What is conflict in interpersonal relationships? Stages of conflict development
MINISTRY OF EDUCATION OF THE REPUBLIC OF BELARUS
BELARUSIAN STATE UNIVERSITY
FACULTY OF PHILOSOPHY AND SOCIAL SCIENCES
Department of Social Communication
Interpersonal conflicts
course work
2nd year student of the Department of Information and Communication
Grishkevich I. A.
Scientific adviser:
Candidate of Sociological Sciences, Associate Professor of the Department of Social Communication Mazanik M. N.
Minsk, 2013
INTRODUCTION
LITERATURE REVIEW
CHAPTER 1: BASIC PARAMETERS AND NATURE OF INTERPERSONAL CONFLICT
2 Causes and functions of interpersonal conflict
3 Structure and dynamics of interpersonal conflict
CHAPTER 2: INTERPERSONAL CONFLICTS IN COMMUNICATION AND METHODS OF CONFLICT RESOLUTION
3 Resolving interpersonal conflict
CONCLUSION
LIST OF SOURCES USED
INTRODUCTION
In the ordinary, everyday understanding, a person interprets conflict as something negative, associated with irrationality with hostility, fear, and threats. Some experiences are so intense that people develop a defensive reaction, and they begin to believe that conflict is an extremely undesirable phenomenon, it should be avoided, and if it occurs, it requires immediate resolution. They cannot be judged for this, because they are partly right: conflicts can be very destructive and take a lot of time and effort. However, no matter how hard we try, conflicts in one form or another always accompany our lives, from family to geopolitical, and everyone can see this from their own experience. Consequently, since we cannot avoid them, we must learn to reduce their number and intensity, learn to manage them. However, all this requires time, which we do not have, since in our time communication is undergoing serious changes, all social processes are accelerating and becoming more complex, and our lives are filled with situations in which it is necessary to resolve numerous contradictions.
Any conflict (interethnic, interstate, organizational, etc.) comes down to interpersonal. Interpersonal conflicts cover almost all areas of human relationships. They have always been present in a person’s life, from the very beginning of his social life and, apparently, until the end. The problem of interpersonal conflicts itself received a lot of attention, since, as mentioned above, conflicts have always existed at all times, and the most basic type of conflict was interpersonal.
Today, psychology views conflict in a positive way, as the development of an organization and an individual, and interprets conflict as an engine of progress. It teaches us to look not at the negative, but at the positive sides of conflicts, which the vast majority of us have not done before. If we are not afraid of conflicts, but analyze them every time, we will find that we could easily avoid many mistakes by simply noticing them in time and taking appropriate measures.
The problem of conflict resolution is now becoming more relevant not only in terms of improving the human condition, but also for practical purposes, mainly in economics and politics, where business relations prevail.
Thus, mastering the skills of successful communication in conflict situations is not only of theoretical importance, but will also help in Everyday life and in every person’s career.
Object of work: interpersonal conflict.
Subject of work: conflict interaction during communication and ways to resolve it
Purpose: to study interpersonal conflict as a communication phenomenon.
Describe interpersonal conflict
Identify the causes and functions of interpersonal conflict
Consider the dynamics of interpersonal conflict
Consider communication models in relation to interpersonal conflict
Determine people's behavior strategies
Identify methods for resolving interpersonal conflicts
LITERATURE REVIEW
Antsupov, A.Ya. Shipilov, A. Conflictology: Textbook for universities / A. Antsupov, A. Shipilov. - Unity: Moscow, 2000. - 507 p.
Contains a generalization and systematization of scientific knowledge about conflicts that has been obtained in various fields of Russian science. The basics of conflictology are outlined and a conceptual scheme for describing conflicts is given. The principles, methods and techniques of resolving, preventing and studying conflicts are considered.
Information about conflicts is presented fully and systematically in a language understandable to the student. Contains the necessary information that serves as the basis for conducting research or independent study of the subject.
The anthology presents a large amount of useful systematic and structured information aimed at practical application. Ways to resolve conflicts are considered and a list of useful tips is given.
CHAPTER 1. THE NATURE OF INTERPERSONAL CONFLICT
1 Concept and characteristics of interpersonal conflict
The word “conflict” came into modern languages from Latin (conflictus - clash), it is international and does not need translation.
In order to define interpersonal conflict, it is necessary to define what “conflict” is. This concept has been defined by many authoritative sociologists and psychologists, examining this phenomenon from many angles, and the variety of interpretation options makes it problematic to single out any specific one. However, most authors agree that in a conflict there is a contradiction, which takes the form of a disagreement, in which two or more subjects most often take part.
After analyzing the definitions of many authoritative authors, you can try to give general definition conflict. So, a conflict is a situation in which there is a clash between two subjects based on contradictions, each of which seeks to master the object of disagreement or to defend their point of view, which is not only incompatible with the point of view of the opponent, but is often the opposite of it.
Due to its scale and diversity, the conflict has many different types. Interpersonal conflict is the most common type of conflict. It can be defined as a situation of confrontation between specific participants face to face, perceived and experienced by them (or at least one of them) as a significant psychological problem that requires its resolution and causes the activity of the parties aimed at overcoming the contradiction that has arisen and resolving the situation in the interests of both or one of the parties.
A large number of researchers agree on following signs interpersonal conflict:
Bipolarity - in a conflict there are two opposing positions.
Competition is the desire to fill a need or destroy an opponent.
Presence of subjects of conflict.
Activity aimed at overcoming contradictions.
Just as personal conflicts differ in what specific problems are affected by the emerging contradiction, Krylov identifies the basic characters of interpersonal conflicts:
Value conflicts. Situations in which disagreement occurs on the basis of incompatible ideas that have special individual meaning for the subjects. Every person has a value system that is important to him great importance and reflects what is the meaning for the subject.
Conflicts of interest. Situations in which the goals, motives and plans of the participants are incompatible or contradict each other.
Conflicts resulting from violation of norms or rules of interaction. Norms and rules regulate the order of interaction, without them it turns out to be impossible.
The cause of the conflict is also a factor, that is, an event that transforms hidden difficulties into open environment, leading to confrontation.
The last factor he highlights is the severity of the conflict. In any conflict there is a problem, but the degree of its significance in different situations and for different subjects will also be different. The more significant the problems that are present in the conflict, the less inclined a person is to make concessions and compromises.
According to A.V. Dmitriev, there are the following types of interpersonal conflict:
Sensual-affective. The most common type of interpersonal conflict. It begins with a sharp and unpleasant question that was addressed by one of the parties to the other. The party to whom the question was addressed has negative feelings towards the other party and tries to ignore it and reduce communication to a minimum. The first main feature is gradual development conflict situation, the accumulation of irritation, which does not lead to the resolution of a conflict situation. The second feature is the multidirectional positions of the parties, i.e. the first party tries to get answers to questions, does not receive them and gets irritated, and the second party tries to ignore and leave the first, which leads to a shattered moral state of the latter with the subsequent emergence of a conflict situation.
Uncompromising. It begins with mutual comments and reproaches, which continue to be used as the main arguments until one of the parties wins, while neither of them intends to make concessions. A very destructive type.
Emotionally unstable. It begins with the aggressiveness of one of the subjects, while the other subject interprets the aggressor's behavior as wrong and maintains the conflict. The conflict itself is characterized by a lack of desire among the participants to understand each other and understand the situation, dissatisfaction with each other, a harsh form of communication, and destructiveness. Such a conflict is protracted.
Politely touchy. The main characteristic of this type is politeness. The most peaceful type. The conflict begins with a polite expression of disagreement of one of the partners with the opinion of the other, while both feel awkward and some guilt for participating in the conflict. Both are immediately ready for reconciliation.
Aggressive. Both participants are determined to behave destructively and get out of the situation without compromise due to the suppression of reason by emotions. The most dangerous type. The form of interaction is a verbal skirmish, the extreme form is a fight.
Each type of conflict has its own reasons, which require a special approach. These types differ in the aspects of interpersonal relationships or interactions that were involved. But the same reasons can give rise to different conflicts. Consequently, the nature of conflicts is determined by the nature of the problems between the participants, and the cause of the problems is determined by the external environment and circumstances.
2 Causes and functions of interpersonal conflicts
To resolve a conflict, first of all, you need to find out its causes. If this is not done, conflicts will be neither resolved nor, much less, prevented.
Any specific causes of interpersonal conflict vary greatly. It is difficult to single out any one classification, since each author offers his own.
The cause of conflicts are conflictogens - words or actions that can contribute to the emergence of conflict. Keyword here it is “may”, since not all conflictogens lead to conflict, because we get used to some of them (rudeness, incivility) and react differently.
Conflict has one pattern that makes it so dangerous, and this property is escalation. People tend to pay less attention to what they say and more to what they are told, which is a kind of catalyst for the development of conflict. The subject accepts the conflictogen x, which was sent to him by another participant, however, he does not accept it as it was sent, but reacts stronger, multiplying this conflictogen, receiving, say, 1.5x. The subject tries to respond to a conflictogen with a larger conflictogen, and it turns out that the one who sent the first conflictogen receives a conflictogen in the next turn, say, 2x, and then a chain reaction is started. This can be explained by the fact that the subject who has received a conflictogen in his address wants to compensate for the psychological damage inflicted on him, and responds with aggression to aggression in order to get rid of psychological discomfort, while aggression, in order not to miscalculate, comes with a “reserve”.
In modern conflictology, there are several groups of causes of conflicts:
Objective.
They are divided according to social spheres into economic, social, political, ideological. The subject cannot radically influence these factors.
Socio-psychological.
Intersection of interests, values, distortion of information, inconsistency with role expectations, psychological incompatibility and natural desires for power and wealth.
Organizational and managerial.
Associated with structural features in organizations, functions within them, correspondence between personality and position, and management situations.
Personal (subjective).
Subjective critical assessments, conflict tolerance, commitment to constructive resolution.
According to the American conflictologist W. Lincoln, there are five types of causal factors of conflicts:
Information factors.
For one of the parties, the information is not acceptable, it is rejected (incompleteness, rumors, relevance, truthfulness, interpretation, extraneous factors).
Behavioral factors.
Characteristics of behavior that are rejected by one of the parties (the desire for dominance, aggression and selfishness, a threat to security, undermining self-esteem, unpredictability, discomfort).
Relationship factors.
Dissatisfaction with the interaction between subjects (balance of power, importance of relationships, personal compatibility, differences in educational levels, history and duration of relationships).
Value factors.
Principles of behavior that are expected by participants (own systems of beliefs and behavior, group traditions and values, ways of acting and methods of institutions, political, religious, regional and cultural values, belief systems and their corresponding expectations).
Structural factors.
Circumstances that are characterized by stability, objectivity and immutability (control system, political trends, power, social norms, property rights, standards of behavior, traditions, religions, geographical location, frequency of contacts with society).
