Origin and evolution of Australopithecus. Australopithecus, or the first people Australopithecus had the following distinctive features

Origin, biology and behavior

Primates close to australopithecines were common in the Anterior, Southern and South-East Asia. Australopithecus lived during the Pliocene from about 4 million years ago until less than a million years ago. The time scale clearly shows 3 long eras of the main species, approximately a million years per species. Most Australopithecus species were omnivores, but there were subspecies that specialized in plant foods. The ancestor of the main species was most likely the anamensis species, and the first main species known at the moment was the afarensis species, which existed for approximately 1 million years. Apparently, these creatures were nothing more than monkeys, walking humanly on two legs, although hunched over. Perhaps in the end they knew how to use available stones to crack, for example, nuts. It is believed that afarensis eventually split into two subspecies: the first branch went towards humanization and homo habilis, the second continued to improve in australopithecus, forming a new species africanus. Africanus had slightly less developed limbs than afarensis, but they learned to use available stones, sticks, and sharp bone fragments, and, in turn, another million years later they formed two new higher and last known subspecies of australopithecus boisei and robustus, which existed until 900 thousand years BC. e. and could already independently make the simplest bone and wooden tools. Despite this, most australopithecines were part of the food chain of more progressive people who overtook them in development along other branches of evolution, and with whom they overlapped in time, although the duration of coexistence indicates that there were also periods of peaceful coexistence.

It is also possible that Australopithecines were not the direct ancestors of humans, but represented a dead-end branch of evolution. Such conclusions are prompted, in particular, by recent discoveries of Sahelanthropus, an even more ancient ape, which was more similar to Homo erectus than Australopithecus. In 2008, a new species of Australopithecus was discovered, A. sediba, who lived in Africa less than two million years ago. Although according to some morphological characteristics it is closer to humans than the more ancient species of australopithecines, which gave grounds to its discoverers to declare it a transitional form from australopithecines to humans, at the same time, apparently, the first representatives of the genus already existed Homo, such as Rudolphian man, which excludes the possibility that this species of australopithecus could be the ancestor modern man.

Most Australopithecus species used tools no more than modern monkeys. Chimpanzees and gorillas are known to be able to crack nuts with stones, use sticks to extract termites, and use clubs for hunting. How often Australopithecines hunted is a controversial issue, as their fossil remains are rarely associated with the remains of killed animals.

see also

Notes

Links

  • Australopithecines on the Evolution of Man website
  • Australopithecus on the portal Anthropogenesis.ru

Wikimedia Foundation.

2010.

Australopithecus - extinct bipedal apes; usually considered as a subfamily of the family hominids. The name was proposed for the first discovery of australopithecines - the skull of a 3-5 year old calf in South Africa. Skeletal remains from several hundred australopithecus from South Africa and East Africa(Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania). Australopithecines lived from 4-5 to 1 million years ago. Their appearance is associated with the onset of cooling, when tropical forests began to gradually be replaced by savannas. Their ancestors were probably some late Dryopithecus, less adapted to an arboreal environment and moving on to living in more open areas.

