Ancient human ancestors. Stages of human evolution

Anthropogenesis, races.

OGE biology

Factors of human evolution

Factors of human evolution
The early stages of human evolution were dominated by biological factors evolution - variability, struggle for existence, natural selection, etc.
In the later stages of human evolution, the main social factors evolution - social way of life, use of tools, use of fire, development of speech.

But biological factors have not lost their importance to this day.

Stages of human evolution

Dryopithecus 25-15 million.
Australopithecus ( southern monkey(5.5 million) → Homo habilis (2 million years ago) 5.5 million – 2 million Nakhodka: in Southern and East Africa Height is about 130 cm. Brain is about 600 ml. Approximately 3 million years ago, they began to make primitive tools from pebbles (homo habilis).

Ancient man (Pithecanthropus, Homo erectus) 2 million – 300 thousand. Finds: Pithecanthropus (Java Island), Sinanthropus (China), Heidelberg Man (Germany).
Height is about 165 cm. Brain is 900-1100 ml. Could use fire, made primitive stone tools labor.

Ancient man (Neanderthal, Homo sapiens Neanderthal) 250 thousand - 35 thousand. The first find was in Germany, in the valley of the Neander River. Then they were found in Africa, Asia, and Europe. Height 165 cm. Brain 1400-1600 ml. They could make fire and make a variety of stone tools.

Modern man (Cro-Magnon, Homo sapiens sapiens) 40 thousand – present First found in France in the Cromagne Grotto. Then they were discovered in Europe, Asia, Africa, Australia. Height 180 cm. Brain 1200-1500 ml.
Tools made of stone, bone, wood. They could sew clothes and build houses. Pottery was developed. Art and religion developed.

1. The biological unity of human races is evidenced by their ability

1) produce fertile offspring

2) transform the environment

3) spread across the surface of the Earth

4) use tools

2. Most anthropologists consider the predecessors of people

1) Australopithecus

2) chimpanzee

3) orangutans

3. Scientists include the group of the most ancient people

1) Cro-Magnon

2) Australopithecus

3) Neanderthal

4) Pithecanthropa

4. Scientists include the group of ancient people

1) Australopithecus

2) Cro-Magnon

3) Neanderthal

4) Pithecanthropus

5. What provided social evolution person?

1) work activity

2) high level metabolism

3) upright posture

4) disappearance of hair

6. Human speech differs from the “language of animals” in that it

1) provided by the central nervous system

2) is congenital

3) arises consciously

4) contains information only about current events

7. Which race is characterized by the following description: black, hard straight, less often Wavy hair; dark eyes; dark, often yellowish skin color; poor hair development; flattened face?

1) Caucasian

2) Mongoloid

3) Negroid

4) Australoid

8. Establish the chronological sequence of anthropogenesis 1) Homo habilis 2) Homo erectus 3) Dryopithecus 4) Homo sapiens

9. What feature of races is distinctive?

1) brain volume

2) brain mass

3) social lifestyle

4) features of the external structure

10. What contributed to the appearance of upright walking in humans?

1) settlement of new territories

2) faster movement on the ground

3) closer communication between people

4) hand freeing and development labor activity

11. Which trait in humans arose earlier than others in the process of evolution?

2) consciousness

4) Upright walking

12. In humans, speech formation occurs in parallel with development

1) instincts

2) emotional memory

3) abstract thinking

4) without conditioned reflexes

13. In which part of the world, of those indicated?

in the picture, the remains were found

ancient people?

14. What sign is characteristic

for the Mongoloid race of man?

1) flat wide face

2) black skin color

3) black curly hair

4) narrow protruding nose

15. Which factor in human evolution is considered social?

1) speech development

3) struggle for existence

4) natural selection

16. Indicate the historical sequence of the main stages of anthropogenesis 1 person modern type 2) Australopithecus 3) Cro-Magnon 4) Pithecanthropus 5) Neanderthal

17. External differences between human races appeared as a result

1) habitats in various ecological niches

2) the actions of social factors

3) the influence of the advance of glaciers on the habitat

4) adaptability to different climatic zones

18. Unity of team members primitive people, communication using sounds and then words was facilitated by

1) upright posture

2) permanent migration

3) work activity

4) eating meat

19. What number is it shown under?

part of the world in which there were

remains found

Australopithecus?

