a combination of sexual attraction and sympathy. These forms of interaction differ from all others in that they necessarily contain hidden “Child-Child” transactions expressing mutual recognition and sympathy. People can discuss any problems they want, even on a completely adult and serious level, nevertheless, in their every word and gesture the following will be visible: “I like you.” Some features are characteristic of all friendships and love attachments: mutual understanding, dedication, pleasure from being with a loved one, care, responsibility, intimate trust, self-disclosure (discovering innermost thoughts and experiences in front of another person). (“What is a friend? It is a person with whom you dare to be yourself” - F. Crane).

The manager must know the structure interpersonal relationships to be able to find an individual approach to each group member. When organizing any type of activity, it is useful to keep in mind those real groups (3-5 people each) that exist in the team, to unite people who sympathize with each other. Thus, a sufficiently authoritative group of people in the team can lead the preparation and conduct of a certain event, because Based on their social circle, people can perform organizational functions much more effectively. Taking into account actually existing interpersonal connections, the leader achieves a dual goal: he includes group members in collective life and influences the life of the group itself.

There is a distinction between "formal" leadership - where influence comes from a formal position in the organization, and "informal, natural" leadership - where influence comes from others' recognition of the leader's personal superiority.

What is the difference between a leader and a manager?

An informal leader is nominated “from below,” while a leader is appointed officially, from the outside, and requires official authority to manage people.

A manager is a professionally trained leader.

Many people believe that all problems are solved if a manager manages to combine the functions of a leader and a manager in his activities. But in practice these functions are often not only not combined, but also opposite. The manager may partially take on the functions of a leader. If moral criteria are in the foreground for a leader, then the leader is primarily occupied with the functions of control and distribution.

The word "leader" literally means "leading by the hand." The same meaning is better expressed in the word “overseer,” which is practically not used today. Every organization needs to have someone responsible for overseeing all departments as a whole, and not just completely absorbed in specialized tasks. This type of responsibility - keeping an eye on the whole - is the essence of a manager's job.

The manager performs the main management functions: planning, organization, motivation, control of the activities of subordinates and the organization as a whole.

Leadership is process management:

coordination of various types of group activities;
see the dynamics of the process within the group and manage it.

The scope of the manual includes three blocks:

organizational forms, distribution of responsibilities in setting tasks, creation of information structures;
working with individuals and groups;
use of power and decision making.

An officially appointed leader has an advantage in gaining leadership positions in the group and therefore is more likely than anyone else to become a recognized leader. However, his status in the organization and the fact that he is appointed "from the outside" place him in a position somewhat different from that of informal natural leaders. First of all, the desire to move higher up the career ladder encourages him to identify himself with larger divisions of the organization rather than with a group of his subordinates. He may believe that emotional attachment to any work group should not serve as a brake on his path, and therefore identifying himself with the leadership of the organization is a source of satisfaction for his personal ambitions. But if he knows that he will not rise higher, and does not particularly strive for this, such a leader often strongly identifies himself with his subordinates and does everything in his power to protect their interests. In addition to the fact that a leader's commitment to his group may conflict with his personal ambitions, it may also conflict with his commitment to the leadership of the organization. On the basis of such conflicts grows one of the most important functions The leader is the function of reconciling the values and objectives of the group he leads with the goals of the larger unit of the organization.

A leader requires formal authority to manage people, and he also needs power - the ability to influence “from above” the behavior of other people. Power can take many forms. American scientists Fred Raven highlight:

power based on coercion;
reward-based power;
expert power (based on special knowledge, which others do not have);
standard power or power of example (subordinates try to be like their attractive and respected leader);
legitimate or traditional authority (one person is subordinate to another person based on the fact that they stand at different hierarchical levels in the organization.

The most effective option is if the leader has all these types of power.

An incompetent leader, as Dixon notes:

does not take into account human resources, does not know how to work with people;
shows conservatism, adheres to outdated views;
has a tendency to turn away or ignore information that is not clear to him or that conflicts with an existing concept;
tends to underestimate opponents;
shows indecisiveness and a tendency to shirk responsibility in decision making;
shows persistent intransigence and stubbornness in solving problems despite obvious changed circumstances;
is not able to collect and verify information about the problem, “enter into the current situation”, shows a tendency to “exhaust when completed”;
predisposed to frontal attacks, believes in brute force rather than resourcefulness and diplomacy;
unable to take advantage of surprises;
shows an unjustified willingness to find “redemptive victims” in case of difficulties;
predisposed to falsify facts and disseminate information with motives “incompatible with morality and safety”;
inclined to believe in mystical forces - fate, fatality of failures, etc.

The characteristics of a manager’s administrative and leadership qualities are also determined by his management style. There is a certain classification here.

Authoritarian. The best from the point of view of an administrator who, in any business, above all values unity of command.
Emergency.“Come on, come on, we’ll figure it out later” is the motto of the emergency manager. A measure suitable for an exceptional situation, becoming a system, disorganizes normal work, leads to conflicts, discontent in the team, not to mention modest work results.
Business. It is the opposite of emergency; it involves working according to calculated and optimal schemes. This style could be preferred to all others, if only the work allows it: does not contain unexpected surprises and predictable.
Democratic. Leaders-organizers who manage according to the principle: “My point of view is one of the possible ones” are prone to it. It is precisely this style that can produce the best results, but up to certain limits, beyond which the matter is replaced by its discussion.
Liberal. Suitable for a close-knit team of like-minded people. Instead of independence, it promotes irresponsibility and the belief that “work is not a wolf.”
Compromise. It is based on the ability of a leader, yielding to people with different interests, to achieve his goals. But if compromises become a habit and replace integrity with conciliation, then one cannot expect good things from such a leader. The relationship between subordinates and the leader, the psychological climate of the team, and the results of the team’s work depend on the management style implemented by the leader.

The following management styles are distinguished.

Authoritarian(or directive, or dictatorial) management style: it is characterized by strict individual decision-making by the manager (“minimum democracy”), strict constant control over the implementation of decisions with the threat of punishment (“maximum control”), and lack of interest in the employee as an individual. Due to constant control, this management style provides quite acceptable work results (according to non-psychological criteria: profit, productivity, product quality may be good), but there are more disadvantages than advantages: 1) high probability of erroneous decisions; 2) suppression of initiative, creativity of subordinates, slowdown of innovations, stagnation, passivity of employees; 3) people’s dissatisfaction with their work, their position in the team; 4) an unfavorable psychological climate (“sycophants”, “scapegoats”, intrigues) causes increased psychological stress and is harmful to mental and physical health. This management style is appropriate and justified only in critical situations (accidents, military operations, etc.).

Democratic(or collective) management style: management decisions are made on the basis of discussion of the problem, taking into account the opinions and initiatives of employees (“maximum democracy”), the implementation of decisions made is controlled by both the manager and the employees themselves (“maximum control”), the manager shows interest and friendly attention to the personality of employees, to taking into account their interests, needs, features.