Australopithecus africanus

Australopithecines were the first reliable representatives of the evolutionary branch that ultimately led to humans. Their main distinguishing feature- upright posture (established by the structure of the pelvis and other bones lower limb, as well as from traces in volcanic tuffs) is combined with a monkey brain and a primitive skull. The oldest australopithecus lived in the area of ​​the East African Rift Zone 3-4 million years ago and, probably, had not yet completely broken off the connection with woody way life. They are usually classified as Australopithecus afarensis (named after the tectonic basin in Ethiopia where the excavations were carried out). Remains are known from several dozen individuals of this species, including the most complete skeleton of a female individual (“Lucy”), from which approximately 40% of the bones have been preserved (1974). Many scientists consider Australopithecus afarensis to be a “transitional link” between apes and early humans. By appearance it looked somewhat like a "straightened" chimpanzee, but with shorter arms (and fingers) and less developed fangs, and an average brain volume of about 400 cc - similar to a chimpanzee. There may be other, earlier species of Australopithecus, but finds older than 4.5 million years are extremely rare and fragmentary. Early australopithecines lived in roving groups scattered over a wide area. Their life expectancy averaged 17-22 years.
Later australopithecus, who lived from 3 to 1 million years ago, are represented by three species: miniature (gracile) Australopithecus africanus, known mainly from South Africa, as well as two massive australopithecines: the South African paranthropus (Paranthropus robustus) and the East African zinjanthropus (Zinjanthropus boisei). The latter appeared approximately 2.5 million years ago and were distinguished by a powerful physique: male individuals could have the height of a modern person, females were much smaller. Brain volume (on average 500-550 cc) was almost three times less than that of modern humans. These australopithecines are credited with using natural objects (bones and animal horns). In late australopithecines, the tendency to strengthen the masticatory apparatus prevailed over the tendency to further increase brain volume.
It is assumed that the oldest apes such as Australopithecus afarensis could give rise to both the late specialized massive Australopithecus, which died out about 1 million years ago, and the early representatives of the human genus, which appeared about 2-2.4 million years ago. They are usually classified as the Homo habilis species. In its size and general appearance, Homo habilis differed little from the classical Australopithecus africanus, with which it is even combined, but had a significantly larger brain (an average of 660 cubic cm) and was capable of making crude tools by surface processing of basalt and quartz pebbles.

Introduction

1. general characteristics Australopithecus

2. Varieties of Australopithecus

Conclusion

Bibliography


Introduction

The development of the science of human origins was constantly stimulated by the search for a “transitional link” between man and ape, or more precisely, his ancient ancestor. For a long time, the Pithecanthropus (“monkey people”) of Indonesia, first discovered by the Dutch physician E. Dubois in Java at the end of the last century, was considered such a transitional form. With a completely modern locomotor apparatus, Pithecanthropus had a primitive skull and a brain mass approximately 1.5 times less than that of a modern person of the same height. However, this group of hominids turns out to be quite late. Most of the finds in Java date back to 0.8 to 0.5 million years ago, and the earliest known reliable Pithecanthropus of the Old World is still no older than 1.6 to 1.5 million years ago.

On the other hand, from the previous review of hominid finds of Miocene age it follows that among them paleontologically representatives of the hominid line of evolution have not yet been identified. Obviously, the “transitional link” must be sought at the boundary of the Tertiary and Quaternary periods, in the Pliocene and Pliopleistocene eras. This is the time of the existence of the oldest bipedal hominids, Australopithecus.

Hominids are the most highly organized family great apes. Includes modern man, his predecessors - paleoanthropes and archanthropes, and also, according to most scientists, australopithecines.

Some scientists limit the hominid family to humans themselves, starting with the archanthropes.

Proponents of an expanded interpretation of the family include two subfamilies: Australopithecines and people themselves (Homininae) with one genus of man (Homo) and three species - Homo habilis (H. habilis), Homo erectus (H. erectus) and Homo sapiens (H. sapiens ).

Highest value To create a clear picture of the immediate ancestors of the hominid family, there are numerous and well-preserved finds in South Africa (the first was made by Raymond Dart in 1924, the number continues to increase). Now in Southern and Eastern Africa, several fossil species of anthropomorphic primates have been discovered, which are grouped into three genera - Australopithecus, Paranthropus and Plesianthropus - and are classified into the subfamily or family Australopithecus.

Of the three possible centers of origin of the original human ancestor (Africa, Asia, Europe), the most full connection Miocene and later hominids can be traced in Africa. Asia and Europe have fairly late Miocene apes, but no very ancient hominids. Thus, Africa is most likely the ancestral home of hominids.