20. At what stage of human evolution did cave painting appear?

1) Pithecanthropus

2) Australopithecus

3) Cro-Magnons

4) Neanderthals

21. Becoming second signaling system in humans is associated with

1) the emergence of three-dimensional vision

2) walking on two legs

3) regular work activity

4) climate change on Earth

22. Which of the following had the greatest influence on the development of thinking of human ancestors?

1) upright posture

2) life in groups

3) regular work activity

4) transition from arboreal to terrestrial lifestyle

23. Modern man is a direct descendant

1) Neanderthals

2) synanthropes

3) Cro-Magnons

4) Pithecanthropus

24. They were the first to learn to use fire

1) Australopithecus

2) Pithecanthropus

3) Neanderthals

4) Cro-Magnons

25. Which factor in human evolution is considered social?

1) development of the second signaling system

2) hereditary variability

3) struggle for existence

4) natural selection

26. What feature distinguishes representatives of the Negroid race from all others?

1) narrow protruding nose

2) round face

3) yellowish-dark skin color

4) black curly hair

27. As a result of what processes did racial characteristics develop in humans?

1) exercise or non-exercise of individual organs

2) a person’s social lifestyle

3) actions of natural selection

4) development of civilization

28. Look at the picture in which

fossil ancestors depicted

kind of Man in chronological order

a Cro-Magnon man is depicted, if under

Does number 1 represent Australopithecus?

Neanderthal?

29. What is proof of the unity of representatives of different races?

1) the adaptability of representatives of different races to certain living conditions

2) the ability of representatives of different races to marry and produce offspring

3) high number of representatives of different races

4) the presence of racial characteristics

30. Under what number in the picture is the representative shown? Caucasian? Mongoloid? Negroid?

31. Which representative of the genus Human

the images shown belong to

rock paintings?

1) Pithecanthropus

2) Neanderthal

3) Cro-Magnon

4) Australopithecus

32. Earliest ancestor modern man consider

1) Cro-Magnon

2) gorilla

3) Neanderthal

4) Pithecanthropa

33. Modern people belonging to different races, are representatives

1) one type

2) different types

3) one population

4) different genera of the same family

34. Look at the picture in which

depicts the fossil ancestors of the genus

Man in chronological

sequence of their appearance

on the ground. What number is on it?

Australopithecus depicted?

35. A fossil human ancestor with a brain volume of 500-600 cm3, who did not speak and did not make tools, whose remains were first discovered in Africa, is

1) a reasonable person

2) Neanderthal

3) a skillful person

4) Australopithecus

36. Social factors of human evolution include

1) making tools

2) changes in the skeleton

3) development of binocular vision

4) getting food

37. What factors of human evolution include collective work, speech, abstract thinking?

1) social

2) biotic

3) biological

4) Abiotic

38. How does an ape differ from a human?

1) the structure of the hand

2) differentiation of teeth

3) general plan of the building

4) level of metabolism

39. Define correct sequence main stages of human evolution.

1) ancient people → predecessors of people → Neanderthals → Cro-Magnons

2) predecessors of people → ancient people → Neanderthals → Cro-Magnons

3) Cro-Magnons → Neanderthals → predecessors of humans → ancient people

4) Neanderthals → ancient people → predecessors of people → Cro-Magnons

40. The social nature of man is manifested in

1) speech activity

2) adaptation to upright walking

4) the formation of conditioned reflexes

41. The development of speech in primitive man went in parallel with the development

2) larynx

3) Spine

42. What process ensured the social evolution of man?

1) change in the shape of the limbs

2) the emergence of care for offspring

3) development of art and science

4) increase in brain volume

43. The transition from an ape-like ancestor to humans was accompanied by the development

1) hunting skills

2) ability to work

3) muscles of the lower jaw

4) chest

44. What indicates that representatives of the Human genus appeared approximately 2 - 3 million years ago?

historical records found

2) comparative anatomy data

3) paleontological finds

4) myths of ancient peoples

45. Which of the following contributed to the joint labor activity of the ancestors of modern man?

1) walking on two limbs

2) change in the arch of the foot

3) the appearance of speech

4) changes in the skeleton of the facial part of the skull

46. The predominance of the cerebral part of the skull over the facial part in humans led to

1) the emergence of facial muscles

2) development of thinking

4) enlarged ears

47. In humans, in connection with upright posture

1) developed thumb feet

2) nail plates have formed

3) the first two phalanges of the toes are fused

4) the arches of the feet have formed

48. They lived at the same time as the Cro-Magnons

1) Australopithecus

2) Pithecanthropus

3) Sinanthropus

4) Neanderthals

49. What modern race before the era of the Great geographical discoveries was widespread in Europe, Western Asia, Central Asia, North Africa, central India?