The democratic style is the most effective because it ensures a high probability of correct informed decisions, high production results, initiative, employee activity, people's satisfaction with their work and team membership, a favorable psychological climate and team cohesion. However, implementation democratic style possible with high intellectual, organizational, communication skills leader.

Liberal-anarchist(either permissive or neutral) leadership style is characterized, on the one hand, by a “maximum of democracy” (everyone can express their positions, but they do not strive to achieve real accounting or coordination of positions), and on the other hand, by a “minimum of control” (even decisions taken are not fulfilled, there is no control over their implementation, everything is left to chance), as a result of which the results of work are usually low, people are not satisfied with their work, the manager, the psychological climate in the team is unfavorable, there is no cooperation, there is no incentive to work conscientiously, sections of work develop From the individual interests of the subgroup leaders, hidden and overt conflicts are possible, and stratification into conflicting subgroups occurs.

Inconsistent(illogical) leadership style is manifested in the leader’s unpredictable transition from one style to another (now authoritarian, now permissive, now democratic, now again authoritarian, etc.), which causes extremely low work results and the maximum number of conflicts and problems.

The management style of an effective manager is flexible, individual and situational.

Situational management style flexibly takes into account the level psychological development subordinates and the team (P. Hersey, K. Blandad).

An effective management style (according to most foreign management experts) is participative(participatory) style, which is characterized by the following features:

regular meetings between the manager and subordinates;
openness in relations between the manager and subordinates;
involvement of subordinates in the development and adoption of organizational decisions;
delegation by a manager to subordinates of a number of powers and rights;
participation of ordinary employees in both planning and implementation of organizational changes;
creation of special group structures endowed with the right to make independent decisions (“quality control groups”);
providing the employee with the opportunity to independently (from other members of the organization) develop problems and new ideas.

Participative style applicable if: 1) the manager is self-confident, has a high educational and creative level, knows how to appreciate and use creative suggestions from subordinates; 2) subordinates have high level knowledge, skills, need for creativity, independence, personal growth, interest in work; 3) the task facing people requires multiple solutions, requires theoretical analysis and high professionalism in execution, sufficiently intense effort and a creative approach. Thus, this style is appropriate in knowledge-intensive industries, in innovative companies, and in scientific organizations.

Depending on the characteristics of a leader's behavior in conflict situations, complex There are five types of situations:

dominance, asserting one’s position at any cost;
pliability, submission, smoothing out conflict;
compromise, positional bargaining (“I’ll give in to you, you’ll give in to me”);
cooperation, creating a mutual focus on a reasonable and fair resolution of the conflict, taking into account the justified interests of both parties;
avoidance conflict, leaving the situation (“closing your eyes as if nothing happened”).

The most effective, although difficult to implement, style of leadership behavior in conflict situation is a “collaborative” style. Extremely unfavorable styles are “avoidance”, “dominance”, “compliance”, and the “compromise” style allows you to achieve only a temporary, short-lived solution to the conflict; later it may appear again.

The criterion for the effectiveness of leadership is the degree of authority of the leader. Highlight three forms of leader authority:1) formal authority, conditioned by the set of powers and rights that the position he holds gives the manager.

The formal, official authority of a leader can provide no more than 65% of the leader’s influence on his subordinates; A manager can receive 100% return from an employee only by additionally relying on his psychological authority, which consists of 2) moral and 3) functional authority.

Moral authority depends on moral qualities leader. Functional authority is determined by: 1) the competence of the manager; 2) his business qualities; 3) his attitude towards his professional activities. Low functional authority of a manager leads, as a rule, to the loss of his influence on subordinates, which causes a compensatory aggressive reaction on the part of the manager towards his subordinates, a deterioration in the psychological climate and the results of the team's activities.

CONTROL QUESTIONS

Why do people interact? Which theories of interpersonal interaction, in your opinion, more fully reveal the nature of interaction?
What conditions contribute to the formation of social groups? What is a social group?
Interpersonal relationships in a group - how do they manifest themselves? How do we perceive and evaluate people?
What types of attitudes towards the perception of another person are possible? Why are there distorted ideas about another person?
Which psychological mechanisms Do people influence each other?
What are the levels of understanding another person’s personality?is it possible?
What is sociometric status? What layers are highlighted within the group?
How to assess the level of well-being of relationships in a group?
What are the distinctive features of small groups?
What psychological characteristics are inherent in the group?
What is the reference group characterized by? Describe the features of pyramidal, random, open, synchronous groups.
What are the roles of people in a group?
Indicate the distinctive features of the team, its structure of stratified layers, and the stages of creating the team.
What are the stages of team maturity?
Indicate what characteristics are inherent in a leader with a high ability to create a team?
What factors influence the effectiveness of a group?
What socio-psychological phenomena of the influence of people and groups on a person arise?
Is conformism good or bad? Is it natural or artificial?
How can a minority influence the majority?
What are the functions of socio-psychological attitudes?
What are the similarities and differences between infection, suggestion, and persuasion?
What methods of influencing the motives, attitudes and states of people do you know?
“Stars”, “preferred”, “neglected”, “isolated”, “rejected” in a group - how to reliably identify them?
Leadership styles - what are they and which ones are more effective?
How are the main management functions implemented by the manager?

LITERATURE

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We were talking about the main users of ECM systems. In this article, we came to the conclusion that, by and large, any employee in an enterprise can benefit from the functionality of an enterprise content management system. We also looked at how users interact with the system through various access options. In this article we will look at how users interact with each other within an ECM system, and also pay attention to the user experience of interacting with the system through a graphical interface.

Enterprise 2.0: User interaction within the ECM system

ECM systems are personalized software systems. By this I mean the fact that for each employee who will be given a login to the system, a certain virtual personality is created with his own identifier, which can later be used to determine which specific employee performed a particular action in the system.

Users are able to interact with each other within the ECM system by sending instructions, responding when they are completed, or organizing discussions within the workflow. However, it is clear that before solving a work issue, companies often hold meetings, have one-on-one conversations on work, and sometimes non-work topics, which is why currently developers of ECM systems pay great attention to the social component of working with system, which is provided by Enterprise 2.0 technologies.

The Origins of Enterprise 2.0

In the first years of its existence, the opportunity to write something on the Internet so that what was written was available to the whole world was only available to those select few who created their own websites and regularly filled them with content. However, in the early 2000s. There has been a significant paradigm shift in the World Wide Web. It was associated with the emergence of sites powered by technologies Web 2.0, allowing site users to independently create its content. Now Web 2.0– this is not only an easy way of self-expression and communication (blogs and all social networks work on this technology), but also a way of doing business (not every company even needs to create its own website to sell goods, because you can simply create a community on a social network), Without it we can no longer imagine our social life.

Having proven their worth and usefulness, technologies Web 2.0 after some time they penetrated into business circles. So, in 2006 the concept appeared Enterprise 2.0, which means the construction of socially oriented interaction systems in enterprises, i.e. systems through which users can exchange work experience with each other, communicate on issues related to their business responsibilities, without leaving the corporate information environment and even their workplace .