1. General characteristics of Australopithecus

The history of the study of Australopithecus dates back to 1924, with the discovery of the skull of a 3-5 year old hominoid baby in the South-Eastern Transvaal (now South Africa) near Taung. The fossil hominoid was named Australopithecus africanus - Avstralopitecus africanus Dagt, 1925 (from “avstralis” - southern). In subsequent years, other sites of australopithecines in South Africa were discovered - in Sterkfontein, Makapansgat, Swart Krans, Kromdraai. Their remains were usually found in caves: they lay in travertine deposits of carbon dioxide springs flowing from limestones, or directly in the rocks of the dolomite strata. Initially, new finds received independent generic designations: Plesianthropus and Paranthropus, but, according to modern ideas, among the South African australopithecus only one genus, Avstralopithecus, is distinguished with two species: the more ancient (“classical”) gracile australopithecus and the later massive, or paranthropus.

In 1959 Australopithecines have also been found in East Africa. The first discovery was made by the spouses M. and L. Leakey in the oldest layer of the Olduvai Gorge on the outskirts of the Serengeti plateau in Tanzania. This hominoid, represented by a rather theromorphic skull with crests, received the name East African man because stone artifacts (Zinjanthropus boisei Leakey) were also discovered in its immediate vicinity. Subsequently, the remains of Australopithecus were found in a number of places in East Africa, concentrated mainly in the East African Rift region. They are usually more or less open sites, including areas of grassy forest-steppe.

To date, the remains of at least 500 individuals are already known from the territories of Southern and Eastern Africa. Australopithecus, apparently, could have been found in other regions of the Old World: for example, the so-called Gigantopithecus from Bilaspur in India or the Javan meganthropus to some extent resemble the massive African Australopithecus. However, the position of these forms of hominoids is not entirely clear. Thus, although the diffusion of Australopithecus into the southern regions of Eurasia cannot be ruled out, the bulk of them are closely related in their distribution to the African continent, where they are found as far south as Hadar in northeast Africa.

main part finds of East African Australopithecines date back to a period of 4 to 1 million years ago, but the oldest bipeds apparently appeared here even earlier, 5.5-4.5 million years ago.

Australopithecines were a very peculiar group. They appeared about 6-7 million years ago, and the last of them died out only about 900 thousand years ago, during the existence of much more advanced forms. As far as is known, Australopithecines never left Africa, although some finds made on the island of Java are sometimes attributed to this group.

The complexity of the position of australopithecines among primates lies in the fact that their structure mosaically combines features characteristic of both modern apes and humans. The Australopithecus skull is similar to that of a chimpanzee. Characterized by large jaws, massive bony ridges for attachment of chewing muscles, a small brain and a large, flattened face. Australopithecus teeth were very large, but the fangs were short, and the details of the structure of the teeth were more similar to human ones than to apes.

The skeletal structure of Australopithecines is characterized by a wide, low pelvis, relatively long legs and short arms, a grasping hand and non-grasping foot, and a vertical spine. This structure is already almost human, the differences are only in the details of the structure and in the small size.

The height of Australopithecines ranged from a meter to one and a half meters. It is characteristic that the brain size was about 350-550 cm³, that is, like that of modern gorillas and chimpanzees. For comparison, the modern human brain has a volume of about 1200-1500 cm³. The structure of the Australopithecus brain was also very primitive and differed little from that of chimpanzoids. Already at the Australopithecus stage, the process of hair loss probably began. Coming out of the shadows of the forests, our ancestor, in the words of the Soviet anthropologist Ya. Ya. Roginsky, found himself in a “warm fur coat” that needed to be taken off as quickly as possible.

The lifestyle of australopithecines was apparently unlike that known among modern primates. They lived in tropical forests and savannas, eating mainly plants. However, late australopithecines hunted antelopes or took prey from large predators- lions and hyenas.

Australopithecus lived in groups of several individuals and, apparently, constantly wandered across the expanses of Africa in search of food. Australopithecines hardly knew how to make tools, although they certainly used them. Their hands were very similar to humans, but the fingers were more curved and narrower. The oldest tools are known from layers in Ethiopia dating to 2.7 million years ago, that is, 4 million years after the appearance of Australopithecus. In South Africa, Australopithecines or their immediate descendants used bone fragments to catch termites from termite mounds about 2-1.5 million years ago.