1) Negroid

2) Mongoloid

3) Caucasian

4) Australoid

50. The most important social acquisition in human evolution was

1) walking on two legs

2) increase in brain volume

3) use of fire

4) stereoscopic vision

51. Most scientists consider the ancestral home of modern humanity

1) Australia 2) Africa 3) Europe 4) Asia

52. Were capable of creative work

1) Dryopithecus

2) Pithecanthropus

3) Australopithecus

4) Cro-Magnons

53. What features in the structure of the body did the ancestor of modern man acquire when he switched to regular work?

1) the pelvic bones are fused, shaped like a bowl

2) the thumb began to oppose the rest

3) several bends have formed in the spinal column

4) the foot turned from flat to arched

54. The social nature of man is primarily manifested in

1) difficult eating behavior

2) transfer of life experience

3) adaptability to bipedal walking

4) alternating sleep and rest

55. Which bones of the human skeleton have undergone dramatic changes during the process of evolution?

1) hand bones

2) ribs and sternum

3) shoulder blades and collarbones

4) cervical vertebrae

56. What ensured the social evolution of man?

1) caring for offspring

2) upright posture

3) disappearance of fur

4) systematic work activity

57. Art originated from

1) Dryopithecus

2) Neanderthals

3) Australopithecus

4) Pithecanthropus

58. Which fossil form is attributed to the stage of modern man?

1) Cro-Magnons

2) Neanderthals

3) Pithecanthropus

4) Australopithecus

59. The development of speech in primitive man went in parallel with the development

1) caring for offspring

2) larynx

3) hunting instincts

60. The transition of human ancestors to upright walking contributed to

1) freeing your hands

2) the appearance of conditioned reflexes

3) development of a four-chamber heart

4) increased metabolism

61. From the proposed signs, choose the most convincing evidence of the unity of human races.

1) physique

2) ability to crossbreed

3) the ability to survive in any region

4) structure of the respiratory organs

62. Essential Function speech is

1) sound signal

2) expression of emotions

3) identification of one’s own needs

4) generalization and abstract thinking

63. The ability to analyze a situation using inner speech is

1) thinking

2) rational behavior

4) fantasy

MAN AND APEES

A person's closest relatives are considered to be great apes. Like all mammals, they carry their young in the womb and feed them with milk. They have an intense metabolism and a constant body temperature, that is, they are warm-blooded. Among the teeth of great apes, incisors, canines and molars are distinguished. They, like humans, have ears, as well as rudimentary organs: the coccygeal bone, the fold in the corner of the eye (third eyelid), ear muscles, and so on. Monkeys are capable of exchanging information, they are trainable and can overcome some difficulties, for example, in obtaining food.

However, there are many differences between humans and apes. The cerebral part of the human skull predominates over the facial part. In monkeys, on the contrary, the facial region is larger. A person has a well-developed chin protuberance, which is associated with the development of the muscles of the tongue and speech. The human brain volume is approximately 3 times larger than that of chimpanzees. He also has a more developed folding of the cerebral cortex, which ensured the development of mental activity. The human skeleton has also changed. It is adapted to walking upright and working. Due to work activity, the hand develops, and due to upright posture, the spine acquires bends, the arms become shorter than the legs, the foot becomes shorter with the spine

performs shock-absorbing functions.

The evolutionary closeness of humans and apes is not limited to

similarity in structure and physiology, it is also associated with the commonality of chromosomal

sets. For example, the number of chromosomes in humans is 46, in apes it is 48.

next questions.

1) What are the features of the human skeleton?

2) Why are apes not capable of purposefully creating and

use of tools (give two explanations)?

THE ANCIENTS’ VIEWS ABOUT HOW MAN THINKS

The very first ideas about where our thoughts, creative ideas and dreams nest, first arose in Ancient Egypt And Ancient Greece. At that time, people believed that the source of thought was the heart. Remember your own feelings: the pounding in your chest from anger. Examining the dissected bodies of the dead, the ancients drew attention to the central position of the heart and its connection with the main body fluid, blood, and from there they came to the conclusion that it was this organ that was responsible for creativity, intelligence, speech and emotions.

This view was challenged by the ancient Greek physician Hippocrates. From the fact that head injuries lead to disturbances in speech and emotions, he concluded that the seat of intelligence is the brain. Another argument in support of this theory was the results of craniotomy - drilling a hole in the skull that reduces intracranial pressure,

an operation that is still used by surgeons to repair some brain damage.