Enterprise 2.0 Components

IN Enterprise 2.0 includes:

· Corporate internal blogs, in which users, i.e., employees of the enterprise, freely share their work experience and ask each other pressing questions. Records on such resources are available exclusively to employees of the enterprise.

· Enterprise knowledge bases. The knowledge base can be implemented, for example, in the form of sets of frequently asked questions and answers to them (or, on the contrary, rarely asked questions with a trick that will help an employee solve a problem on his own without distracting other employees from their work), or the knowledge base can represent a wiki resource, i.e. a set of encyclopedic entries available only to employees of the enterprise, provided with cross-references. Articles in such an encyclopedia, as a rule, give an idea of the concepts of the subject area that employees often have to operate with in the course of their work, or explain the essence of corporate realities.

· Personal pages of employees on internal web portals. Such pages can resemble social network profiles, where users can share short notes with each other about their current activities or, for example, make a list of their competencies and strengths. In this case, when employees need an expert opinion on any issue, they can easily find a colleague who has the necessary knowledge.

· Internal forum-like platforms. Internal forums allow you to organize a quick collection of opinions on a particular work-related (and sometimes non-work-related) issue; they act as a center for collecting ideas or receiving expert assessment from several colleagues simultaneously.

· Internal instant messaging tools between employees. In this case, the enterprise creates a user for each employee in the enterprise instant messaging system (for example, Microsoft Lync), and if the employee needs to contact his colleague (or several at once), all that needs to be done is to find the right colleague in your contact list and write to him directly. If a colleague is absent from the workplace, the system will prompt you with his phone number or email address.

Advantages of Enterprise 2.0

The presence of such communication systems in an enterprise may seem like a potential place to waste work time reading new posts and status updates of your colleagues. Undoubtedly, there is such a risk, however, systems Enterprise 2.0 allow you to significantly reduce the time of both horizontal and vertical communications in the company, as well as increase the efficiency of such communications, which is very important especially for those enterprises that have a geographically distributed structure. In addition, such systems have one more advantage, which, in my personal opinion, is very important: they allow the employees of the enterprise to feel like part of a large whole, that is, to feel involved in what is happening at the enterprise, to satisfy their need for cooperation and communication without leaving your workplace.

System Enterprise 2.0, which includes various components mentioned above, can be either part of the ECM system available at the enterprise, or exist separately, being integrated with the ECM system, thus increasing its efficiency.

Graphical User Interface (GUI)

The problem of overloading GUI ECM systems

IN modern world users interact with software systems through a graphical interface (hereinafter referred to as the interface), i.e. a set of graphic components arranged in a special way on the screen and replacing each other depending on the user’s actions so that he can access system functions and enter new data and get the response you need.

ECM systems are complex software systems, and because of this, there are often cases when their interface is overloaded, due to which the user spends more time searching for the necessary functions and understanding how to initiate their execution, in addition, the user loses confidence that he did everything correctly and the result obtained will be correct, while inexperienced employees may have a fear of making mistakes, which can lead to ineffective use of the functions of the ECM system, or even to refusal to work with it.

Ways to solve the problem: context analysis

IN Lately the situation with overloaded interfaces of ECM systems is slowly but surely being corrected, and now manufacturers of programs of this class are increasingly thinking about how to make life easier for users. In particular, system interfaces are being revised, and in new versions there are not only functional improvements, but also changes in the appearance of system windows, designed to increase their ease of use (i.e., lower the entry threshold for system users and reduce the time to initiate operations for experienced users) due to careful analysis of the context, in which this or that window will appear before the eyes of the users and who this user will be and what tasks are facing him at this particular moment.

An important role in interface design is played by understanding what device(computer, tablet or phone) you are logging in, and what access type is used for this. Thus, the system interface when logging in via a local network or terminal may differ from the interface that will be available to the user when logging in via web access, and with almost 100% confidence we can say that when logging in from a computer and from a tablet, the user will see different interfaces.

Ways to solve the problem: from unification to specialization

ECM systems have complex internal structure, combine many functions and components, are intended for users of varying degrees of training, performing a wide range of different tasks in enterprises, the business processes of which can be strikingly different from each other. Because of this, it is almost impossible to create a system interface in such a way that it is simultaneously understandable to all users of all companies. However, for many ECM systems, developers create extension tools with which either the developer’s specialists or the buyer’s company’s IT specialists can customize standard software components of the system for themselves or create their own, which means that when designing, the interfaces of the system windows will be taken into account the wishes and needs of a specific company with specific employees calling system functions in specific contexts, i.e., there is a transition from unification to specialization of interfaces.

To be continued.

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In this article we will talk about the possibility of changing your own, influencing the behavior of people around you.

Changing the world and changing another being involve the interests of many beings.

For example, he wants to run fast. The space of options will help him improve his fitness, and perhaps even his body design.

But, if a person wants to run faster than another creature, then the realization of such a desire affects the interests of this creature, equilibrium and the harmony of the world, or maybe destroy the world.

So, if wolves start running faster than hares, then soon there will be no hares left.

The space of options does not facilitate the fulfillment of a desire if it is directly related to the interests of other beings. Each creature has the right to project changes only to its own line.

By creating a thought form in which you have an advantage over another creature, you create a negative (degrading its properties) image of this creature on your life line.

The subconscious of this creature will automatically respond to you symmetrically, creating your negative image on its life line, and thereby neutralize your projection.

Any problems and achievements of a person in society, one way or another, are born with people, be it personal relationships or business ones. Social nature of a person involves his interaction with other members of society.

Is it possible to use the assistance of the subconscious and the information field of the space of options with people?

The difficulty of using a mental image of a model is that it is an imperceptible process, it is difficult to subjugate and control it.

There are a number of ways to influence other people using the powers of the space of options.You can influence others through the space of options only with indirect thought forms, for this:

Project your own feelings about another person’s actions onto yourself.
Project another person by energetically contributing to their own projections.

Your images are the desired model of yours. Desires that lie within your personal feelings are on your life line and they are in your power.

For example, you may have sensations from your relationship with another being. These are your personal feelings on your life line. The combination of circumstances formed by the space of options will provide grounds for such relations.

The zone of a person’s own influence on the image of the future – its changed reality.If the thought form contains its own reaction to the world in the form of a certain impact on oneself, then this is realized by a combination of circumstances that will create a space of options.

If you think badly about a person, he will give reasons for this, for example:If you think that he will deprive you of your property, under the influence of yours he will want to steal; that he annoys you with his drunken appearance and crazy aggressive actions - he will actively drink alcohol and look for a reason to sort things out, etc...

You will think of him with sympathy, and he will act friendly and give you reasons for sympathy.

It has great importance and look for and see good qualities in people.

Do not provoke people into inappropriate behavior by looking at them constructively. When you recognize that a person is worthy of respect, he will begin to behave accordingly.