Australopithecines can be divided into three main groups, each of which has several species: early australopithecines - existed from 7 to 4 million years ago, had the most primitive structure. There are several genera and species of early australopithecines. Gracile Australopithecines - existed from 4 to 2.5 million years ago, had relatively small sizes and moderate proportions. Massive Australopithecus - existed from 2.5 to 1 million years ago, were very massively built specialized forms with extremely developed jaws, small front and huge back teeth. Let's take a closer look at each of them.

2. Varieties of Australopithecus

The remains of the oldest primates, which can be classified as early australopithecines, were found in the Republic of Chad in Toros Menalla and named Sahelanthropus tchadensis. The whole skull received the popular name "Tumai". The finds are dated to about 6-7 million years ago. More numerous finds in Kenya in the Tugen Hills date back to 6 million years ago. They were named Orrorin (Orrorin tugenensis). In Ethiopia, in two localities - Alayla and Aramis - numerous bone remains were found, named Ardipithecus ramidus kadabba (about 5.5 million years ago) and Ardipithecus ramidus ramidus (4.4 million years ago). Finds from two localities in Kenya - Kanapoi and Allia Bay - were named Australopithecus anamensis. They date back to 4 million years ago.

Their height was not much more than one meter. The brain size was the same as that of a chimpanzee. Early australopithecines lived in wooded or even swampy places, as well as in forest-steppes.

Obviously, it is these creatures that are most suitable for the role of the notorious “intermediate link” between ape and man. We know practically nothing about their way of life, but every year the number of finds is growing, and knowledge about environment of that distant time are expanding.

Not much is known about early australopithecines. Judging by the skull of Sahelanthropus, the femurs of Orrorin, skull fragments, limb bones and the remains of the pelvis of Ardipithecus, early australopithecines were already upright primates.

However, judging by the hand bones of Orrorin and Australopithecus anamensis, they retained the ability to climb trees or were even quadrupedal creatures, resting on the phalanges of their fingers, like modern chimpanzees and gorillas. The dental structure of early australopithecines is intermediate between apes and humans. It is even possible that Sahelanthropus were relatives of gorillas, Ardipithecus - the immediate ancestors of modern chimpanzees, and the Australopithecus anamensis died out without leaving descendants. History of the description of the skeleton of Ardipithecus – the clearest example scientific integrity. After all, between its discovery - in 1994. and description - at the end of 2009, 15 years had passed!

All these many years, an international group of researchers, including the discoverer, Johannes Haile-Selassie, worked to preserve the crumbling bones, reconstruct the skull crushed into a shapeless lump, describe the morphological features and search for a functional interpretation of the smallest details of the bone structure.

Scientists did not take the path of presenting the world with another hasty sensation, but actually deeply and carefully studied various aspects of the find. To do this, scientists had to explore such subtleties of the comparative anatomy of modern apes and humans that until now remained unknown. Naturally, data from a variety of fossil primates and australopithecines were also included in the comparison.

Moreover, the geological conditions of burial of fossil remains, ancient flora and fauna were examined in detail, which made it possible to reconstruct the habitat of Ardipithecus more reliably than for many later australopithecines.

The newly described skeleton of Ardipithecus is wonderful example confirmation of a scientific hypothesis. In his appearance, he perfectly combines the characteristics of a monkey and a human. In fact, the image that has excited the imagination of anthropologists and everyone who cares about our origins for a century and a half has finally become a reality.

The finds at Aramis are numerous - the remains belong to no less than 21 individuals, but the most important is the skeleton of an adult female, from which about 45% of the bones remain (more than from the famous "Lucy" - a female Australopithecus afarensis from Hadar with an antiquity of 3.2 million years ago ), including almost the entire skull, although in an extremely deformed state. The individual was about 1.2 m tall. and could weigh up to 50 kg. It is significant that the sexual dimorphism of Ardipithecus was much less pronounced than in chimpanzees and even later australopithecines, that is, males were not much larger than females. The brain volume reached 300-350 cm³ - the same as that of Sahelanthropus, but less than usual for chimpanzees. The structure of the skull is quite primitive. It is remarkable that Ardipithecus has a face and dental system that do not have the specialized features of australopithecines and modern apes. Based on this feature, it has even been suggested that Ardipithecus could be the common ancestor of humans and chimpanzees, or even only the ancestors of chimpanzees, but the ancestors of upright walkers. That is, chimpanzees could have bipedal ancestors. However, a more thorough study showed that this probability is still minimal.