This classification allows not only to identify the sources of conflicts, but also to help resolve them, especially when there is a lack of information.
A. Karmin comes across a classification that is good because it can identify the sources of conflict and the area in which they arise:
Limited resources.
The most common objective cause of conflicts. People are selfish by nature, so they believe that they are the ones who need and have the right to possess certain resources.
Differences in goals.
Differences in ideas, values, worldview.
Differences in behavior and experience.
Personal characteristics of opponents.
Poor communications.
Various aspects of interdependence.
Among the functions of conflicts, it is customary to distinguish between positive and negative ones.
Positive:
Eliminate contradictions.
Assessment of individual psychological characteristics of people.
Relief of psychological tension.
Development of personality and interpersonal relationships.
Improving the quality of individual activity.
Self-affirmation.
Negative:
Negative impact on the psyche.
Possible injuries to opponents.
Violation of interpersonal connections.
Formation of a negative image of the opponent.
Negative reflection on the activities of the individual.
Consolidation in the experience of solving problems using violent methods.
Also, in relation to the participants in the conflict, constructive and destructive functions are distinguished.
Constructive:
Cognitive (conflict as a symptom of contradictions in relationships).
Development function (improvement of participants and communication process).
Instrumental (conflict as a tool for resolving contradictions).
Perestroika (growth of mutual understanding and removal of factors that aggravate interpersonal communication).
Destructive:
Destruction of joint activities.
Deterioration of relations between opponents.
Negative emotional state of opponents.
Reduced effectiveness of future interactions.
For the most part, people feel only the negative and destructive side of conflicts, since it does not require any knowledge in the field of conflictology or any other efforts on the part of the participants in the conflict, that is, it is an affective state. The positive aspects influence passively and most often unnoticed by us, giving experience in resolution and some stability. They also require participants to have a certain level of preparedness for more effective action.
3 Structure and dynamics of interpersonal conflicts
Conflict is one of the types of interaction between people, and, like every process, it has a certain structure.
The structure is a set of stable connections of the conflict that ensure its integrity, equality with itself, difference from other phenomena of social life, without which it cannot exist as a dynamically interconnected integral system and process.
Any interpersonal conflict situation has objective content and subjective meaning; these are two sides of the same coin. Objective elements include participants (subjects), subject, object, conditions. Subjective elements include conflict behavior, motives of the parties and information models of the conflict situation. More details about each of them:
Participants (subjects) are direct parties, people participating in the confrontation. The contradiction of their interests lies at the heart of the conflict. They can act as private, official or legal entities. Based on the degree of participation in the conflict, main participants, others and support groups are distinguished.
The main participants in the conflict are subjects who take active actions against each other, be it defense or attack.
Support groups. Almost always, behind opponents there are forces that at any moment can influence the conflict through passive or active actions. These are individuals or groups.
Other participants are those who have occasional influence on the conflict.
The subject is a contradiction that served as the reason for which the subjects enter into conflict. The contradiction reflects the clash of interests and goals of the parties, and the problem will remain the same until it is resolved. Each side strives to resolve the contradiction in its favor.
An object is a scarce resource that the parties to the conflict seek to obtain. The object is material, social and spiritual value. The object itself can be divisible and indivisible, and depending on how the subject evaluates it, the course of the conflict depends.
Conditions (micro- and macroenvironment) - factors, features environment, which determine the occurrence, course of development and characteristics of the conflict.
Microenvironment is the immediate surroundings of the subject.
Macroenvironment - social groups.
Motives - what motivates a person, determines the direction associated with satisfying needs. The parties in most cases hide their motives, so identifying them during the conflict is quite problematic.
Conflict behavior is the activity of the subject, which is aimed at the subject of the conflict and maintains the current contradiction. This behavior has its own tactics, strategies and principles. The main principles are the concentration and coordination of forces, saving resources and “strikes” against vulnerable parts of the enemy.
Information models are the subjective representation of each of the participants in the conflict of all the above elements.
As for the dynamics, the following stages can be distinguished in an interpersonal conflict:
Pre-conflict situation.
This is the period that precedes the conflict; it can also be prosperous, but is more often characterized by tension in relationships. Here an objective problematic situation arises and the participants realize that the situation is a conflict.
The event that contributed to the creation of the conflict. It can also act as a minor incident that was the “last straw”.
Development.
A series of conflicting actions by the parties after the beginning and before the culmination of the conflict or, if the participants are sufficiently competent, before seeking a resolution to the conflict.
There are two possible phases here: constructive and destructive.
The constructive phase of the conflict is characterized by the fact that the opponent is aware of the goal, the object of the conflict, the means to achieve the goal, the correct assessment of his condition, “weight”, capabilities, and the ability to adequately assess himself and the opponent is determined. The only thing that may not satisfy opponents is, firstly, the style of conversation (high tone, self-orientation, prevalence of personal interests, weak feedback, ignoring), and secondly, non-verbal characteristics of behavior (avoiding conversations, stopping or deterioration of joint activities, etc.).
The destructive phase of the conflict (which refers only to the unrealistic phase, i.e. when the conflict is pointless) is characterized by the fact that it begins when the opponents’ dissatisfaction with each other, the way of solving problems get out of control and, therefore, the situation becomes unmanageable. In turn, this phase is divided into 2 more stages:
Psychological. The desire to overestimate your capabilities and underestimate the capabilities of your opponent.
Increased activity. Mutual insults, lowered perceptions, etc.
Climax.
It is characterized by the fact that it occurs when the intensity of the conflict reaches its peak and causes significant harm to the participants. After this, the participants realize that they need to look for a way out.
Completion.
The transition from conflict to finding a solution to the problem. Here we can distinguish such concepts as the cost of conflict and the cost of exiting the conflict.
The cost of conflict is the sum of three indicators:
Energy consumption - how much effort, time and resources were spent on the conflict.
Damage is the severity of the negative consequences that the opponent created.
Losses - deterioration of the situation as a result of conflicting actions of both sides.
The cost of leaving the conflict is the difference between the disadvantages of leaving the conflict and the advantages. If the value exceeds zero, then the prospect of exiting the conflict and obtaining benefits becomes obvious to the conflicting parties.
CHAPTER 2. INTERPERSONAL CONFLICTS IN COMMUNICATION AND METHODS OF CONFLICT RESOLUTION
1 Models of interpersonal communication
Interpersonal conflicts are part of communication in society, they are inseparable from each other, they are closely intertwined. You cannot resolve a conflict without knowing the principles of how communication between people works.
Today there are many models of communication in society - Lasswell, Shannon-Weaver, Newcomb, Jacobson, Lotman, Eco and others. Each of them is unique in its own way, offers something new, and also complements the previous ones, but they are all similar.
To analyze communication in society, you can take the model of Umberto Eco, since it is well-known and one of the latest.
So, what does Eco's model include?
Source.
Sender.
Receiver.
Message.
Some amendments can be made to this model: the source and the signal are combined in the sender (the source is the brain, the signal is the articulatory apparatus), and in the same way the receiver (sense organs) and the addressee are combined. As a result, we get the following model:
Sender.
Message.
The message here is a form that the addressee has assigned meaning based on some code.
A channel is a way of transmitting a message, but there is a risk that the message will distort its meaning under the influence of noise. This risk can be reduced by complicating the coding system or duplicating information and making it redundant.
In this model, the subjects of a conflict situation are the sender and the addressee. As we can see, almost every element, with the exception of the code and, partially, the channel, can cause the development of a conflict situation.
The sender and the recipient may have a number of incompatible characteristics, which can lead to conflict.
The way a message is conveyed can vary greatly and take many forms, but it also influences the conflict situation.
Noise here is a destructive element that can destroy communication or change it so much that the meaning of the message can be taken by the recipient exactly the opposite.
As for the code, the sender encodes the message in advance so that it is understandable to the recipient, or, conversely, not understandable. There is an element of manipulation here, which can so often be seen in interpersonal conflicts.
And finally, a message. A message is a means of transmitting information and communication between subjects. Its content determines whether the conflict will be resolved, created, or stopped preventively.
After the communicative act, the sender and addressee change places, and the process repeats.
This model is good because it can be applied to any conflict situation and understand where the conflict began.
2 People’s behavior in interpersonal conflicts
Every interpersonal conflict has both a beginning and an end, both a beginning and a resolution. However, there are a great many ways to achieve conflict resolution, and these ways depend on the parameters that people have, namely temperament, character and level of personal development.
A person receives temperament at birth; it is an inseparable part of not only our psyche, but also the body, since it is determined by the central nervous system. Temperament was considered and classified by such personalities as Hippocrates and I.P. Pavlov, who made the greatest contribution.
There are 4 types of temperament:
Sanguine.
Strong, balanced, agile.
Most best type temperament to solve a conflict problem.
Phlegmatic person.
Strong, balanced, inert.
The second best type, but he is not characterized by initiative.
Strong, unbalanced, agile.
This type can be the most destructive in conflicts, since it does not rely on calculation, but on the turbulence of an emotional reaction.
Melancholic.
Weak, unbalanced, inert.
In this case, the subject will be passive in the conflict; he can avoid it or adapt.
Temperament has a very strong influence on a person’s behavior in interpersonal conflicts, and almost every type has its own pros and cons that can be controlled.
As for character traits, their typology was developed by Jung, and it distinguishes 4 pairs of opposite types:
Introvert - Extrovert.
Intuitive - Sensory.
Feeling - Thinking.
Perceivers - Deciders.
Each character type has 4 preferences, one on each row. In accordance with this typology, there are 16 character types in total. This dualism is due to the fact that the human brain consists of two hemispheres - left and right, which are formed by the age of seven and do not change anymore. The left hemisphere is rational and logical activity, the right hemisphere is subconscious activity and emotions. This also explains why some of us are left-handed and others are right-handed.
The problem of conflicts is associated with inconsistencies in character types, with opposing sets of characteristics, which interferes with the solution of a joint task.
You can try to identify five types of conflicting personalities:
Demonstrative.
Good adaptability to situations, likes to be the center of attention, avoids effort, irrational. Feels comfortable in conflicts.
Rigid.
Critical of others, but not of himself, has high self-esteem, is touchy, and straightforward. In conflicts, it is characterized by low adaptability, which interferes with behavior in the conflict.
Ungovernable.
Impulsive, aggressive, unpredictable, has high self-esteem, insufficient self-control. Poorly controls the situation in a conflict and does not promote cooperation.
Ultra-precise.
A perfectionist, worried about failures, demanding of everyone, including himself, touchy, outwardly reserved and poor. Poor orientation in conflict situations.
Conflict-free.
Suggestible, weak-willed, dependent on other people's opinions, contradicts himself. In a conflict, he most often compromises or tries to avoid it.
Purposefully conflicting.
Manipulative, active, systematic. In a conflict, he behaves confidently, evaluates positions and, with the help of conflict, achieves his goal.