If your subconscious contains persistent negative patterns of behavior, then in your environment you will always identify some of your friends and co-workers at work who have traits that you condemn, and you will also find them in your other half.

You cannot control the goals of another being with your thought form, but you can control your interaction with him. The actions of another being that you can sense are available to your influence if they do not contradict the interests of that being.

For example. The space of options can help a woman find a husband with a certain set of qualities, or find a certain job.

The desire to use a specific person for one’s own interests will cause an automatic protest from the subconscious of this person.

An image created by one person, and containing his feeling associated with the health of another person, helps or the conspiracy of one to achieve a healing effect for another, if this other believes in recovery and wants health.

An image created by one person, and containing a feeling of ill health and failure in the perception of another person, allows you to create the evil eye and damage. Images of a negative state will work if the object of influence is suspicious and often inclined to think about his ill health and failures.

In order for these images to work, usually the person is told that he has been cursed and that he will face misfortune and ill health. The object, perceiving this, programs itself.

A positive image of another person, if you visualize it, will create in that person a surge of strength, a feeling of comfort and a sense of disposition towards you.

The placebo effect has long been known, but a similar experiment was once expanded and doctors were misled: where is the placebo and where is morphine for pain relief.

When giving morphine, doctors thought they were giving a placebo and the pain relief effect diminished. The doctors' faith influenced the patients as much as their own faith.

Your own mental image of your perception of another person does not create the realization by space of options for changing this person. It enhances the activity of the sector excited by this person himself and located on his line life. Impact will occur if such an image exists among that person's interests.

An example of your own images describing interaction with another person.

The image that accompanies the statement, “You have fun with me,” contains the other person's feelings about interacting with you. The image you form, if this person’s subconscious agrees with its content, will strengthen the effect of this person’s thinking stereotype.

The image “You will be healthy and sober” will support the implementation of plans to change the life of the object of your visualization. Your own thoughts about the need to change your life strengthen the expected images created by the people around you.

The image “I have fun with you” contains your feeling of impact on you. The image you have formed, if the person who is the object of your thought form agrees with its content, will build the implementation of this event with the help of your subconscious.

The image “I enjoy communicating with my neighbors” does not have a specific person as an object and therefore will change the way you communicate with your neighbors even if they do not have such an intention.

Frailing (fraile is a set of individual psychological parameters characteristic of a person) is the principle of interaction of projected mental images, built on their strengthening by each other through information resonance, which is a symmetrical response of the subconscious of another person.

This principle of human interaction allows the way you think to find opportunities to bring people together based on their mutual interests.

If you excite with your thought form a sector in which the inner intention of another person is realized, then this person will automatically symmetrically respond to you on his life line with a feeling in which you are valuable to him.

The interaction of people in the information field increases the excitement of their target sectors and creates a confluence of circumstances that corresponds to the satisfaction of the interests of both interested parties.

These may be specific people and you know their inner intention.

For example, you need to reschedule your vacation to summer time, and your boss can’t wait to go fishing. By visualizing your boss's intention, you will receive symmetrical illumination of your desire on his life line.

You will meet his disposition towards you in personal communication and his pliability in resolving your intention.

These may be non-specific people. In this case, you specify in the visualization a list of what you can offer them and a list of what you need to receive from the people with whom the flow of options will bring you together.

For example, you have certain knowledge, skills and experience, and a number of employers need a specialist with such knowledge, skills and experience, and they can offer him decent pay and good working conditions.

Or you have a product with certain properties, and there are many people who are ready to purchase a product with such properties.

Or do you have personal human properties, and you want to find a partner with certain qualities for life together. And there are many people who match the qualities you described and who have the desire to marry a person like you.

You can visualize the intention to meet such a person, and your intention will resonate with the informationally consistent intention of the other individual.

Do you want the person you like to pay attention to you and feel good about you? For this case, Frayling, to facilitate your subconscious and the space of options, determines that it is ideal not to accompany the feeling of sympathy with the desire for possession.

The intention to use another creature for one’s own purposes causes an automatic protest from the subconscious of this creature and asymmetrical target projections onto one’s life line.

When you think about other living beings and project their happy existence onto your life line, they feel yours, are disposed towards you and are friendly.

Do not accompany the image of your sympathy with the feeling of this person’s sympathy for you, because a feeling that does not exist will give rise to doubts in you about the possibility of his affection for you.

Moreover, the feeling of sympathy will not be disinterested, it will include a certain amount of one's own use of the feelings of the other.

When you demand possession, you conflict with the goals of another being, and for yourself you project the powers associated with that being.

The requirement of any action by one being from another is called a relationship of dependence (“If you praise me better than anyone else ...”). Relationships that come with conditions subconsciously contain doubt about whether the other being will fulfill the requirement.

By reacting excitedly to the desire for a relationship, you convey that you want to receive strong emotions associated with this person. The emotional state turns on the pendulum and fixes on thoughts. This goal will be perceived by the subconscious and aroused in the information field of the space of options.

For example, how can a woman encourage a man to take the plunge into marriage?

Typically, in this case, the tactic used is to attract attention to oneself and stimulate official action. These principles are: seduce, distance and create a sense of competition.

Another way to solve the problem is to ask the question: “What is a man looking for in marriage?”

A man seeks satisfaction of his own interests, he wants: a sense of the value of his own qualities, respect, the presence of valuable qualities in his wife, compatibility of characters and goals, communication. By directing efforts to satisfy what is significant for a man, a woman will acquire greater personal value for him.

More details about interaction between a person and other people and how the thoughts and desires of one person influence another and program your relationships can be learned from the new book on esotericism “Choose Your Destiny.” Author Alexander Shevkoplyas.

ORDER THE BOOK “CHOOSE YOUR DESTINY”

People are mysterious creatures. They do not come with instructions, and they are much more more problems than with new version Windows. You never know what to expect from them! If you have trouble communicating with people, both acquaintances and strangers, wikiHow has your back. Start with Step 1 to get to happy communication without obstacles.

Steps

Part 1

Removing Obstacles

Decide on the reasons for your indecisiveness. Why don't you find a common language with people? Maybe you communicate with people, but feel that you are doing it wrong? If you are able to identify the problem, awareness of it will help you deal with it. In the meantime, try the following tips.

Fight your fear of communication. For many people, communication is a stressful situation. If you are afraid of talking to people, you need to first deal with the feeling of anxiety.

Believe in yourself. If you're afraid that your attempts to make friends will end in failure, or that you'll only cause trouble for people, you'll find it difficult to communicate with others. Believe in yourself and you will see that communication becomes easier and easier for you.

Raise your self-esteem. If you spend time thinking that no one will want to talk to you because everyone around you is so much better than you, you will miss out on the wonderful world of communication! Take the time to understand how wonderful a person is and you will see the world differently.

Rest assured. A lack of self-confidence makes it difficult to communicate with people, often because others notice your lack of confidence and become nervous. Develop self-confidence, or at least learn to pretend to be confident so that others will like you.