Hippocrates also concluded that we suffer when the brain becomes hot, cold, wet or dry. He believed that madness occurs when the brain is wet, and only when the brain is calm is a person able to think intelligently and rationally. All these arguments are not necessarily correct, but they inspired the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle. He tried to combine Hippocrates' ideas with earlier ones about the role of the heart. He himself continued to believe that the heart was the seat of the mind, but suggested that the brain cools the heart when it is overheated by emotions. Rational people, according to Aristotle, these are those who have a greater ability to cool the heart with their brain.

1) What did Hippocrates consider to be the seat of the human mind?

2) What is the role of the brain in thinking according to Aristotle?

3) Whose point of view about the mechanism of thinking from the position modern science turned out to be more plausible? Why?

1) What did Aristotle consider to be the seat of reason in man?

2) What arguments did Hippocrates use to prove the correctness of his position?

3) Why was Aristotle's view that the heart occupies a central position in thinking a fallacy?

upright walking

About 6 - 7 million years ago in the evolution of primates there was a very an important event. The ancestor of modern man gradually switched to walking on two limbs. This happened due to climate change in Africa. The dry climate led to the fact that savannas arose in place of forests, where instead of climbing trees it was necessary fast movement on a flat surface.

According to the labor hypothesis of F. Engels, the emergence of upright walking is closely related to the specialization of the monkey’s hand for labor activity: carrying objects, cubs; food manipulation and tool making. In a vulgar presentation, upright walking arose in order to free up the hands for work. Subsequently, labor led to the emergence of language and society. However, according to modern data, upright walking arose much earlier than the manufacture of tools. Thus, the oldest tools found by anthropologists from Gona in Ethiopia date back only 2.7 million years ago.

According to the so-called water monkey hypothesis, developed in great detail by J. Lindbland, human ancestors could stand on their hind legs to cross water obstacles. It is known that most australopithecines lived near water and probably obtained part of their food from water. There are a number of signs in the human structure that indicate a significant adaptation of humans to swimming and diving, in contrast to orangutans, gorillas and chimpanzees: the position of the hair on the body in the direction from the crown to the feet along the flow of water when diving, the orientation of the nostrils downwards for

preservation of air in the nasal cavity, the ability to hold breath, reduced hair on the body, which is not typical for savannah animals. The aquatic monkey hypothesis in its extreme version has been criticized many times, but some of its provisions cannot be ignored.

2) What are the reasons for the transition of the fossil ancestor of modern humans to upright walking according to the labor hypothesis?

3) What is the argument in favor of the “water monkey” hypothesis?

2) What can serve as proof of the “labor hypothesis” of human origin?

3) What advantages, not indicated in the text, did the ancestor receive due to upright posture?

modern man? Name it.

Scientists argue that modern man did not descend from modern apes, which are characterized by narrow specialization (adaptation to strictly a certain image life in tropical forests), and from highly organized animals that became extinct several million years ago - Dryopithecus. The process of human evolution is very long, its main stages are presented in the diagram.

The main stages of anthropogenesis (the evolution of human ancestors)

According to paleontological finds (fossil remains), about 30 million years ago, ancient primates Parapithecus appeared on Earth, living on open spaces oh and in the trees. Their jaws and teeth were similar to those of apes. Parapithecus gave rise to modern gibbons and orangutans, as well as the extinct branch of Dryopithecus. The latter in their development were divided into three lines: one of them led to the modern gorilla, the other to the chimpanzee, and the third to Australopithecus, and from him to man. The relationship of Dryopithecus with humans was established based on a study of the structure of its jaw and teeth, discovered in 1856 in France.

The most important stage on the path to the transformation of ape-like animals into ancient people was the appearance of upright walking. Due to climate change and forest thinning, a transition has occurred from an arboreal to a terrestrial way of life; in order to better survey the area where human ancestors had many enemies, they had to stand on their hind limbs. Subsequently, natural selection developed and consolidated upright posture, and, as a consequence of this, the hands were freed from the functions of support and movement. This is how Australopithecines arose - the genus to which hominids (a family of humans) belong..

Australopithecus

Australopithecines - highly developed bipedal primates that used objects natural origin as tools (hence, Australopithecus cannot yet be considered human). Bone remains of Australopithecines were first discovered in 1924 in South Africa. They were as tall as a chimpanzee and weighed about 50 kg, their brain volume reached 500 cm 3 - according to this feature, Australopithecus is closer to humans than any of the fossil and modern monkeys.