Styles (strategies) of behavior in conflict - the orientation of a person (group) in relation to the conflict, an orientation toward certain forms of behavior.
There are 5 styles:
Cooperation.
Collaborative action to solve a problem that requires different perspectives on the problem. Satisfaction of the decision by both parties.
Compromise.
Concessions on something important on each side to the extent that both are satisfied with the decision.
Rivalry.
Persistent and uncompromising imposition of a decision, dictation of one's interests and the use of all means to win.
Device.
The subject’s readiness to give in in order to preserve the relationship, a decrease in aspirations and, as a result, the adoption of imposed decisions.
Avoidance.
An attempt to escape from a conflict, being in the stage of conflict in the absence of active actions to resolve it.
These styles (strategies) are implemented through the following tactics:
Capture and hold the object of the conflict. Condition: the object must be material.
Physical violence. Destruction of material assets, blocking activities and causing bodily harm.
Psychological violence. Insult, deception, slander, discrimination, etc.
Pressure. Demands, threats, orders, blackmail.
Demonstrative actions. Drawing attention to one’s person, namely public statements, suicide attempts, etc.
Authorization. Refusal to perform, increase in workload, imposition of a ban.
Coalitions. The goal is to increase rank in the conflict, i.e. creating unions, groups, contacting the media and authorities.
Fixing your position. The most used tactic. Applying logic, facts, criticism, requests and persuasion.
Friendliness. Correct treatment, demonstration of readiness to solve the problem, encouragement, apology, etc.
These styles can be either spontaneous or purposefully used. As a rule, combinations of strategies are used in a conflict, sometimes one of them dominates, but strategies can change during the conflict.
3 Conflict resolution
Without establishing the reasons and motives of the participants, it is impossible to resolve the conflict. Conflict resolution also requires conflict management. Conflict management is a targeted impact on eliminating the causes that caused the conflict, influencing the behavior of the parties to the conflict in order to correct it and maintaining a certain acceptable level of conflict.
The management process depends on a number of factors, the main ones of which are given below:
Adequacy of perception (objective and accurate assessment of your actions and the actions of your opponent).
Willingness to discuss problems with an opponent openly.
Creating a friendly atmosphere for cooperation.
Determining the basis of the conflict.
There are also other factors, but they are poorly influenced, such as stereotypes, motives and needs, prejudices, etc.
It is worth noting that avoiding conflict is not its resolution, but only a delay and respite, therefore symptoms that correspond to conflict avoidance do not contribute to solving the problem.
It is also worth avoiding a prolonged phase of escalation, since here the conflict can assume threatening proportions, and it becomes increasingly difficult to control such a situation.
However, before moving on to resolving a conflict situation, it is worth considering a number of conditions that are important when the parties interact.
Voluntary actions on both sides.
We cannot force a person to perform the actions that we need, that is, the opponent must be convinced using constructive argumentation.
"Mirror reflection".
Each action of the subject will affect the attitude towards him and the actions of the opponent.
It depends on which social group the subject is communicating with, and what personality the opponent has.
These 3 aspects are prerequisites for resolving a conflict situation.
There is a list of rules for conflict-free communication that can help resolve interpersonal conflict or, at a minimum, reduce its intensity:
Do not use conflict agents.
Do not respond with a conflictogen to a conflictogen.
Showing empathy for your opponent.
Using positive messages.
To resolve a conflict, the subject also needs to be aware of a number of certain rules that make the conflict resolution procedure easier. They are as follows:
A conflict situation is all that needs to be eliminated.
A conflict situation arises before conflict.
The wording helps to identify the reasons.
Ask yourself the question “Why” until you find out the real reason.
State the conflict situation in your own words without using words that describe the conflict.
Make do with a minimum of words in the formulation.
Successful conflict resolution requires:
Adopt a conflict resolution approach that benefits both parties.
Regulating your behavior towards your opponent in a rational way.
Try to find common points of contact.
Preparation and conduct of negotiations, functionally - with an intermediary.
There are 2 negotiation models:
Mutual benefits.
When solutions are found that satisfy both sides.
The point of this model is that in the outcome of a conflict it is not at all necessary that one side wins at the expense of the other, but that there is the possibility of mutual gain. The main thing here is interests, not positions.
Concessions and rapprochement or bargaining between the parties.
The essence of the model is that during a conflict when interests conflict, participants make mutual concessions until they find a point of contact.
In our time, the degree and role of such a person as a mediator (intermediary) has increased significantly. However, despite the obvious positive attributes of the presence of a mediator, there are also negative ones:
The intervention of a mediator disrupts the stability within the relations of the parties to the conflict.
The presence and actions of a mediator may lead to the end of the conflict, but this will only external influence, internal motivation may remain unaffected, which in the future may affect relations between subjects.
The potential danger that the actions of the mediator may lead to the development and worsening of the conflict.
To avoid such problems, the parties to the conflict need to trust the mediator, and the chances of success when both parties have chosen a mediator are much higher than when only one party has chosen one.
The mediator has the following tactics:
An intervention that is aimed at establishing and maintaining contact with the subjects of the conflict and gaining their trust.
Contextual intervention, which is used to establish a favorable negotiation climate, prevent complications (also emotional), etc.
An intervention related to the decision-making process or consideration of options.
There are 3 mediator strategies:
Logical (analysis, discussion, etc.).
Aggressive (threats, coercion, etc.).
Paternalistic (gives advice individually to each participant in the conflict, discusses, approves and encourages).
The mediator’s task is difficult in that he has to deal with two parties to the conflict, each of which is confident that it has an objective vision of the situation.
The biggest problem in dealing with conflict constructively is the reluctance of the parties to resolve the conflict. The parties will not strive to resolve the conflict, since each of them is comfortable on their own side, and the search for a way out requires leaving this side and starting to search for a joint solution with the opponent.
interpersonal conflict behavior communication
CONCLUSION
Interpersonal conflicts have always existed and always will exist. They will meet every day several times, some familiar, some new. We cannot prevent the occurrence of conflicts, since they are an important and integral part of society and human essence. All that can be done is to make conflicts easier, change your attitude towards them, learn to manage them, and, if desired, use them to achieve your goal.
Interpersonal conflicts will not lose their relevance, just as the methods for resolving them will not lose their relevance, since throughout history, and especially in our time with the development of globalization and the advent of the Internet, communication has constantly evolved and changed, new forms of interaction have changed and added, new ones have been created. spheres and institutions, in each of which the conflict occurred in different ways, changing along with the person.
To get out of a conflict situation, it is not at all necessary that both parties to the conflict have certain skills in managing a conflict situation; it is enough if at least one subject has them, and then the chances that the situation will be resolved in a rational way with the least losses will increase many times over.
Most often, it is not conflicts that have a destructive effect on people, but how we emotionally experience them. These are threats, fear, hostility, in a word, any acute emotional experience. These consequences, unfortunately, are not limited or short-lived. They can spread to other areas of a person’s activity and haunt him throughout a long period of life, as well as transfer these fears and dangers to other people or raise their children in this atmosphere.
Interpersonal conflicts are closely related to other types of conflicts. Let's say they can arise as a consequence of an intrapersonal conflict, when a person who cannot find answers to questions that interest him begins to involve other people in his problems, which can lead to conflict. Also, interpersonal conflicts are included in intragroup and intergroup conflicts, since the units of groups are subjects, and with an interpersonal conflict within a group, the conflict becomes group status, because there are parties to the conflict, certain points of view that can be shared by several people. Thus, interpersonal, intrapersonal and group conflicts create a certain closed system, the elements of which determine each other.
Psychology recognizes the dual nature of conflict. It is recognized that it helps prevent the ossification of the system of relations and is an incentive for change, for the progress of man and society as a whole. Conflicts will bring real benefits when we learn to manage them rationally.
LIST OF SOURCES USED
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Interpersonal conflict is a clash between individuals in the process of their interaction. Such collisions can occur in a variety of spheres and areas of life (economic, political, industrial, sociocultural, everyday life, etc.).
D.) and have different scales of mutual claims: from a convenient place in public transport to the presidential chair in government agencies; from a piece of bread to a multi-million dollar fortune.
The subjects of interpersonal conflict are individuals (personalities) pursuing (protecting) their personal or group interests. The object of the conflict is the incompatible needs, interests, values, positions, goals, etc. of interacting individuals. The exception is unrealistic (objectless) interpersonal conflicts, in which the cause of the confrontation is the mental state of one, two or more subjects. In such a conflict, the incident is usually presented as the cause (object) of the conflict.
Some researchers interpret interpersonal conflict as “a clash of incompatible desires, aspirations and attitudes of communication partners...”35. In this definition, in our opinion, the subjects of the conflict are replaced by the object.
In interpersonal conflict, it is not interests and desires that clash, but real individuals over incompatible interests and desires. The clash of desires, aspirations, etc. is characteristic only of intrapersonal conflict. Interpersonal conflict also presupposes a real confrontation between the parties, and not just “mutual negative perceptions of people.” People can perceive each other very negatively, but do not conflict. Only as a result of actions directed against each other, interpersonal conflict arises.
So, interpersonal conflict is a clash (confrontation) of two or more individuals, the causes of which are incompatible needs, interests, values, positions, roles, goals and/or means of achieving them.
As in others social conflicts, in interpersonal ones one can also distinguish objectively and subjectively determined reasons.
Objective factors create the potential for conflict to arise. For example, a vacant position for the head of a department may become a cause of conflict between two employees of this department if both of them are applying for this position. The social (impersonal) relations between potential participants in the conflict, for example their status and role positions, can also be considered conditionally objective. Reasons whose occurrence does not directly depend on the will and desire of the potential subject of interpersonal conflict are considered objectively determined.
Subjective factors in interpersonal conflict are formed on the basis of the individual (socio-psychological, physiological, ideological and other) characteristics of the conflicting individuals. These factors largely determine the dynamics of the development and resolution of interpersonal conflict and its consequences.
Interpersonal conflicts arise both between people who meet for the first time and those who constantly communicate. In both cases, an important role in relationships is played by interpersonal perception (interpersonal perception), which involves the assessment and understanding (misunderstanding) of a person by a person. The process of interpersonal perception has a complex structure, its components are as follows: 1)
identification - comparison, juxtaposition of a person and identification of oneself with him; 2)
socio-psychological reflection - understanding another by thinking for him; 3)
empathy - understanding another person through empathy; 4)
stereotyping - the perception and assessment of another by extending to him the qualitative characteristics of a social group.
In social psychology, the process of reflection involves at least six positions that characterize the mutual reflection of subjects: 1)
the subject himself, as he really is; 2)
the subject as he sees himself; 3)
the subject as he appears to another.
In the relationship between subjects, we have the same three positions on the part of the other subject of reflection. The result is a process of double, mirror mutual reflection of each other by the subjects (Fig. 2).