Practice. Like any other skill (interaction in society is also a skill), you can improve it with practice. Practice your social skills as often as possible. You can start by communicating with your family or even with strangers, for example, salespeople or bank employees.

Part 2
Starting a conversation
Part 3
Take your chance
Part 4
Effective communication
- "What is said three times is always true." You can't show false emotions three times if you haven't felt anything. Smile at people, even if you're having a bad day. At first, your smile will seem forced, but very soon you will realize that you feel better. On the other hand, you shouldn't show anger or sadness if you don't feel those emotions. Stay away from the fake ones negative emotions. You'll get a dose of sympathy or intimidation, but it's not worth it.
- By nature, people are quite good-natured creatures. You perceive the emotions of others through a person’s speech and posture. Everything that surrounds us affects our mood, and you, in turn, influence the mood of the people around you. Try to make smiling a habit. Get out of bed in a cheerful mood, instead of shuffling your feet and sighing. Enjoy your surroundings. Even if it is painfully familiar to you, there will always be something that will surprise you and bring pleasure from contemplation.
Warnings
- Don't go too far. Small snippets of positive communication and people's perception of your words are wonderful. If you suddenly try to pull in stranger in conversation, it looks awkward, nervous and awkward. The boundaries of what is permitted are laid down at the level of instincts - do not cross them.
- Always be prepared to be groomed in style. Even a conversation with the best intentions can be ruined by the people around you.

Chapter 4 INTERACTION AND RELATIONSHIPS OF PEOPLE

Basic concepts: interaction, causality of interaction, interpersonal interaction, intergroup interaction, stages and levels of interaction, types and types of interaction, relationships, mutual influence, subject-object and subject-subject connections, types and functions of relationships

Society does not consist of individual individuals, but expresses the sum of those connections and relationships in which these individuals are in relation to each other. The basis of these connections and relationships are the actions of people and their influence on each other, called interaction. Society does not consist of individual individuals, but expresses the sum of those connections and relationships in which these individuals are in relation to each other. The basis of these connections and relationships are the actions of people and their influence on each other, called interaction.

The uniqueness of human interaction

general characteristics interactions. Interaction is a process of direct or indirect influence of objects (subjects) on each other, generating mutual conditionality and connection.
It is causation that constitutes main feature interaction, when each of the interacting parties acts as the cause of the other and as a consequence of the simultaneous reverse influence of the opposite party, which determines the development of objects and their structures. If a contradiction is discovered during interaction, then it acts as a source of self-propulsion and self-development of phenomena and processes.
In interaction, a person’s attitude towards another person as a subject who has his own world is realized. The interaction of a person with a person in society is the interaction of their inner worlds, the exchange of thoughts, ideas, images, the influence on goals and needs, the impact on the assessments of another individual, his emotional condition.
In addition, interaction in social psychology usually means not only the influence of people on each other, but also the direct organization of their joint actions, allowing the group to implement activities common to its members. The interaction itself in this case acts as a systematic, constant implementation of actions aimed at provoking an appropriate reaction from other people.
Joint life and activity, unlike individual life, at the same time has stricter restrictions on any manifestations of activity - passivity of individuals. This forces people to build and coordinate images of “I - he”, “we - they”, and coordinate efforts between them. In the course of real interaction, a person’s adequate ideas about himself, other people, and their groups are also formed. The interaction of people is a leading factor in the regulation of their self-esteem and behavior in society.
In a very simplified form, interaction can be represented as a process that consists of:
– physical contact;
– movement in space;
– perceptions and attitudes of its participants;
– spiritual verbal contact;
– non-verbal information contact;
– joint group activities.
The interaction structure usually includes:
– subjects of interaction;
– mutual connection of its subjects;
– mutual influence on each other;
– mutual changes of subjects of interaction.
Typically, a distinction is made between intrapersonal, interpersonal, personal-group, personal-mass, intergroup, and mass-group interactions. But two types of interaction are of fundamental importance in their analysis: interpersonal and intergroup.
Interpersonal interaction – these are accidental or intentional, private or public, long-term or short-term, verbal or non-verbal contacts and connections of two or more people, causing mutual changes in their behavior, activities, relationships and experiences.
The main features of such interaction are:
the presence of a goal (object) external to the interacting individuals, the achievement of which requires mutual efforts;
explicitness (availability) for observation from the outside and registration by other people;
situationality – a fairly strict regulation by specific conditions of activity, norms, rules and intensity of relationships, due to which interaction becomes a rather changeable phenomenon;
reflexive ambiguity - the dependence of its perception on the conditions of implementation and the assessments of its participants.
Intergroup interaction is a process of direct or indirect influence of multiple subjects (objects) on each other, generating their mutual conditionality and the unique nature of relationships. Usually it takes place between entire groups (as well as their parts) and acts as an integrating (or destabilizing) factor in the development of society.
By interacting, representatives of various groups of society, on the one hand, change their own traits and qualities, making them somewhat different, not similar to the previous ones, and on the other hand, they transform some unique characteristics of each of them into something common, into a joint property. Identifying that these features belong only to representatives of one community becomes problematic over time.
At the same time, we can talk about three options for interaction:
impact, that is, a predominantly one-sided, unidirectional influence of one community (person) on another (others), when one group (person) is active, dominant, the other is inert, passive in relation to this influence (specific manifestations can be coercion, manipulation, etc.). P.);
assistance, when two or more groups (individuals) on an equal basis provide assistance and support to each other, achieve unity in deeds and intentions, and highest form assistance stands for cooperation;
opposition, create obstacles to actions, generate contradictions in positions, block the efforts of another community (individual) or interfere with it, as well as organize active opposition, even physical actions (in order to contradict, obstruct, collide with someone, it is necessary to have certain qualities, show energy and combativeness).
The likelihood of opposition increases in cases where a group (individual) or its representatives encounter something new, unusual, unconventional in their life, in particular, with an unusual way of thinking, different morals and orders, alternative views. Under these circumstances, the reaction of opposition is completely objective and normal.
Each of the listed interaction options is not “one-dimensional”, but has wide range manifestations. For example, the impact can vary from severely tyrannical to soft, taking into account the characteristics of the objects of influence; counteraction can also be represented by a gamut - from irreconcilable contradictions to minor disagreements. It should be borne in mind that there may not be an unambiguous interpretation of the interaction options, since each of them can absorb others, and some of them can gradually transform even into their opposite, move into another group, etc.
Content and dynamics of interaction. Currently, in Western science there are many points of view that explain the reasons for human interaction (see Table 1).
Table 1. Western theories of interaction