The upright posture of Ardipithecus is quite obvious, given the structure of its pelvis (combining, however, ape and human morphology) - wide, but also quite high and elongated. However, such signs as the length of the arms reaching the knees, curved phalanges of the fingers, set far to the side and retaining grasping ability thumb feet clearly indicate that these creatures could spend a lot of time in the trees. The authors of the original description especially emphasize the fact that Ardipithecus lived in fairly closed habitats, with big amount trees and thickets. In their opinion, such biotopes exclude the classical theory of the development of upright walking in conditions of climate cooling and reduction tropical forests. O. Lovejoy, based on the weak sexual dimorphism of Ardipithecus, develops his old hypothesis about the development of bipedality on the basis of social and sexual relationships, without direct connection with climatic and geographical conditions. However, the situation can be viewed differently, because approximately the same conditions that were reconstructed for Aramis were assumed by proponents of the hypothesis of the origin of bipedia in conditions of displacement of forests by savannas. It is clear that tropical forests could not disappear instantly, and monkeys could not develop the savannah within one or two generations. It is remarkable that this particular stage has now been studied in such detail using the example of Ardipithecus from Aramis.

These creatures could live both in trees and on the ground, climb branches and walk on two legs, and sometimes, perhaps, go down on all fours. They apparently ate wide range plants, both shoots with leaves and fruits, avoiding any specialization, which became the key to future human omnivorousness. It is clear that social structure unknown to us, but the small size of the fangs and weak sexual dimorphism indicate a low level of aggression and weak inter-male competition, apparently less excitability, which resulted over millions of years in the ability of modern man to concentrate, learn, carefully, accurately and harmoniously perform work activities, cooperate, coordinate and coordinate their actions with other members of the group. It is these parameters that distinguish humans from monkeys. It is curious that many morphological features of modern monkeys and humans are apparently based on behavioral characteristics. This applies, for example, large sizes jaws in chimpanzees, caused not by any specific need for nutrition, but by increased inter-male and intra-group aggressiveness and excitability. It is noteworthy that bonobo pygmy chimpanzees, much more friendly than their ordinary counterparts, have shortened jaws, relatively small fangs and less pronounced sexual dimorphism.

Based on a comparative study of Ardipithecus, chimpanzees, gorillas and modern people it was concluded that many of the apes' traits arose independently.

This applies, for example, to such a specialized feature as movement on the bent phalanges of the fingers of chimpanzees and gorillas.

Until now, it was believed that a single line of apes first separated from the hominid line, which then split into gorillas and chimpanzees.

However, chimpanzees are, in a number of ways, more similar to Ardipithecus than to gorillas, so the separation of the gorilla lineage must have occurred before the moment when specialization for locomotion on the phalanges appeared, because Ardipithecus does not have it. However, this hypothesis has its own weak sides, the matter can be presented differently if desired.

Comparison of Ardipithecus with Sahelanthropus and later australopithecines once again showed that the evolution of human ancestors proceeded in some jerks.

General level development in Sahelanthropus 6-7 million years ago and Ardipithecus 4.4 million years ago is almost the same, while after only 200 thousand years (4.2 million years ago) the Anamantic Australopithecines acquired many new features, which, in turn, are few changed until the appearance of “early Homo” 2.3-2.6 million years ago. Such leaps or turns in evolution were known before, but now we have the opportunity to determine the exact time of another one of them; You can try to explain them by linking them, for example, with climate change.

One of the most surprising conclusions that can be drawn from the study of Ardipithecus is that humans differ in many ways from their common ancestor with chimpanzees less than chimpanzees or gorilla. Moreover, this concerns, first of all, the size of the jaws and the structure of the hand and foot - parts of the body, the structural features of which in humans are most often paid attention to.