Rice. 2. Interpersonal reflection
A scheme of interaction between subjects, similar in structure to the reflexive one, but slightly different in content, was proposed by the American psychotherapist E. Berne (Figure 3)36.
In this scheme, the basis of the conflict is the various states of the subjects of interaction, and its “provocation” is intersecting
Rice. 3. Options for transactions and interpersonal perceptions
xia transactions. Combinations “a” and “b” are conflicting. In combination “c”, one of the subjects of interaction clearly dominates the other or occupies the position of a patron, the other subject is content with the role of a “child”. In this combination, conflicts do not arise due to the fact that both subjects take their positions for granted. The most productive position in human communication is the position “g” (V-V). This is communication between equal people, without infringing on the dignity of either party. But other equal positions (“parent” - “parent”, “child” - “child”) are also objectively non-conflicting.
Adequate perception of a person by others is often hampered by already established stereotypes regarding this category of people. For example, a person has a preconceived idea of an official as a soulless bureaucrat, a red tape worker, etc. In turn, the official may also form a negative image of a petitioner who is undeservedly seeking special benefits for himself. In the communication between these two personalities, it is not real people who will interact, but stereotypes - simplified images of certain social types.
Stereotypes develop both in the process of socialization of an individual as a way of perceiving (assimiling) complex social concepts and phenomena, and in conditions of a lack of information as a generalization of the individual’s personal experience and often preconceived ideas accepted in society or in a certain social environment. Examples of stereotypes can be statements like: “all salesmen...”, “all men...”, “all women...”, etc.
A formed, possibly false, image of another can seriously deform the process of interpersonal interaction and contribute to the emergence of conflict.
An obstacle to finding agreement between individuals can be a negative attitude formed by one opponent towards another. Attitude represents the readiness, predisposition of the subject to act accordingly. This is a certain orientation of the subject’s psyche and behavior, readiness to perceive future events. It is formed under the influence of rumors, opinions, judgments about a given individual (group, phenomenon and others). For example, an entrepreneur has previously arranged a meeting with his colleague from another company to conclude an important business agreement. In preparation for the meeting, he heard negative comments from third parties about the business and ethical qualities of the proposed partner. Based on these reviews, the entrepreneur develops a negative attitude, and the meeting may either not take place or will not produce the expected results.
In conflict situations, a negative attitude deepens the rift between opponents and makes it difficult to resolve and resolve interpersonal conflicts.
Often the causes of interpersonal conflicts are misunderstandings (“misunderstanding” of one person by another). This happens due to different ideas about the subject, fact, phenomenon, etc.
D. “We often expect,” writes M. Moltz, that others will react to the same facts or circumstances in the same way as we do; by making the same conclusions, we forget that a person reacts not to real facts, but to their ideas about them”37. People have different ideas, sometimes diametrically opposed, and this fact should be accepted as a completely natural phenomenon, not to be dismissive of the ideas of others, but to try to understand them or at least take them into account, not to consider your ideas the only correct ones and not to impose them on others.
In interpersonal interaction, an important role is played by the individual qualities of opponents, their personal self-esteem, self-reflection, individual threshold of tolerance, aggressiveness (passivity), type of behavior, sociocultural differences, etc. There are the concepts of “interpersonal compatibility” and “interpersonal incompatibility”. Compatibility presupposes mutual acceptance of partners in communication and joint activities. Incompatibility is mutual rejection (antipathy) of partners, based on the discrepancy (confrontation) of social attitudes, value orientations, interests, motives, characters, temperaments, psychophysical reactions, individual psychological characteristics of the subjects of interaction.
Often, interpersonal contradictions and conflicts are based on differences (mismatches) of individual biological rhythms (“biological clocks”). One type of people is more active in the first half of the day. They are usually called “larks”. The peak activity of another type of people occurs in the second half of the day. If each of these types does not take into account the characteristics of the other, then their interaction will be fraught various kinds conflicts. Especially often such conflicts occur between close people: spouses, relatives, friends, etc.
Interpersonal incompatibility can cause emotional conflict (psychological antagonism), which is the most complex and difficult to resolve form of interpersonal confrontation. The difficulty of resolving such a conflict lies in the fact that there seems to be no real reason for the emergence of contradictions and the conflict appears to arise without any apparent reason. The reason for such a conflict is the negative mutual assessment and inadequate mutual perception of opponents of each other.
In the development of interpersonal conflict, it is also necessary to take into account the influence of the surrounding social, socio-psychological environment. For example, conflicts between gentlemen in the presence of ladies can be especially cruel and uncompromising, since in them (whatever the reasons for the conflicts) the honor and dignity of opponents are affected.
When interacting with other people, a person primarily protects his personal interests, and this is quite normal. The conflicts that arise are a reaction to obstacles to achieving goals. And how significant the subject of the conflict seems to be for a particular individual will largely depend on his conflict attitude - his predisposition and readiness to act in the expected conflict. in a certain way. It includes the goals, expectations and emotional orientation of the parties.
But individuals encounter interpersonal conflicts, defending not only their personal interests. They can also represent the interests of individual groups, institutions, organizations, labor collectives, and society as a whole. In such interpersonal conflicts, the intensity of the struggle and the possibility of finding compromises are largely determined by the conflict attitudes of those social groups whose representatives are the subjects of the conflict.
The most typical types of interpersonal conflicts are the following: 1.
Conflicts, the causes of which are incompatible needs, desires, interests, goals, values, etc. 2.
Conflicts of “incompatible” means of achieving common needs, interests, goals, etc. 3.
Conflict over limited material resources (money, apartment, land plot, discounted trip to the resort and others). 4.
A conflict of dominance (power relations) is manifested in the desire of one subject to impose its will (power) on another (others) and the reluctance of the other (others) to obey or the desire to challenge the limits of imposed authority (family conflicts, hazing in the army). 5.
A conflict of status positions arises either when individuals claim the same social status, or when they inadequately assess the statuses occupied by them and their opponents, for example, a child challenges the authority of a parent, a citizen challenges the authority of an official. 6.
Role conflicts can be divided into three subtypes: 1)
two or more individuals strive to fulfill the same role in a social group or impose a role on another; 2)
inadequate assessment of the role performance of another individual; 3)
performing two or more incompatible roles and/or an inadequate social role. 7.
The conflict of possession is most typical for individuals who are in close relationships with each other (friends, parents - children, spouses, lovers), when one or both subjects want to solely own and dispose of the other38. 8.
A conflict of rivalry or competition is observed when two or more individuals compete with each other in some type of activity, as well as in strength, beauty, wealth, intelligence, courage and others, while competition and rivalry involve conflictual interactions. 9.
Unrealistic conflict. As mentioned above, such a conflict arises not over some object (subject), but due to the inadequate mental state of one or both subjects of the conflict. Here conflict is not a means to an end, but an end. 10.
A conflict of psychological incompatibility is a negative mutual assessment and perception of each other by opponents. The danger of such a conflict lies in the fact that incompatibility may not manifest itself in any way in the relationships of individuals for a certain period of time - exist at the subconscious level, but in a certain, difficult situation become the cause of a fierce interpersonal conflict.
Depending on the reasons for the conflict situation, the interests and goals pursued by opponents, the relationship opposing forces, conflict behavior of the parties, an interpersonal conflict can have the following types of outcome: 1
) avoidance of conflict resolution, when one of the parties does not seem to notice the contradictions that have arisen. Such behavior may be due either to the obvious superiority in strength of one of the parties, or to the fact that this moment there are not sufficient opportunities to resolve the contradictions that have arisen; 2)
smoothing out contradictions when one of the parties either agrees with the claims made against it (but only at the moment) or seeks to justify itself. Such behavior may be due either to the desire to maintain normal relationships, or to the fact that the subject of the dispute is not of significant importance for one of the parties; 3)
compromise - mutual concessions by both parties. The size of concessions, as a rule, depends on the balance of opposing forces; 4)
consensus - finding a mutually acceptable solution to a problem. With this option, the parties can turn from opponents into partners and allies; 5)
escalation of tension and escalation of the conflict into a comprehensive confrontation. Such conflict behavior is due to a mutual attitude toward an uncompromising struggle; 6)
a forceful option for suppressing a conflict, when one or both parties are forced by force (threat of force) to accept one or another outcome of the conflict.
Introduction
1. The concept of conflict and its essence
2. Features of interpersonal conflicts
3. Causes of interpersonal conflicts
4. Classification of interpersonal conflicts
Conclusion
Introduction
The most common psychological conflicts include interpersonal conflicts. They cover almost all areas of human relations. Any conflict ultimately, one way or another, comes down to interpersonal conflict. Even in interstate conflicts, there is a clash between leaders or representatives of states. Therefore, knowledge of the characteristics of interpersonal conflicts, the causes of their occurrence and ways to manage them is an important component in vocational training any specialist.
Interpersonal conflicts are conflicts between individuals in the process of their social and psychological interaction. The causes of such conflicts are both socio-psychological and personal, in fact, psychological. The first include: loss and distortion of information in the process of interpersonal communication, unbalanced role interaction between two people, differences in the ways of assessing each other’s activities and personality, etc., tense interpersonal relationships, the desire for power, psychological incompatibility.
The concept of conflict and its essence
Memories of conflicts, as a rule, evoke unpleasant associations: threats, hostility, misunderstanding, attempts, sometimes hopeless, to prove that one is right, resentment. As a result, the opinion has developed that conflict is always a negative phenomenon, undesirable for each of us, and especially for leaders and managers, since they have to deal with conflicts more often than others. Conflicts are seen as something that should be avoided whenever possible.
Representatives of early schools of management, including supporters of the school of human relations, believed that conflict is a sign of ineffective organizational performance and poor management. Nowadays, management theorists and practitioners are increasingly inclined to the point of view that some conflicts, even in the most effective organization with the best relationships, they are not only possible, but also desirable. You just need to manage the conflict. The role of conflicts and their regulation in modern society is so great that in the second half of the 20th century. a special field of knowledge emerged - conflictology. Sociology, philosophy, political science and, of course, psychology made a great contribution to its development.
Conflicts arise in almost all areas human life.
What is conflict?
There are different definitions of conflict, but they all emphasize the presence of a contradiction that takes the form of disagreement. When it comes to human interaction.
Conflict (lat. conflictus - collision) is a collision of opposing goals, interests, positions, opinions or views of opponents or subjects of interaction.
Conflicts can be hidden or overt, but they are always based on a lack of agreement. Therefore, we define conflict as a lack of agreement between two or more parties - individuals or groups.
Observations show that 80 percent of conflicts arise beyond the wishes of their participants. This happens due to the characteristics of our psyche and the fact that most people either do not know about them or do not attach importance to them.
The main role in the emergence of conflicts is played by the so-called conflictogens - words, actions (or inactions) that contribute to the emergence and development of a conflict, that is, leading to a conflict directly.