The process of human interaction can be divided into three levels: initial, middle and final.
On lowest level interaction is simplest primary contacts of people, when between them there is only a certain primary and very simplified mutual or one-sided “physical” influence on each other for the purpose of exchanging information and communication, which, for specific reasons, may not achieve its goal, and therefore not receive comprehensive development.
The main thing in the success of initial contacts is the acceptance or non-acceptance of each other by the interaction partners. Moreover, they do not constitute a simple sum of individuals, but are some completely new and specific formation of connections and relationships, which is regulated by real or imaginary (perceived) difference - similarity, likeness - contrast of people involved in joint activity (practical or mental). Differences between individuals are one of the main conditions further development interaction (its other forms - communication, relationships, mutual understanding), as well as themselves as individuals.
Any contact usually begins with a concrete sensory perception appearance, characteristics of the activities and behavior of other people. At this moment, as a rule, the emotional and behavioral reactions of individuals to each other dominate. Relationships of acceptance and rejection are manifested in facial expressions, gestures, posture, gaze, intonation, and the desire to end or continue communication. They indicate whether people like each other. If not, then mutual or unilateral reactions of rejection follow (gliding gaze, jerking the hand when shaking, turning away the head, body, fencing gestures, “sour face”, fussiness, running away, etc.) or termination of the established contact. And, on the contrary, people turn to those who smile, look directly and openly, turn to the full face, respond with a cheerful and cheerful intonation, to those who are trustworthy and with whom further cooperation can be developed based on joint efforts.
Of course, the acceptance or non-acceptance of each other by interaction partners also has deeper roots. It is possible to distinguish between scientifically based and proven stages homogeneity - heterogeneity(degrees of similarity - differences) of the participants in the interaction. initial stage there is a correlation between individual (natural) and personal parameters (temperament, intelligence, character, motivation, interests, value orientations) of people. Of particular importance in interpersonal interaction are the age and gender differences of partners.
Final stage homogeneity – heterogeneity (degree of similarity – contrast of participants in interpersonal interaction)
- there is a correlation in a group (similarity - difference) of opinions, attitudes (including likes - dislikes) to oneself, partners or other people, to the objective world (including joint activities). The final stage is divided into stages: primary (or initial) and secondary (or resultant). The primary stage is the initial correlation of opinions given before interpersonal interaction (about the world of objects and their own kind). The secondary stage is expressed in the relationship (similarity - difference) of opinions and relationships as a result of interpersonal interaction, exchange of thoughts and feelings between participants in joint activities.
The effect also plays a major role in the interaction at its initial stage. congruence. It represents a confirmation of mutual role expectations, a single resonant rhythm, and consonance of the experiences of the contact participants.
Congruence presupposes a minimum of discrepancies in the key points of the behavior lines of the contact participants, which results in the release of tension, the emergence of trust and sympathy on a subconscious level.
Congruence is enhanced by the feeling of complicity, interest, and search for mutual activity evoked in the partner based on his needs and life experience. Congruence may appear from the first minutes of contact between previously unfamiliar partners, or it may not arise at all. The presence of congruence indicates an increased likelihood that the interaction will continue. In this sense, one should strive to achieve congruence from the first minutes of contact.
The main prerequisites for achieving congruence usually include:
A) the feeling of belonging, which occurs in the following cases:
♦ when the goals of the subjects of interaction are interconnected;
♦ when there is a basis for interpersonal rapprochement;
♦ when subjects belong to the same social group;
b) empathy, which is easier to implement:
♦ upon installation emotional contact;
♦ when the behavioral and emotional reactions of the partners are similar;
♦ if you have the same feelings towards some object;
♦ when attention is drawn to the feelings of partners (for example, they are simply described);
V) identification, which intensifies:
♦ with liveliness and variety of behavioral manifestations of the interacting parties;
♦ when a person sees his own character traits in another;
♦ when partners seem to change places and conduct a discussion from each other’s positions;
♦ when referring to previous cases;
♦ with common thoughts, interests, social roles and positions.
As a result of congruence and effective primary contacts, Feedback between people, which is a process of mutually directed responsive actions that serves to maintain subsequent interactions and during which there is also an intentional or unintentional communication to another person about how his behavior and actions (or their consequences) are perceived or experienced.
There are three main functions feedback. It usually acts as: 1) a regulator of human behavior and actions; 2) regulator of interpersonal relationships; 3) a source of self-knowledge.
Feedback happens different types, and each option corresponds to one or another specificity of interaction between people and the establishment of stable relationships between them.
Feedback can be: a) verbal (transmitted in the form of a speech message); b) non-verbal, carried out through facial expressions, posture, voice intonation, etc.; c) expressed in the form of an action focused on demonstrating, showing another person understanding, approval and expressed in joint activity.
Feedback can be immediate and delayed in time, it can be emotionally charged and transmitted by a person to another as a certain experience, or it can be with minimal experience of emotions and behavioral responses.
In different types of joint activities, different types of feedback are appropriate. The inability to use feedback significantly complicates the interaction of people, reducing its effectiveness. Thanks to feedback during interaction, people become like each other, bring their state, emotions, actions and actions in accordance with the unfolding process of relationships.
The established psychological community of partners strengthens their contacts, leads to the development of relationships between them, and contributes to the transformation of their personal relationships and actions into joint ones. Attitudes, needs, interests, relationships in general, acting as motives, determine promising directions of interaction between partners, while its tactics are also regulated by mutual understanding of the personal characteristics of people, their images and ideas about each other, about themselves, and the tasks of joint activity.
At the same time, the regulation of interaction and relationships between people is carried out not by one, but by a whole group of images. In addition to the images-conceptions of partners about each other, the system of psychological regulators of joint activity includes images-conceptions about themselves (“I-concept”), representations of partners about the impression they made on each other, perfect image the social role played by the partners, views on the possible results of joint activities.
These images-representations together are not always clearly recognized by people in the process of interaction. They often act as unconscious impressions and do not find a way out into the conceptual sphere of thinking of the subjects of joint activity. At the same time, the psychological content contained in attitudes, motives, needs, interests, relationships is manifested through volitional actions in various forms of behavior aimed at the partner.
On average level process of interaction between people, which is called productive joint activities, the gradually developing active cooperation is increasingly expressed in effective solution problems of connecting mutual efforts of partners.
Usually distinguish three models organizing joint activities: 1) each participant does his part general work regardless of the other; 2) the common task is performed sequentially by each participant; 3) simultaneous interaction of each participant with all others takes place. Their actual existence depends on the conditions of activity, its goals and content.
At the same time, the common aspirations of people can lead to clashes in the process of coordinating positions. As a result, people enter into “agree-disagreement” relationships with each other. In case of agreement, partners are involved in joint activities. In this case, roles and functions are distributed between the participants in the interaction. These relationships cause a special direction of volitional efforts among the subjects of interaction. It is associated either with a concession or with the conquest of certain positions. Therefore, partners are required to demonstrate mutual tolerance, composure, perseverance, psychological mobility and other strong-willed personality traits, based on intelligence and a high level of consciousness and self-awareness of the individual.