In Kenya, Tanzania and Ethiopia, fossils of gracile australopithecus, called Australopithecus afarensis, have been discovered in multiple localities. This species existed approximately from 4 to 2.5 million years ago. The most famous finds are from the Hadar site in the Afar Desert, including a skeleton nicknamed Lucy. Also, in Tanzania, fossilized traces of upright walking creatures were discovered in the same layers in which the remains of Australopithecus afarensis were found.

In addition to Australopithecus afarensis, in Eastern and North Africa in the period of time 3-3.5 million years ago, other species probably lived. In Kenya, a skull and other fossils described as Kenyanthropus platyops were found at Lomekwi. In the Republic of Chad, in Koro Toro (East Africa), a single jaw fragment was discovered, described as Australopithecus bahrelghazali. In South Africa, numerous fossils known as Australopithecus africanus have been discovered in a number of localities - Taung, Sterkfontein and Makapansgat. The first find of an australopithecus belonged to this species - the skull of a cub known as Baby from Taung (R. Dart, 1924). Australopithecus Africanus lived from 3.5 to 2.4 million years ago. The latest gracile australopithecus - dating back to about 2.5 million years ago - was discovered in Ethiopia in Bowri and named Australopithecus garhi.

All parts of the skeleton are known from gracile australopithecines from many individuals, so reconstructions of them appearance and lifestyles are very reliable. Gracile australopithecines were upright creatures about 1-1.5 meters tall. Their gait was somewhat different from the gait of a person. Apparently, Australopithecus walked with shorter steps, and the hip joint did not fully extend when walking. Along with the fairly modern structure of the legs and pelvis, the arms of Australopithecus were somewhat elongated, and the fingers were adapted for climbing trees, but these features can only be an inheritance from ancient ancestors.

During the day, Australopithecines roamed the savannah or forests, along the banks of rivers and lakes, and in the evening they climbed trees, as modern chimpanzees do. Australopithecines lived in small herds or families and were capable of moving quite long distances. They ate mainly plant foods, and usually did not make tools, although scientists found burning near the bones of Australopithecus stone tools and the bones of antelopes crushed by them. Also, for the South African Australopithecines (Makapansgat Cave), R. Dart put forward the hypothesis of an osteodontokeratic (literally “bone-tooth-horn”) culture. It was assumed that Australopithecines used bones, horns and teeth of animals as tools. Later studies showed that most of the wear marks on these bones were the result of gnawing by hyenas and other predators.

Like early members of the genus, gracile australopithecus had an ape-like skull combined with a nearly modern rest of the skeleton. The Australopithecus brain was similar to that of apes in both size and shape. However, the ratio of brain mass to body mass in these primates was intermediate between that of a small ape and that of a very large human.

Approximately 2.5-2.7 million years ago, new species of hominids arose that had a large brain and were already assigned to the genus Homo. However, there was another group of late australopithecines that deviated from the line leading to humans - the massive australopithecines

The oldest massive australopithecines are known from Kenya and Ethiopia - Lokalea and Omo. They date back to about 2.5 million years ago and are named Paranthropus aethiopicus. Later massive australopithecines from East Africa - Olduvai, Koobi Fora - with dates from 2.5 to 1 million years ago are described as Paranthropus boisei. In South Africa - Swartkrans, Kromdraai, Drimolen Cave - massive Paranthropus robustus is known. Massive paranthropes were the second open view Australopithecus.

When examining the skull of Paranthropus, one notices the huge jaws and large bone ridges that served to attach the chewing muscles. The maxillary apparatus reached its maximum development in East African Paranthropus. The first discovered skull of this species even received the nickname “Nutcracker” due to the size of the teeth.

Paranthropus were large - weighing up to 70 kg - specialized herbivorous creatures that lived along the banks of rivers and lakes in dense thickets. Their lifestyle was somewhat reminiscent of the lifestyle of modern gorillas. However, they retained a bipedal gait and may even have been able to make tools. In the layers with Paranthropus, stone tools and bone fragments were found, which hominids used to tear up termite mounds. Also, the hand of these primates was adapted for the manufacture and use of tools.