However, a “single” conflictogen by itself, as a rule, is not capable of leading to conflict. There should be a “chain of conflictogens” - their so-called escalation.
Escalation of conflictogens - we try to respond to a conflictogen addressed to us with a stronger conflictogen, often the strongest possible among all possible ones.
If conflicts contribute to making informed decisions and developing relationships, then they are called functional (constructive) .
Conflicts that prevent effective interaction and decision making are called dysfunctional (destructive).
So you need to destroy once and for all all the conditions for conflicts to arise, and learn how to manage them correctly. To do this, you need to be able to analyze conflicts, understand their causes and possible consequences.
Conflicts can be realistic (objective) or unrealistic (non-objective).
Realistic conflicts are caused by the dissatisfaction of certain demands of the participants or the unfair, in the opinion of one or both parties, distribution of any advantages between them and are aimed at achieving a specific result.
Unrealistic conflicts have as their goal the open expression of accumulated negative emotions, grievances, and hostility, that is, acute conflict interaction here becomes not a means of achieving a specific result, but an end in itself.
Having begun as realistic, a conflict can turn into unrealistic, for example, if the subject of the conflict is extremely significant for the participants, and they cannot find an acceptable solution to cope with the situation. This increases emotional tension and requires release from accumulated negative emotions.
Unrealistic conflicts are always dysfunctional. They are much more difficult to regulate and direct in a constructive direction. For example, a reliable way to prevent such conflicts in an organization is to create a favorable psychological atmosphere, improve the psychological culture of managers and subordinates, and master the techniques of self-regulation of emotional states in communication.
2. Features of interpersonal conflicts
There are hardly anyone among us who have never had to participate in some kind of conflict in their lives. Sometimes a person himself becomes the initiator of a conflict with one or more of the people around him, sometimes he finds himself entering into a conflict with someone unexpectedly for himself and even against his own desire.
It often happens that circumstances force a person to be drawn into a conflict that has flared up between other people, and he has, willy-nilly, to act either as an arbiter or conciliator of the disputing parties, or as a defender of one of them, although, perhaps, he I don’t want either one or the other.
In all situations of this kind, two interrelated aspects can be noticed. The first is the substantive side of the conflict, i.e. the subject of the dispute, the matter, the issue that causes disagreement. The second is the psychological side of the conflict, associated with the personal characteristics of its participants, with their personal relationships, with their emotional reactions to the causes of the conflict, to its course and to each other. This second side is a specific feature of interpersonal conflicts - in contrast to social, political, etc. conflicts.
In such a conflict, people confront each other directly, face to face. At the same time, they develop and maintain tense relationships. They are drawn into the conflict as individuals, showing in it their character traits, abilities, and other individual properties and characteristics. Conflicts reveal people's needs, goals and values; their motives, attitudes and interests; emotions, will and intellect.
It seems impossible to give a strict definition of interpersonal conflict. But when we talk about such a conflict, we immediately see a picture of a confrontation between two people based on a clash of opposing motives.
Interpersonal conflicts have their own distinctive characteristics, which boil down to the following.
1. In interpersonal conflicts, the confrontation between people occurs directly, here and now, based on the clash of their personal motives. The rivals come face to face.
2. Interpersonal conflicts manifest the entire spectrum of known causes: general and particular, objective and subjective.
3. Interpersonal conflicts for subjects of conflict interaction are a kind of “testing ground” for testing characters, temperaments, manifestations of abilities, intelligence, will and other individual psychological characteristics.
4. Interpersonal conflicts are characterized by high emotionality and coverage of almost all aspects of the relationship between the conflicting subjects.
5. Interpersonal conflicts affect the interests not only of those in conflict, but also of those with whom they are directly connected either through work or interpersonal relationships.
Interpersonal conflicts, as noted above, cover all areas of human relations.
Managing interpersonal conflicts can be considered in two aspects - internal and external. The internal aspect involves the use of technologies for effective communication and rational behavior in conflict. The external aspect reflects management activities on the part of the leader (manager) or other management subject in relation to a specific conflict.
In an interpersonal conflict, each side strives to defend its opinion, to prove the other wrong; people resort to mutual accusations, attacks on each other, verbal insults and humiliations, etc. This behavior causes acute negative emotional experiences in the subjects of the conflict, which aggravate the interaction of the participants and provoke them to extreme actions. In situations of conflict, it becomes difficult to manage your emotions. Many of its participants experience negative well-being for a long time after the conflict is resolved.
Interpersonal conflict reveals a lack of agreement in the existing system of interaction between people. They have opposing opinions, interests, points of view, views on the same problems, which at the appropriate stage of the relationship disrupt normal interaction, when one of the parties begins to purposefully act to the detriment of the other, and the latter, in turn, realizes that these actions infringe on its interests, and takes retaliatory actions.
This situation most often leads to conflict as a means of resolving it. A complete resolution of the conflict will be achieved when the warring parties together quite consciously eliminate the causes that gave rise to it. If the conflict is resolved by the victory of one of the parties, then this state will turn out to be temporary and the conflict will certainly manifest itself in some form under favorable circumstances.
Any conflict resolution or prevention is aimed at preserving the existing system of interpersonal interaction. However, the source of conflict may be reasons that lead to the destruction of the existing system of interaction.
In real life, when interpersonal conflicts arise and we live among them, the most different relationships to this very complex phenomenon. Some believe that any conflict is evil and must be avoided in every possible way: prevented, prevented, eliminated, etc. Others point out that conflicts surround us everywhere and, therefore, are simply inevitable, and therefore we must come to terms with them. Still others are of the opinion that there is some positive, constructive element in conflicts, and argue that, at a minimum, one should benefit from their results, and even specifically design conflicts in order to obtain useful results. Who's right here? Most likely, it depends on the specific circumstances and behavior of the parties to the conflict.
You can at least reduce it Negative consequences violent clashes, and in many cases even use the energy of human interaction inherent in them in a constructive way. This is achieved through the use of techniques and technologies developed in conflictology and other sciences, such as mediation.
Interpersonal conflicts are closely related to other types of conflicts. Very often, interpersonal conflicts arise from intrapersonal ones: contradictory personal tendencies within a person lead to clashes with other people.
Often a person, not finding an answer to the problems that concern him, begins to think that other people are to blame for this, who have driven him into a difficult situation. As a result, he begins to behave (act, speak out) inappropriately. He can make unfair, but seemingly fair, claims to others, pester other people, and make vague and unjustified demands on them. People in contact with him do not really understand the reasons for this, sometimes completely incomprehensible, behavior, and if it violates any of their interests, they come into conflict with him. Thus, intrapersonal conflict develops into interpersonal conflict.
Along with this, interpersonal conflicts are included in clashes at another level - intergroup, interinstitutional and other group conflicts.
When disagreements and clashes arise between groups of people, members of each of the conflicting groups usually begin to perceive members of the other group as their opponents. The “Us-Them” opposition is transferred from relations between groups to personal relationships. In such cases intergroup conflict becomes the basis for the emergence and development of interpersonal conflicts.
On the other hand, interpersonal conflicts can escalate and affect other people. Participants in a conflict are often joined by supporters who support them. And when a conflict flares up around an issue, the solution of which somehow affects outsiders or entire organizations, then they also begin to take part in it. As a result, the conflict, having begun as interpersonal, becomes group.
3. Causes of interpersonal conflicts
In any interpersonal conflict, there are at least two participants and a certain specific situation of their interaction, in which the initial incident occurs and its consequences develop.
To identify the causes of conflicts, a comprehensive and in-depth analysis of both the actions, positions and psychological characteristics of its participants, as well as the circumstances arising in the situation of their interaction, is required.
You can see the immediate causes and sources of interpersonal conflicts by turning to basic human needs. This refers to the needs for food, sex, affection, security, self-esteem, justice, kindness, etc. When they are suppressed or a threat to their satisfaction appears, then tension is produced and conflicts arise between people. In this case, a person sees in the behavior of those who, in his opinion, cause him harm, a manifestation of aggressiveness, selfishness, categoricalness or superiority over himself.
Conflictologists, addressing driving forces and motivations for interpersonal conflicts, distinguish between resource and value conflicts.
Resource conflicts are associated with the distribution of livelihoods ( material resources, territory, time, etc.). In organizations, for example, interpersonal conflicts often arise over the distribution of bonus funds among employees.
Value conflicts unfold in the area of mutually exclusive cultural stereotypes, beliefs and convictions, assessments and relationships. An example would be those found in modern conditions conflicts in families due to different value orientations between parents and children. Conflicts between spouses in families are often based on sexual dimorphism (differences in perception and response) between men and women.
Irrational motivation plays a significant role in interpersonal conflicts, which is especially intensified in the conditions of modern crisis development of society. An illustration of the complexity of human relationships that give rise to conflicts, the causes of which are difficult to explain on the basis of ordinary logic, are the “games” described in the books of E. Berne. Berne calls games such forms of communication between people in which one of the participants is guided by a hidden and even unconscious motive to obtain some kind of psychological or social “gain”.
The specific causes of interpersonal conflicts are extremely varied. It is difficult to give an exhaustive classification of them - there are as many schools and authors as there are approaches to solving this problem. The causes of conflicts can be classified on various grounds. Thus, according to N.V. Grishina, the causes of conflicts can be reduced to three groups:
firstly, the very content of interaction (joint activity);
secondly, the characteristics of interpersonal relationships;
thirdly, the personal characteristics of the participants.
On other grounds, the classification of conflict drivers includes the values of interaction, the interests of the participants, the means of achieving goals, the potential of the participants, the rules of interaction and management.
It seems appropriate to classify the following groups of main causes of conflicts:
1) limited resources - their qualitative and quantitative side;
2) various aspects of interdependence (authority, power, tasks and other resources;
3) differences in goals;
4) differences in ideas and values;
5) differences in behavior and life experiences;
6) unsatisfactory communications;
7) personal characteristics of the participants in the clashes.
This classification is good because it allows us to understand the sources of conflicts and the area where they exist.
In practice, when analyzing conflicts, the approach proposed by W. Lincoln turns out to be very useful. He identifies the causal factors of conflicts, which are divided into five main types: informational, behavioral, relational, value and structural.
1. Information factors - associated with the unacceptability of information for one of the parties.
The information factors can be:
Incomplete and inaccurate facts, including issues related to the accuracy of the issue and the history of the conflict;
Rumors, unwitting misinformation;
Premature and late information;
Unreliability of experts, witnesses, sources of information or data, inaccuracy of translations and communications of funds mass media;
Unwanted disclosure of information that may offend the values of one of the parties, violate confidentiality and even leave unpleasant memories;
Interpretation of the language used, expressions such as “approximately”, “substantially”, “intentionally”, “excessively”, etc.;
Extraneous facts, controversial issues of legislation, rules, procedures, stereotypes, etc.