At the same time, at this time, the interaction of people is actively accompanied or mediated by the manifestation of complex socio-psychological phenomena, called compatibility - incompatibility (or workability - incompatibility). Just as interpersonal relationships and communication are specific forms of interaction, compatibility and workability should be considered its special constituent elements. Interpersonal relationships in a group and the compatibility (physiological and psychological) of its members give rise to another important socio-psychological phenomenon, which is commonly called psychological climate.
There are several types of compatibility. Psychophysiological compatibility is based on the interaction of temperamental characteristics and needs of individuals. Psychological compatibility involves the interaction of characters, intellects, and motives of behavior. Socio-psychological compatibility involves the coordination of social roles, interests, and value orientations of the participants. Finally, socio-ideological compatibility is based on the commonality of ideological values, on the similarity of social attitudes (in intensity and direction)
– regarding possible facts of reality related to the implementation of ethnic, class and religious interests. There are no clear boundaries between these types of compatibility, while extreme levels of compatibility, for example, physiological and socio-psychological, socio-ideological, have obvious differences.
In joint activities, control on the part of the participants themselves is noticeably activated (self-monitoring, self-checking, mutual monitoring, mutual checking), which affects the performing part of the activity, including the speed and accuracy of individual and joint actions.
At the same time, it should be remembered that the driver of interaction and joint activity is, first of all, the motivation of its participants. There are several types of social motives for interaction (motives for which a person interacts with other people):
1) maximizing the total gain (motive of cooperation);
2) maximizing one’s own gain (individualism);
3) maximizing relative gain (competition);
4) maximizing the gain of another (altruism);
5) minimizing the gain of another (aggression);
6) minimizing differences in winnings (equality).
Within the framework of this scheme there may be general view All possible motivations that determine the social interaction of people are also included: interest in certain activities and specific people, means of communication, results of cooperation, the nature of the relationship between partners, etc. However, the most significant for understanding the interaction are those mentioned above.
The mutual control of each other carried out by participants in joint activities can lead to a revision of individual motives for activity if there are significant differences in their direction and level, as a result of which the individual motives of people begin to be coordinated.
During this process, there is a constant coordination of thoughts, feelings, and relationships of partners in joint life activities. It takes on various forms of influence of people on each other. Some of them encourage the partner to act (order, request, proposal), others authorize the partners’ actions (agreement or refusal), and others call for a discussion (question, reasoning). The discussion itself can take the form of coverage, conversation, debate, conference, seminar and a number of other types of interpersonal contacts. However, the choice of forms of influence is more often dictated by the functional-role relationships of partners in joint work. For example, the control function of a leader encourages him to more often use orders, requests and sanctioning responses, while the pedagogical function of the same leader requires more frequent use of discussion forms of interaction. In this way, the process of mutual influence of interaction partners is realized. Through it, people “process” each other, striving to change and transform mental states, attitudes and, ultimately, behavior and psychological qualities partners for joint activities.
Mutual influence as a change in opinions and assessments can be situational when circumstances require it. As a result of repeated changes in opinions and assessments, stable assessments and opinions are formed, the convergence of which leads to behavioral, emotional and cognitive unity of the participants in the interaction. This in turn leads to a convergence of interests and value orientations, intellectual and characterological characteristics of the partners.
The regulators of the mutual influence of people on each other are the mechanisms of suggestion, conformity and persuasion, when under the influence of the opinions and relationships of one partner the opinions and attitudes of the other change. They are formed on the basis of a deeper property of living systems - imitation. In contrast to the latter, suggestion, conformity and persuasion regulate interpersonal norms of thoughts and feelings.
Suggestion is an influence on other people that they perceive unconsciously. Conformity, unlike suggestion, is a phenomenon conscious change opinions, assessments. Situational and conscious conformity allows one to maintain and coordinate ideas (norms) regarding ongoing events in people’s lives and activities. Of course, events have varying degrees of significance for those who are forced to evaluate them. Persuasion is a process of long-term influence on another person, during which he consciously learns the norms and rules of behavior of interaction partners.
The convergence or change of mutual points of view and opinions affects all spheres and levels of interacting people. In the context of solving specific current problems of life and activity, especially communication, their convergence - divergence acts as a kind of regulator of interpersonal interaction. If the convergence of assessments and opinions forms a single “language”, group norms of relationships, behavior and activities, then their divergence acts as driving force development of interpersonal relationships and groups.
Interpersonal interactions depend on the degree certainty - uncertainty(obviousness - non-obviousness) of facts, events, phenomena on which certain decisions are made. Researchers have discovered the following relationship: with high certainty (obviousness) of the problem, the probability of changes in assessments and opinions is lower, and the adequacy of its solution is higher. When the uncertainty (non-obviousness) of the problem is high, the likelihood of changes in estimates and opinions is greater, and the adequacy of its solution is less high. This dependence can be called the law of “social and psychological expediency,” which generally indicates that in the conditions of discussion of opinions and assessments, their adequacy to the real state of affairs increases.
Highest level interaction is always an extremely effective joint activity of people, accompanied by mutual understanding.“Mutual understanding between people is a level of their interaction at which they understand the content and structure of the partner’s present and possible next action, and also mutually contribute to the achievement of a common goal. For mutual understanding, joint activity is not enough; mutual assistance is needed. It excludes its antipode – mutual opposition, with the appearance of which misunderstandings arise, and then misunderstanding of man by man.” At the same time, mutual misunderstanding is one of the essential prerequisites for the breakdown of human interaction or the cause of a wide variety of interpersonal difficulties, conflicts, etc.
An essential characteristic of mutual understanding is always its adequacy. It depends on a number of factors: on the type of relationship between partners (relationships of acquaintance and friendship, friendly, love and marital relationships, friendly, business relationships); on the sign or valence of relationships (likes, dislikes, indifferent relationships); on the degree of possible objectification, the manifestation of personality traits in the behavior and activities of people (sociability, for example, is most easily observed in the process of interaction). Of great importance in adequacy as accuracy, depth and breadth of perception and interpretation are the opinions and assessments of other more or less significant people, groups, and authority figures.
For correct analysis mutual understanding, two factors can be correlated - sociometric status and the degree of similarity according to it.
At the same time, the following becomes clear: persons who have different socio-psychological statuses in the team consistently interact with each other (are friends); reject each other, that is, they experience interpersonal rejection, those persons who are similar in status and their status is not high enough (the differences are significant).
In pairs of people who mutually reject each other, the most common combinations are “choleric - choleric”, “sanguine - sanguine” and “phlegmatic - sanguine”. There was not a single case of mutual denial in a pair of the “phlegmatic - phlegmatic” type. In friendly couples there is not a single case of combinations “choleric - choleric”, “sanguine - sanguine”, but in pairs of people who mutually reject each other, such combinations are the majority.
A wider range of combinations with other types of temperament are found in melancholic people, who consistently maintain interpersonal attractiveness to their own kind, with phlegmatic and sanguine people. The combination of a melancholic person and a choleric person occurs only once: choleric people, due to their irritability and “uncontrollability,” get along poorly (incompatible) with melancholic people and other choleric people, and melancholic people are better compatible with phlegmatic and sanguine people.