Paranthropus "bet" on size and herbivory. This led them to ecological specialization and extinction. However, in the same layers with paranthropas, the remains of the first representatives of hominins were found - the so-called “early Homo” - more progressive hominids with a large brain


Conclusion

As studies of recent decades have shown, Australopithecines were the direct evolutionary predecessors of humans. It was from among the progressive representatives of these bipedal fossil primates that about three million years ago in East Africa, the creatures emerged that made the first artificial tools, created the most ancient Paleolithic culture - the Olduvai culture, and thereby laid the foundation for the human race.


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The transition to upright posture had important consequences for the evolution of primates. Bipedal creatures no longer needed thick hair to protect their backs from the merciless sun rays. Gradually they turned into naked monkeys.;
But most importantly, the transition to upright posture allowed the great apes to move their own brains to a cooler environment, which enabled it to develop into a larger and more active one. In 1924, bone remains of australopithecines, an extinct great ape dating back 1-5 million years, were found in a limestone quarry near Townes, South Africa.
Australopithecus, which lived about 3 million years ago, is considered the predecessor of humans. These creatures averaged 122-152 cm in height and walked upright, as evidenced by the shape of their long bones in their legs and arms. At the same time, the volume of their skull was no more than that of modern chimpanzees or gorillas.
Scientists associate the emergence of australopithecines with the beginning of a cooling period, during which tropical forests began to gradually be replaced by savannas. The ancestors of Australopithecus are called forms of late Dryopithecus. The latter were less adapted to the arboreal environment and therefore switched to living in more open areas. Walking upright significantly complicated the anatomical structure of the brain in Australopithecus and changed the position of the head and eyes. This ensured an expansion of the field of vision - prerequisites appeared for improving the forms of perception of reality in specific images.
The straightening of the skeleton also contributed to the release of the forelimbs and their transformation into a hand - an organ labor activity, which was important for further evolution. These features provided australopithecines with clear advantages in the struggle for existence. Australopithecus lived in African savannas in close-knit groups of 25-30 individuals, eating not only plant, but also animal food. They learned to use various objects such as stones, sticks or bones for hunting and protection from enemies.

Along with the remains of these creatures, primitive bone and stone tools were found, proving that australopithecines had great intelligence, as opposed to simple animal intelligence. With repeated use, the stones inevitably broke off into pieces with a cutting, sharp edge, which were much more effective than ordinary natural stones. The operations of processing stones and bones were probably at first isolated cases among australopithecines, but were gradually consolidated by natural selection and turned into skills of the entire primitive herd.
Around the same time, other creatures lived on the planet - Paranthropus, who ate exclusively plant foods and had a more massive physique. But they, unlike Australopithecus, apparently did not make any tools. The extinct bipedal apes, Australopithecines, turned out to be the first reliable representatives of the evolutionary branch that ultimately led to the emergence of Homo sapiens.

The name "australopithecus" comes from the Latin word meaning "southern". At the beginning of the twentieth century, anatomy professor Raymond Dart found a skull near Taung. It consisted of a perfectly preserved facial part with jaws and teeth, as well as the right skull. The researcher decided that this skull belonged to an ape about six or seven years old. But, looking closer, Dart noticed the signs of an adult. This is the foramen magnum for connecting the spinal cord to the brain. It was located so that the owner of this skull should have had a more or less straightened body. Thus, the scientist came to the conclusion that the skull belongs to the cub of a human ancestor. He called the creature Australopithecus africanus or affectionately “baby from Taung.” Australopithecus, or " southern monkey", replaced Ramapithecus. He actually still looked like a monkey. However, the teeth of australopithecines were already much more like human ones, and the brain volume reached 650 cubic centimeters (like those of modern gorillas). But australopithecines were almost half the size, so they had twice as many brain cells per unit of body weight as ordinary monkeys. Australopithecines lived in the savannas of Eastern and Southern Africa near limestone cliffs, in caves and crevices. There they hid from danger and spent the night. They hunted baboons and antelopes, using stones, animal horns, and large giraffe bones as weapons. Like most of us, Australopithecines were right-handed - the skulls of baboons discovered in the areas of the most ancient sites were pierced on the left, that is, a blow was struck with a stone or a club right hand. In addition, Australopithecines used their hands to carry loads and make stone tools used for cutting meat. When hunting, Australopithecines united in packs, set up ambushes and drove herds of ungulates into precipices and ravines. They did not refuse to eat ripe fruits, edible herbs and roots. It is clear that Australopithecines had much more than simple animal intelligence. However, at the same time as Australopithecus, Paranthropus lived, which differed from Australopithecus by much more impressive growth and powerful physique. They lived in the forest thickets that survived here and there and ate exclusively plant foods. But here’s the thing: paranthropes did not show any signs of intelligence and did not use tools. After them there was not the slightest trace of activity even remotely resembling intelligence. Today, scientists count several species of australopithecines. Scientists have about five hundred bone remains of these individuals. All of them come from the African continent. There are no known finds in other parts of the world that could be attributed to Australopithecines. Although sometimes there are reports of finds from East Asia. These are individual bone fragments, so it is very difficult to say for sure whether they belong to this species.