2. Behavioral factors - inappropriateness, rudeness, selfishness, unpredictability and other characteristics of behavior rejected by one of the parties.
IN interpersonal relationships The most typical behavioral factors causing conflict situations are:
Striving for excellence;
Manifestation of aggressiveness;
Manifestation of selfishness.
Behavioral factors may include cases where someone:
Threatens our safety (physical, financial, emotional or social);
It undermines our self-esteem;
Does not live up to positive expectations, breaks promises;
Constantly distracts us, causes stress, inconvenience, discomfort, embarrassment;
Behavior is unpredictable, rude, exaggerated and fearful.
3. Relationship factors - dissatisfaction with the interaction between the parties. Often such dissatisfaction is generated not only by the already established interaction, but also by the unacceptability for one of the parties of proposals regarding its further development.
The most important factors relations are:
Contribution of the parties to the relationship, balance of power in the relationship;
The importance of the relationship for each party;
Compatibility of the parties in terms of values, behavior, personal or professional goals and personal communication;
Differences in educational level, class differences;
History of relationships, their duration, negative aftertaste from past conflicts, level of trust and authority;
The values of the groups to which the parties belong and their pressure on the relations of the parties.
4. Value factors - these include principles that are proclaimed or rejected, which we adhere to and which we neglect, which we forget about or consciously and even intentionally violate; principles that others expect us to follow and we expect others to follow.
Values can vary in strength and importance. They are usually described as:
Personal systems of beliefs and behavior (prejudices, preferences, priorities);
Group (including professional) traditions, values, needs and norms;
Modes of action and methods characteristic of individual institutions, organizations and professions;
Religious, cultural, regional and political values;
Traditional belief systems and associated expectations: ideas about right and wrong, bad and good; ways and methods of assessing the relevance, effectiveness of “fairness”, “practicality”, “realism”; attitude towards progress or change, towards the preservation of the old, towards the “status quo”.
5. Structural factors are relatively stable circumstances that exist objectively, regardless of our desire, and which are difficult or even impossible to change. They require to be overcome large resources: material, physical, intellectual, etc. These are, for example, factors such as law, age, lines of accountability, fixed dates, time, income, availability of technology and other means.
Any interpersonal conflict unfolds against the background of structural factors that are “external” to it, but significantly influence its course. Such factors are:
Power, control system;
Political parties and movements;
Different social norms;
Ownership;
Religions, justice systems, status, roles, traditions, “rules of the game” and other standards of behavior, including ethical standards;
Geographical location, voluntary (forced) isolation or openness, as well as the frequency and intensity of the community’s contacts with the outside world.
The above classification helps not only to understand the sources of conflicts, but also to outline ways to resolve conflicting interests, i.e., paths leading to conflict resolution.
Assigning specific conflicts to one type or another allows us to take primary measures to eliminate them. So, for example, in the event of conflicts arising due to a lack of information, it is enough to ensure its supply, and the conflict will be removed.
4. Classification of interpersonal conflicts
For practical work with conflicts, it is advisable not only to identify the causes, but also to classify conflicts on various grounds. This can be done, for example, a) by spheres of existence; b) by its effect and functional consequences; c) according to the criterion of reality or truth-falsity.
a) according to the spheres of existence, conflicts are divided into: business, family, property, household, etc.
Typical examples here could be conflicts between subordinates and superiors - managers, owners (vertical), and between employees in the organization (horizontal).
In modern conditions in Russia, conflicts in the business sphere are frequent due to an unclear distribution of responsibilities, powers, and different expectations.
At the same time, we note that clashes between different positions and points of view of individuals or groups in the process of joint activities are almost inevitable. The following conflicts are typical for enterprises and organizations:
Conflicts between management personnel and subordinates (vertical) regarding methods of management and execution functional responsibilities;
Conflicts between personnel (horizontal) in connection with the admission of new members, distribution of work, remuneration, etc.;
Conflicts between the managers themselves when determining the goals, methods and directions of joint activities.
This is closely related to personal characteristics, personnel changes, the practice of moral and material incentives, the influence of the external environment. Of particular importance for understanding the nature of the conflict here is the analysis of the motives of people’s activities in a given organization: what holds them back, are they satisfied with the methods of management, the resources they receive, their career prospects, how ordinary members participate in decision making, etc.
b) according to their effect and functional consequences, conflicts are: constructive (functional) and destructive (dysfunctional). Usually in conflicts, the constructive and destructive sides coexist, like two sides of a coin. These types of conflicts differ in which of these parties prevails.
The constructive side of interpersonal conflicts is that they can lead to clarification of relationships between the parties and finding ways to improve both the behavior and personal qualities of the parties to the conflict.
Constructive consequences of interpersonal conflicts can manifest themselves, for example:
In creating a community of people involved in solving the problem;
In expanding the scope of cooperation to other areas;
The fact is that rather there is a process of self-awareness, clarification of one’s own interests and the interests of the partner.
The destructive side of interpersonal conflicts manifests itself when one of the opponents resorts to morally condemned methods of struggle, seeks to psychologically suppress partners, discrediting and humiliating him in the eyes of others.
Usually this causes fierce resistance on the other side, the dialogue is accompanied by mutual insults, solving the problem becomes impossible, interpersonal relationships are destroyed, and harm is caused to health. Very often, conflicts of this kind arise at work.
There is a special term - “mobbing”, which literally means: oppression, persecution, rudeness, attacks and nagging, which are often carried out by hidden character. According to some data, only when hiring, 3-4% of those hired are subject to mobbing.
In a destructive conflict, the following is observed:
polarization of partners' value judgments;
desire for divergence of initial positions;
the desire to force a partner to make a decision that is unfavorable for him;
escalation of the conflict;
desire to escape from the original problem;
painful forms of conflict resolution.
Destructive conflict resolution usually has three negative consequences:
Firstly, even if it seems that you won and your partner lost, in reality this is not always the case. Most often, both parties suffer.
Secondly, relationships become tense in the future, and at least one of the parties experiences a feeling of indignation and resentment. At the same time, a participant who feels like a loser often blames himself for the fact that he behaved ineptly in the conflict, and therefore lost. This reduces his self-esteem and self-esteem.
Thirdly, the inability to resolve interpersonal problems to mutual satisfaction is harmful for both participants because it not only does not provide an opportunity to resolve substantive problems between the parties, but also negatively affects the health of those in conflict.
c) according to the criterion of reality or truth-falsehood, according to M. Deutsch, the following types of conflicts are distinguished:
“genuine” conflict that exists objectively and is perceived adequately;
“random” or “conditional” conflict, depending on easily changeable circumstances, which is not always realized by the parties;
“displaced” conflict - when we have in mind an obvious conflict, behind which lies another, invisible conflict that underlies the obvious one;
"misattributed" conflict - between parties who misunderstand each other and misinterpret problems;
“latent” (hidden) conflict that should have occurred, but which does not, because for one reason or another it is not realized by the parties;
“false” conflict - when there are no objective grounds for the conflict and the latter exists only due to errors of perception and understanding.
5. Methods for overcoming conflicts
Any conflict can be quickly resolved if appropriate methods are known. But at the same time, it is imperative to consider the characteristics of the conflict: goals, motives, emotional states of opponents, features of the development of the confrontation, etc. These are the principles that should be followed when resolving the conflict.
1. Conflict resolution taking into account the essence and content of the contradiction. In this case it is necessary:
Distinguish the reason from the true cause of the conflict, which is often disguised by its participants;
Determine its business basis;
Understand the true, and not declarative, motives for people entering into conflict.
2. Conflict resolution taking into account its goals. It is extremely important to quickly determine the goals of the conflicting parties and draw a clear line between the features of interpersonal and business interaction. If personal goals are dominant, then it is advisable to first apply educational measures to the opponent and put forward certain strict requirements. If one of the opponents has a higher rank than the other, then he should be pointed out the need to adhere to certain standards of behavior.
3. Conflict resolution taking into account emotional states. If the conflict has become emotional in nature and is accompanied by violent reactions, then it is advisable to show with specific examples how high tension affects work performance, how opponents lose their objectivity, and how their criticality decreases. In other words, an explanatory conversation is needed in a calm and confidential atmosphere.
4. Conflict resolution taking into account the characteristics of its participants. In this case, before proceeding to resolve the conflict, it is necessary to understand the personality traits of each: are they balanced, are they prone to affective behavior, what are their dominant character traits, the severity of their temperament, etc. This will not only help to correctly understand the motives behavior, but also to choose the right tone in communication when resolving a conflict.
Conflict resolution taking into account its dynamics.
The conflict develops in certain stages. Naturally, for each of them there are certain forms of its resolution. If at the first stages conversations and persuasion are advisable, then at the stage of uncompromising clashes it is necessary to apply all possible measures, including administrative ones. Here it is also necessary to determine the choice of influence, taking into account the personal characteristics of the conflicting parties and the nature of their actions.
One of the effective methods of overcoming conflicts is the formation of a certain public opinion about the conflicting parties. Public opinion- a very powerful regulator of people's behavior. Many people are very dependent on the attitude of others and need approval and support. When in conflict, they may find themselves isolated, which they experience very painfully, and so painfully that they are even ready to stop confrontation.
An interesting technique for resolving conflicts is turning to an “arbiter.” It can be very effective if the opponents agree, with mutual obligations, to completely submit to its decision. It is advisable to choose the most authoritative person in the team as an “arbiter,” preferably the manager himself. It is very important for the “arbiter” to be able to separate the subject of the conflict from its object, so sometimes it is advisable to allow opponents to give emotional assessments to each other. If the conflict is based on a business basis, opponents will not move on from it to other issues; in other cases, opponents, starting with the object, will very quickly move on to the subject, thereby revealing the true sources of the conflict.
Another technique for overcoming conflicts is objectification of the conflict. Its essence lies, again, in addressing the “arbiter,” but the “judge” must behave somewhat unusually. Firstly, conflict analysis should occur in two stages. The first stage is called “frank conversation”: opponents are allowed to evaluate each other, express themselves in almost any way, the main thing is that they speak out, and the “judge” is able to separate the subject of the conflict from the object. The second stage is the actual objectification. During analysis, opponents are no longer allowed to give emotional assessments.
The conflict, as it were, is decomposed into its component parts, each of the opponents must present their versions and explanation of the reasons, without assessments of the other opponent. It has been noted by science and confirmed by practice that if a conflict is “decomposed” into its components and every action of opponents is examined impartially, then it loses its emotional intensity and turns from emotional to business.
Opponents are “removed” from false images of the situation and each other, which are inevitable during a conflict due to partiality of positions, they begin to understand the fallacy of their assessments and attitudes, and psychological barriers between opponents are eliminated.
Conclusion
Representatives of early management schools believed that conflict is a sign of ineffective organizational performance and poor management. Nowadays, we are increasingly inclined to the point of view that some conflicts, even in the most effective organization with the best relationships, are not only possible, but also desirable. You just need to manage the conflict.