Thus, interaction is a complex multi-stage and multifaceted process during which communication, perception, relationships, mutual influence and mutual understanding of people are carried out.
Types of interaction. The interaction, as already emphasized, is diverse. An indicator of this is its typology.
Usually there are several types of interactions. The most common is the dichotomous division: cooperation and competition(consent and conflict, adaptation and opposition). In this case, both the type of interaction (cooperation or competition) and the degree of expression of this interaction (successful or less successful cooperation) determine the nature of interpersonal relationships between people.
In the process of interaction of these types, as a rule, the following appear: leading behavior strategies in interaction:
1. Cooperation aimed at ensuring that the participants in the interaction fully satisfy their needs (either the motive of cooperation or competition is realized).
2. Reaction, which involves focusing on one’s own goals without taking into account the goals of communication partners (individualism).
3. Compromise, realized in the private achievement of partners’ goals for the sake of conditional equality.
4. Compliance, which involves sacrificing one’s own interests to achieve the partner’s goals (altruism).
5. Avoidance, which is a withdrawal from contact, loss of one’s own goals for exceptions another's winnings.
The division into types can be based on the intentions and actions of people, which reflect their understanding of the communication situation. Then there are three types of interactions: additional, intersecting and hidden. Complementary is an interaction in which the partners adequately perceive each other’s position. Intersecting is an interaction during which the partners, on the one hand, demonstrate an inadequate understanding of the positions and actions of the other participant in the interaction, and on the other
– clearly demonstrate their own intentions and actions. Hidden interaction simultaneously includes two levels: explicit, expressed verbally, and hidden, implied. It involves either deep knowledge of the partner, or greater sensitivity to non-verbal means of communication - tone of voice, intonation, facial expressions and gestures, since they convey hidden content.
Interaction is always present in the form of two components: content and style. Content determines around what or about what this or that interaction unfolds. Style indicates how a person interacts with others.
We can talk about productive and unproductive styles of interaction.
Productive style is a fruitful way of contact between partners, facilitating the establishment and prolongation of relationships mutual trust, revealing personal potential and achieving effective results in joint activities. It is known that this style of interaction does not exist between people initially. It is installed. At the same time, quite often the participants in the interaction, due to their personal characteristics, cannot adapt to each other, come to an agreement, overcome barriers, or establish trusting relationships.
In other cases, having exhausted the adaptation resources available to them, having achieved some balance and trust in the first stages of interaction development, people cannot maintain effective relationships. In both cases we talk about unproductive style interaction is an unfruitful way of contact between partners, blocking the realization of personal potentials and the achievement of optimal results of joint activities.
A real manifestation of the unproductiveness of an interaction style is a situation perceived by a person as “conflict”, “dead end”, as well as the anxiety, tension, negative relationships and emotions experienced. At the same time, people react to a problematic situation in interaction in different ways: some solve it on their own, others need support and psychological help.
Usually isolated five main criteria, allowing you to correctly understand the style of interaction:
The nature of activity in the position of the partners (in the productive style - “next to the partner”, the active position of both partners as participants in the activity, in the unproductive style - “above the partner”, the active position of the leading partner and the complementary passive position of subordination of the slave).
The nature of the goals put forward (in a productive style - partners jointly develop both close and distant goals; in an unproductive style - the dominant partner puts forward only close goals, without discussing them with the partner).
The nature of responsibility (in a productive style, all participants in the interaction are responsible for the results of their activities; in an unproductive style, all responsibility is assigned to the dominant partner).
The nature of the relationship that arises between partners (in a productive style - goodwill and trust; in an unproductive style - aggression, resentment, irritation).
The nature of the functioning of the mechanism of identification - separation (identification and separation in a productive style; extreme forms of identification and alienation in a non-productive style).
The originality of intergroup interaction. Social Psychology has so far paid little attention to the problems of intergroup interaction. Currently, three of its integrative phenomena have been studied.
Firstly, this group affiliation, which reflects the interaction between groups that are components greater generality. Any group has a desire to be part of and feel a sense of belonging to a larger social community. These are interactions between groups of different scales and volumes (vertical interaction), which cannot be equal. In this case, a large social group, as it were, absorbs small ones, which function according to the laws of the first. Consequently, in order to understand the socio-psychological characteristics of a small group, it is necessary to first understand the uniqueness of the large social group of which it is a part.
The general socio-psychological characteristics of a group should begin with identifying its social affiliation. General analysis in this case it will be primary in relation to the particular. If we take for comparison two social groups that differ in their membership in different large social groups, we must first of all determine the significant differences between these large groups and, on the basis of this, give a comparative description of the small groups that are part of them.
The very division of a large social group into smaller ones (subgroups) contributes to the formation of a social sense of belonging - a feeling of “we”, which gives rise to the perception social phenomena through the prism of “us” and “strangers”.
A conflict of interests between groups provokes the development of aggression and hostility towards representatives of another group. This causes the participants in the interaction to feel dangerous, threatened, and the other group is perceived as the source of this threat. At the same time, there is an increase in intra-group solidarity, cohesion, and a more complete awareness by individuals of belonging to their group. The permeability of the boundaries of group membership increases. At the same time, it increases significantly social control in a group, which leads to a decrease in the degree of deviation of individuals from fulfilling group norms.
Secondly, the phenomenon of intergroup interaction is openness group, which is necessary in order to maintain its existence in constantly changing social conditions and ensure full functioning and development. All processes of interaction between a group and the surrounding society are carried out through group openness.
Openness is manifested in the group’s desire to receive information and influence from outside, as a result of which it is exposed to various kinds influences and evaluations from other groups. The level of group openness can be considered as a unique criterion for group renewal and maintaining a balance between the processes of differentiation and integration. The openness of a group can also be associated with attracting new members or even changing the composition of the group.
The level of group openness is determined by the well-being of the group’s existence in society. The higher the level of well-being, the more open the group can be. Under unfavorable conditions, an open group becomes closed. Closedness in this case is significant from the point of view of preserving the group as a whole and saves the group for some time. However, if it is closed for a sufficiently long period of time, it gradually loses its positive adaptive functions and degenerates through stagnation, turning from an adaptive social phenomenon into a maladaptive one.
Thirdly, the most important phenomenon of intergroup interaction is intergroup referentiality, which manifests itself in appealing to a significant external group, acting as a bearer of certain values and norms, a certain reference model. Intergroup reference is determined by the value orientations of the group, its social attitudes and leading development trends. If the latter change, then intergroup reference also changes.
Modern socio-psychological studies of intergroup interaction show that its main functions are the preservation, stabilization and development of groups as functional units of social life.
When interacting with other groups, each group strives for a more or less stable state by maintaining a relative balance of integration and differentiation tendencies. If differentiation tendencies intensify in the group’s external relations, then internal relations will be characterized by an increasing tendency towards integration and vice versa.
Rivalry, cooperation, relations of non-participation - the main strategies of interaction between social groups. The dominant strategy of interaction should be considered the strategy of rivalry.