Today, scientists count several species of australopithecus.

Beauty Lucy Anthropologist Donald Johanson, during excavations in Ethiopia, discovered the remains of a skull, a piece of a humerus and a femur, as well as fifty more skeletal fragments. Among them were the lower jaw, vertebrae, sacrum, ribs, arm and pelvic bones. It was truly a sensational find. The bones belonged to a female individual approximately twenty years old. Scientists named her Lucy. The woman was one hundred and ten centimeters tall and weighed about thirty kilograms. Its size corresponded to the height and size of a six-year-old child. The brain volume was small. No one doubted it. That she walked on two legs, but also climbed trees well. It was determined that Lucy lived approximately three million years ago. The most complete and ancient (3.6 million years old) Australopithecus skeleton was discovered in Ethiopia. Scientists nicknamed this lady Lucy. On the left are the remains of Lucy as they were discovered during excavations, on the right is the Australopithecus skeleton reconstructed on their basis. Australopithecus africanus settled on Earth three million years ago. It was as small as the Afar one, but had noticeably fewer apelike characteristics. And the structure of his brain is more complex than that of apes. Meat food was of great importance for the development of the brain of primitive man. After all, it is rich in protein, and it is necessary for growth and development. Yes and get it meat food more difficult, this is a task for the brain. Compared to its predecessors, Australopithecus has a larger brain volume. It amounted to approximately five hundred cubic centimeters. Australopithecines were slightly smaller in size than chimpanzees. Although among them there were individuals of large sizes. Australopithecus robusta For example, Australopithecus robusta had an impressive size. His skull was “decorated” with a huge crest from the back of his head to his forehead. Very powerful muscles were probably attached to it. The mighty Australopithecus was much larger and physically better developed. With a height of 160 centimeters, he weighed up to 50 kilograms. Appeared about 2.5 million years ago. With a larger brain than other australopithecines, the “mighty” skull is closer to that of an ape - with a high crest on the crown and a massive jaw. Primitive was already quite smart, showing the first signs of Homo Sapiens. Anthropologists have identified several species of australopithecines from small to massive. It is not known for certain from which species man began his genus. Australopithecines are the first creatures known for sure to have walked on two legs. Their gait, of course, was still rather uncertain, bouncing; while walking, their legs were bent at the knees and hip joints. They spent a lot of time in the trees. They lived on the border tropical forest and savannas. They ate edible roots and insects. Australopithecines could also crack skulls and bones to obtain nutritious bone marrow. It is unlikely that they could hunt on their own. Most likely, they finished their food after predators.

Scientists have not yet agreed whether Australopithecines can be considered hominids. For this purpose, important finds can be considered the tools that were discovered along with the remains of the ancient inhabitants of the Earth. The first stone tools are associated with Homo habilis, who inhabited the planet about two million years ago. Although representatives of Homo Sapiens are so smart that they receive education in England. After graduating from a British college or university, people have many opportunities to make a good life.



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