Conflicts arise in almost all spheres of human life. Conflicts can be hidden or overt, but they are always based on a lack of agreement.
The main role in the emergence of conflicts is played by conflictogens - words, actions (or inactions) that contribute to the emergence and development of a conflict, that is, leading to a conflict directly.
In the process of conflict interaction, its participants get the opportunity to express different opinions, identify more alternatives when making a decision, and this is where the important positive meaning conflict. This, of course, does not mean that the conflict is always positive.
Interpersonal conflict is an intractable contradiction that arises between people and is caused by the incompatibility of their views, interests, goals, and needs.
In interpersonal conflicts, the entire spectrum of known causes is manifested: general and particular, objective and subjective.
In the process of managing interpersonal conflicts, it is important to take into account their causes and factors, as well as the nature of the interpersonal relationships of the conflictants before the conflict, their mutual likes and dislikes.
List of used literature
1. Antsupov A.Ya., Shipilov A.I. Conflictology. – M.: UNITY, 2009.
2. Grishina N.V. Psychology of conflict St. Petersburg, 2008
3. Emelyanov S.M. Workshop on conflict management. St. Petersburg, 2007
4. Zerkin D.P. Fundamentals of conflictology: a course of lectures. Rostov n/d., 2008
5. Kabushkin N.I. Fundamentals of management. – Minsk: Amalfeya, 2008.
6. Mastenbroek U. Conflict management and organizational development. – M.: Infr-M, 2006.
7. Sulimova M.S. Social work and constructive conflict resolution. – M., Institute of Practical Psychology, 2009.
8. Kozrev G.I. Introduction to conflictology: textbook. - M.: Vlados, 2009.
Interpersonal conflict- this is a confrontation that arises in the process of communicative interaction of an individual with the social environment. In other words, an interpersonal conflict in a group is in some way a contradiction that arises in a separate situation among subjects when they begin to perceive events as a problem with a psychological component that requires immediate resolution. A prerequisite for the emergence of interpersonal conflict is the presence of a contradiction that creates an obstacle to communication or the achievement of personal goals.
Interpersonal conflicts in a team are more common than other types of confrontations.
Conflicts in interpersonal relationships
Confrontation in interpersonal relationships is often considered as a clash in the process of interaction. These collisions can be observed in various spheres of life. Often, interpersonal conflicts in a team arise due to a shortage of some resources or funds, for example, when there are several candidates for one prestigious vacancy.
In other words, interpersonal conflicts are open confrontations between interacting individuals based on emerging contradictions, which appear in the form of conflicting goals, opposing interests, mutually exclusive in certain circumstances of the situation. This type of confrontation is found exclusively in interactions that occur between two or more individuals. In interpersonal confrontation, subjects oppose each other, clarifying their own relationships face to face.
Interpersonal conflicts in an organization can arise both between individuals who are meeting for the first time, and between well-known subjects. In any case, the individual perception of the participant and his opponent plays a significant role in the interaction. An obstacle to the path of finding a common language between subjects can be a negative attitude formed by one opponent towards another opponent.
When interacting with the social environment, the subject, first of all, protects his own personal interests. This is the norm. Conflicts that arise during such interaction represent a response to obstacles to achieving goals.
In addition, people can face interpersonal confrontations, defending the interests of a separate team, organization, social institutions. The tension of confrontation in such conflicts and the possibility of finding compromise solutions are largely determined by the conflict attitudes of those groups whose representatives are the participants in the confrontation.
All interpersonal conflicts in an organization that arise as a result of a clash of interests or goals can be divided into three types. The first involves a clash of principles, in which the embodiment of the interests and aspirations of one participant can be realized solely by limiting the interests of another participant.
The second one affects only the form of relationships between subjects, without infringing on their material, spiritual and moral needs and goals. The third is a real non-existent contradiction, provoked either by distorted (false) information, or by an incorrect interpretation of facts and events.
Also, social interpersonal conflicts can be divided into the following types:
- the desire for dominance, that is, competition;
- disagreements related to the issue of finding the best way to solve a joint problem - dispute;
- discussion of a controversial issue, that is, discussion.
Prevention of interpersonal conflicts, their prevention or resolution is always aimed at preserving the existing structure of interpersonal interaction.
Often, as a source of confrontation, it is possible to identify factors that will lead to the destruction of the formed system of relationships. As a result, two categories of conflict functions can be distinguished: constructive (that is, positive) and destructive (that is, negative).
The first include: developmental, cognitive, instrumental and restructuring functions.
The cognitive function is to detect the symptom of a dysfunctional relationship and identify discrepancies that arise.
Confrontation is considered the most important source of the process of improving interaction and development of all its participants. This is the function of development.
Disagreements are a tool for resolving differences (instrumental function).
Confrontation eliminates factors that corrode existing interpersonal relationships and promotes the formation of mutual understanding between opponents (perestroika function).
The destructive “mission” of conflicts has a connection:
- with deterioration or complete collapse of relationships;
— destruction of existing joint interaction;
— negative well-being of opponents;
— low effectiveness of further joint activities.
Causes of interpersonal conflicts
The emergence and escalation of conflicts are caused by the influence of the following groups of reasons: objective and personal groups, intragroup favoritism, socio-psychological and organizational-managerial ones.
Objective reasons mainly include the circumstances of relationships between people that led to a conflict of interests, beliefs and attitudes. Objective factors lead to the creation of an environment or situation that immediately precedes confrontation.
The subjective reasons that provoke social interpersonal conflicts mainly include the individual psychological characteristics of rivals, because of which opponents choose a conflictual style of resolving contradictions. There is no strict division between subjective factors and objective causes of collisions. In addition, it is also considered unlawful to oppose them. Because often the subjective cause of confrontation is based on a factor that is practically independent of the individual, that is, objective.
So, among the objective factors there are:
— a collision of significant spiritual and material interests of individuals in the course of their life activities;
— low development of regulatory and legal procedures for resolving contradictions between people;
— a shortage of spiritual and material goods that are significant for the normal existence and interaction of people;
- unsatisfying lifestyle of the majority of citizens (for example, domestic unsettlement);
- stable stereotypes of interpersonal relationships and intergroup interaction of individuals, contributing to the emergence of confrontation.
Organizational and managerial causes of confrontations can be divided into structural and functional-organizational, personal-functional and situational-managerial.
The contrast between the structure of an organization and the requirements of its professional activities is formed by structural and organizational factors. The structure of an organization must be determined by the tasks that it is intended to solve. It is practically impossible to achieve optimal adequacy of the structure of an organization to the tasks it solves.
Inconsistency of functional connections of the enterprise external environment, the violation of relationships between the structural units of the enterprise and individual employees forms the functional and organizational reasons for the emergence of conflicts.
Personal-functional factors are characterized by an employee’s insufficient compliance with certain specific qualities of the position held.
Situational and managerial factors are associated with the mistakes that managers and their subordinates make when solving professional problems.
Studies of industrial collisions have shown that more than 50% of confrontation situations arise due to erroneous, obviously conflict-prone decisions of managers, due to incompatibility - 33%, and due to incorrect personnel selection - 15%.
Social and psychological factors are associated with possible significant distortions of information or its losses during interpersonal interaction (for example, due to limited vocabulary people, lack of time, deliberate withholding of information, difficulties in understanding, inattention). Usually an individual does not immediately take what he hears for granted. First, he evaluates the information and draws conclusions. Often such conclusions can differ dramatically from what the interlocutor said.
An unbalanced role-based behavioral response during communication between two subjects also provokes interpersonal confrontation.
Various ways of assessing personality and performance results contribute to the formation of a conflict situation.
Interpersonal conflict example - a manager evaluates the fruits of an employee’s work, while he takes as the basis for evaluation what the subordinate could not do in comparison with the norm or other subordinates who do similar work better, at the same time the subordinate himself evaluates his own work based on what he has achieved result. The result of such behavior is different assessments of the same matter, which provokes confrontation.
Preference for members of one group over representatives of other social groups, in other words, intragroup favoritism is observed due to:
— the inherent competitive nature of interaction with the social environment and individual subjects;
— limited abilities of individuals to decentralize, that is, changing their own beliefs as a result of its correlation with the beliefs of the environment;
- unconscious or conscious desire to receive more from the surrounding society than to give to them;
- aspirations for power;
- psychological incompatibility of people.
Interpersonal conflict in a group also occurs due to personal reasons, such as:
- lack of resistance to negative impact stress factors during social interaction;
- underdeveloped ability to empathize (deficit);
- underestimated or overestimated level and degree;
- various character accentuations.
Features of interpersonal conflict
Situations of confrontations between individuals are observed in various areas of human life. After all, any conflict in any case comes down to interpersonal confrontation.
The problems of interpersonal conflicts were studied to a greater extent by followers of the psychological approach in conflictology. The following main concepts of interpersonal confrontation can be distinguished:
— psychoanalytic approach (K. Horney);
— theory of needs satisfaction (K. Levin);
— theory of context dependence (M. Deutsch).
According to the psychoanalytic tradition, Horney interpreted interpersonal confrontation as the result of intrapersonal conflict. In other words, intrapersonal confrontation is primary, and interpersonal conflict is secondary. Thus, intrapersonal and interpersonal conflicts are always interconnected, since the interpersonal interaction of an individual is predetermined by the nature of his resolution of his own intrapersonal differences. Since conflicts that occur within an individual are a collision of opposing values of an individual (interests, motives, needs, ideals), they affect the behavioral response of the individual, his well-being, aspirations, etc. Acute conflicts occurring within the individual lead to the destruction of existing interpersonal relationships at work or in family life.
A subject who is in a state caused by intrapersonal confrontation experiences emotional stress, as a result of which his behavior in interpersonal confrontation can often take destructive forms aimed at destroying the conditions that impede the fulfillment of needs.
Intrapersonal and interpersonal conflicts are interdependent. Often intrapersonal confrontation develops into interpersonal conflicts. In addition, the lack of agreement within the individual affects the escalation of clashes between individuals in the organization.
K. Levin refers to the opposition between individuals as the disagreements that arise between the individual needs of the individual and external objective reality. The level of significance of interpersonal confrontation is explained by the global nature of the needs involved.
M. Deutsch considered confrontation between individuals as an element of the system of interpersonal relationships. He started from five key dimensions of interpersonal interaction and identified sixteen types of social interpersonal relationships.
Eight of these types relate to conflict (competitive) interaction, within which quite diverse relationships develop, taking on different forms.
Interpersonal confrontation is characterized by a number of features. Firstly, the confrontation of individuals in interpersonal confrontations is based on the foundation of the clash of their personal motives and it occurs “here and now.”
Secondly, the characteristics and problems between personalities of conflicts lie in the manifestation in them of the psychological individual characteristics of all participants in the conflict in full. Such characteristics influence the dynamics of the flare-up of interpersonal confrontation, its course, forms of interaction and outcome.
Confrontation between individuals is characterized by increased emotionality, the inclusion of almost all aspects of the relationship between the conflicting participants and affecting the interests of not only the direct participants in the confrontation, but the individuals associated with them through professional or personal relationships.
As a rule, in this type of contradiction, the emotional component prevails over the rational one.
The subjects of interpersonal confrontation are individuals whose system of claims does not coincide. The object is a certain need, the main reason is the means of satisfying it. As a rule, the subject of this type of confrontation is contradictions, including manifestations of opposing interests of the subjects of the conflict situation.
Types of Interpersonal Conflicts
Just as personal confrontations vary in the contradictions affected by the problems that arise, we can distinguish the main types of conflicts observed between individuals: value contradictions, clashes of interests, confrontations arising from violation of the rules of interaction.
Contradictions that arise on the basis of discrepancies in ideas that are especially significant for individuals are called value conflicts. The value system of individuals reflects what is most significant for them, full of personal meaning.
Interpersonal conflict is an example - married partners see their own meaning of family existence, when such meanings are opposite, conflicts arise.
However, differences in values do not always provoke situations of confrontation. People with different political beliefs and religious views can successfully coexist together. A conflict of values arises when differences affect the relationships between people or “encroach” on the values of another. Dominant values perform a regulatory function, directing the actions of individuals, thereby creating certain styles of their behavioral response in interaction.
Behavior in interpersonal conflict depends on the similarity of dominant values. In addition, people tend to convince their opponents by imposing their own views and tastes, which also provokes conflicts.
Conflicts of interest are situations in which the interests, aspirations, and goals of the participants are incompatible or contradictory. This type of collision includes all situations of confrontation that affect issues of distribution (potential that can be divided) or arise from a struggle for ownership of something (income that cannot be divided).
A common type of confrontation between individuals is clashes that arise as a result of violation of the norms of interaction. The rules of joint interaction are an integral part of the interaction itself. They perform a regulatory function in human relationships. Without such norms, interaction is impossible.
Resolving interpersonal conflicts
The prerequisite for a collision to occur is a situation of confrontation. It arises when the goals of the parties do not coincide, the striving for opposing interests, and the use of polar means of satisfying needs. A situation of confrontation is a condition for the occurrence of a collision. To move the situation directly into confrontation, a push is needed.
It is recommended to consider management of interpersonal conflicts in internal and external aspects. The external aspect reflects the managerial activity on the part of the manager or other subject of management in relation to a certain conflict. The internal aspect includes the use of technologies for effective communication interaction and reasonable behavioral response in conflict.
Managing interpersonal conflicts should take into account the causes and nature of the interpersonal relationships of the participants before the conflict, their mutual likes and dislikes.
The main methods for resolving interpersonal confrontation are identified:
- reluctance to take part in resolving confrontation and protecting personal interests, desire to get out of a situation of confrontation (evasion);
- the desire to soften the situation of confrontation, to preserve relationships, yielding to the pressure of the opponent (adaptation);
- managing a confrontation through pressure, the use of power, or the use of force to force an opponent to accept the opponent's point of view (coercion);
- achieving one’s own goals without taking into account the interests of the opponent;
— resolving the confrontation through mutual concessions (compromise);
— jointly finding a solution that can satisfy the needs and goals of all parties involved in the conflict (cooperation).
The resolution and prevention of interpersonal conflicts are important components of managerial influence. Prevention of clashes that arise between subjects should be aimed at organizing the life activities of individuals, which minimizes the likelihood of confrontation or destructive development of confrontation between them.
1. The concept of interpersonal conflict and its features.
Classification of interpersonal conflicts
Causes and areas of manifestation of interpersonal conflicts.
This type of conflict is perhaps the most common. Interpersonal conflicts can be considered as a clash of personalities in the process of their relationships. Such clashes can occur in a variety of spheres and areas (economic, political, industrial, sociocultural, everyday, etc.). “Most often it arises due to a shortage of some resources, for example, the presence of one prestigious vacancy with several candidates for it.”
“Interpersonal conflict is understood as an open clash between interacting subjects based on the contradictions that have arisen, acting in the form of opposing goals that are incompatible in a particular situation. Interpersonal conflict manifests itself in interactions between two or more individuals. In interpersonal conflicts, subjects confront each other and sort out their relationships directly, face to face.”
Interpersonal conflicts arise both between people meeting for the first time and between people who are constantly communicating. In both cases, the personal perception of the partner or opponent plays an important role in the relationship. An obstacle to finding agreement between individuals can be a negative attitude formed by one opponent towards another. An attitude represents the readiness, predisposition of a subject to act in a certain way. This is a certain direction of the manifestation of the psyche and behavior of the subject, readiness to perceive future events. It is formed under the influence of rumors, opinions, judgments about a given individual (group, phenomenon, etc.).
When interacting with other people, a person primarily protects his personal interests, and this is normal. The conflicts that arise are a reaction to obstacles to achieving goals. And how significant the subject of the conflict seems to be for a particular individual will largely depend on his conflict attitude.
Individuals encounter interpersonal conflicts, protecting not only their personal interests. They can also represent the interests of individual groups, institutions, organizations, labor collectives, and society as a whole. In such interpersonal conflicts, the intensity of the struggle and the possibility of finding compromises are largely determined by the conflict attitudes of those social groups whose representatives the opponents are.
“All interpersonal conflicts that arise due to clashes of goals and interests can be divided into three main types.
The first one involves a fundamental clash in which the realization of the goals and interests of one opponent can only be achieved by infringing on the interests of the other.
The second one affects only the form of relations between people, but does not infringe on their spiritual, moral and material needs and interests.
The third is imaginary contradictions that can be provoked either by false (distorted) information or by incorrect interpretation of events and facts.”
“Interpersonal conflicts can also be divided into the following types:
rivalry - desire for dominance;
dispute - disagreement about finding the best solution to joint problems;
discussion - discussion of a controversial issue."
Any conflict resolution or prevention is aimed at preserving the existing system of interpersonal interaction. However, the source of conflict may be reasons that lead to the destruction of the existing system of interaction. In this regard, various functions of conflict are distinguished: constructive and destructive.
Design functions include:
cognitive (the emergence of a conflict acts as a symptom of dysfunctional relationships and manifestations of emerging contradictions);
development function (conflict is important source development of its participants and improvement of the interaction process);
instrumental (conflict acts as a tool for resolving contradictions);
perestroika (conflict removes factors that undermine existing interpersonal interactions, promotes the development of mutual understanding between participants).
The destructive functions of conflict are associated with
destruction of existing joint activities;
deterioration or breakdown of relationships;
negative well-being of participants;
low efficiency of further interaction, etc.
This side of the conflict causes people to have a negative attitude towards them, and they try to avoid them.
When studying conflicts systematically, their structure and elements are identified. The elements of interpersonal conflict are: the subjects of the conflict, their personal characteristics, goals and motives, supporters, cause of conflict. The structure of a conflict is the relationship between its elements. Conflict is always evolving, so its elements and structure are constantly changing. There is a wide range of views on this issue in the literature.
AND I. Antsupov and A.I. Shipilov in the textbook “Conflictology” provide a detailed table of the main periods and stages of conflict dynamics. Depending on the degree of tension in the relationship, they distinguish differentiating and integrating parts of the conflict. The conflict itself consists of three periods:
pre-conflict (the emergence of an objective problem situation, awareness of an objective problem situation, attempts to solve the problem in non-conflict ways, pre-conflict situation);
conflict (incident, escalation, balanced response, end of conflict);
post-conflict situation (partial normalization of relations, complete normalization of relations).
For an interpersonal conflict to arise, there must be contradictions (objective or imaginary). Contradictions that arose due to discrepancies in the views and assessments of people according to the most various phenomena, lead to a situation of dispute. If it poses a threat to one of the participants, then a conflict situation arises.
A conflict situation is characterized by the presence of opposing goals and aspirations of the parties to master one object.
In a conflict situation, the subjects and object of the conflict are identified.
Subjects of interpersonal conflict include those participants who defend their own interests and strive to achieve their goals. They always speak on their own behalf.
The object of an interpersonal conflict is considered to be what its participants claim. This is the goal that each of the warring entities strives to achieve. For example, a husband or wife claims sole control of the family budget. In this case, the family budget may become the object of disagreement if the other party considers its rights to be infringed. The subject of conflict in such a situation is the contradictions in which the opposing interests of husband and wife are manifested. In this case, the subject will be the desire of the spouses to acquire the right to manage the family budget, i.e. the problem of mastering an object, the claims that subjects make to each other.
Every interpersonal conflict eventually has its resolution. The forms of their resolution depend on the style of behavior of the subjects in the process of conflict development. This part of the conflict is called the emotional side and is considered the most important.
Researchers identify the following styles of behavior in interpersonal conflict: confrontation, avoidance, adaptation, compromise, cooperation, assertiveness.
Confrontation is a characteristically persistent, uncompromising defense of one’s interests that rejects cooperation, for which all available means are used.
Avoidance is associated with an attempt to avoid the conflict, not to attach great value to it, perhaps due to the lack of conditions for its resolution.
Adaptation presupposes the subject’s willingness to sacrifice his interests in order to maintain relationships that are placed above the subject and object of disagreement.
Compromise requires concessions on both sides to the extent that through mutual concessions an acceptable solution is found for the opposing parties.
Cooperation involves the parties coming together to solve a problem. With such behavior, different views on the problem are considered legitimate. This position makes it possible to understand the causes of disagreements and find a way out of the crisis acceptable to the opposing parties without infringing on the interests of each of them.
Assertive behavior (from the English assert - to assert, to defend). This behavior presupposes a person’s ability to defend his interests and achieve his goals without infringing on the interests of other people. It is aimed at ensuring that the realization of one’s own interests is a condition for the realization of the interests of interacting subjects. Assertiveness is an attentive attitude towards both yourself and your partner. Assertive behavior prevents the emergence of conflicts, and in a conflict situation helps to find the right way out of it. At the same time, the greatest effectiveness is achieved when one assertive person interacts with another similar person.
All of these styles of behavior can be either spontaneous or consciously used to achieve the desired results when resolving interpersonal conflicts. The decisive influence on the choice of behavior model in an interpersonal conflict is exerted by the individual herself - her needs, attitudes, habits, way of thinking, style of behavior, her past experience in solving problems and behavior in conflict. Her internal spiritual contradictions, searches and wanderings often play a significant role.
“In an interpersonal conflict, the emotional basis of its development and attempts to resolve it are distinguished. According to Dana, interpersonal relationships include conflictual relationships between two interdependent people, in which one or both of them feel anger towards the other and believe that the other is to blame. Boyko emphasizes that from the point of view of the state of interpersonal relationships, conflict represents the destruction of these relationships at the emotional, cognitive or behavioral level.”
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