The structure of the pelvic bones and the position of the head were similar to those of humans, indicating an upright position of the body. They lived about 9 million years ago in the open steppes and ate plant and animal foods. The tools of their labor were stones, bones, sticks, jaws without traces of artificial processing.

A skilled man

Without having a narrow specialization general structure, Australopithecus gave rise to a more progressive form, called Homo habilis - a skilled man. Its bone remains were discovered in 1959 in Tanzania. Their age is determined to be approximately 2 million years. The height of this creature reached 150 cm. The volume of the brain was 100 cm 3 larger than that of australopithecines, the teeth of the human type, the phalanges of the fingers were flattened like those of a person.

Although it combined the characteristics of both monkeys and humans, the transition of this creature to the manufacture of pebble tools (well-made stone) indicates the appearance of its labor activity. They could catch animals, throw stones and perform other actions. The piles of bones found with the Homo habilis fossils indicate that meat became a regular part of their diet. These hominids used crude stone tools.

Homo erectus

Homo erectus is a man who walks upright. the species from which modern humans are believed to have evolved. Its age is 1.5 million years. Its jaws, teeth and brow ridges were still massive, but the brain volume of some individuals was the same as that of modern humans.

Some Homo erectus bones have been found in caves, suggesting its permanent home. In addition to animal bones and fairly well-made stone tools, heaps of charcoal and burnt bones were found in some caves, so, apparently, at this time, Australopithecines had already learned to make fire.

This stage of hominid evolution coincides with the settlement of other colder regions by people from Africa. Withstand cold winters without working out complex species behavior or technical skills would be impossible. Scientists hypothesize that the prehuman brain of Homo erectus was capable of finding social and technical solutions (fire, clothing, food storage, and cave dwelling) to the problems associated with surviving the winter cold.

Thus, all fossil hominids, especially australopithecus, are considered to be the predecessors of humans.

The evolution of the physical characteristics of the first people, including modern man, covers three stages: ancient people, or archanthropes; ancient people, or paleoanthropes; modern people, or neoanthropes.

Archanthropes

The first representative of the archanthropes is Pithecanthropus (Japanese man) - an ape-man who walks upright. His bones were found on the island. Java (Indonesia) in 1891. Initially, its age was determined to be 1 million years, but, according to a more accurate modern assessment, it is a little more than 400 thousand years old. The height of Pithecanthropus was about 170 cm, the volume of the skull was 900 cm 3.

Somewhat later there was Sinanthropus (Chinese man). Numerous remains of it were found in the period 1927 to 1963. in a cave near Beijing. This creature used fire and made stone tools. This group of ancient people also includes Heidelberg Man.

Paleoanthropes

Paleoanthropes - Neanderthals appeared to replace the Archanthropes. 250-100 thousand years ago they were widely distributed throughout Europe. Africa. Western and South Asia. Neanderthals made a variety of stone tools: hand axes, scrapers, pointed points; they used fire and rough clothing. Their brain volume increased to 1400 cm3.

The structural features of the lower jaw show that they had rudimentary speech. They lived in groups of 50-100 individuals and during the advance of glaciers they used caves, driving wild animals out of them.

Neoanthropes and Homo sapiens

Neanderthals were replaced by modern people - Cro-Magnons - or neoanthropes. They appeared about 50 thousand years ago (their bone remains were found in 1868 in France). Cro-Magnons form the only genus of the species Homo Sapiens - Homo sapiens. Their ape-like features were completely smoothed out, there was a characteristic chin protuberance on the lower jaw, indicating their ability to articulate speech, and in the art of making various tools from stone, bone and horn, the Cro-Magnons went far ahead compared to the Neanderthals.

They tamed animals and began to master agriculture, which allowed them to get rid of hunger and obtain a variety of food. Unlike their predecessors, the evolution of Cro-Magnons took place under the great influence of social factors (team unity, mutual support, improvement of work activity, a higher level of thinking).

The emergence of Cro-Magnons is the final stage in the formation of modern humans. The primitive human herd was replaced by the first tribal system, which completed the formation of human society, the further progress of which began to be determined by socio-economic laws.

Human races

Humanity living today is divided into a number of groups called races.
Human races
- these are historically established territorial communities of people with a unity of origin and similarity of morphological characteristics, as well as hereditary physical characteristics: facial structure, body proportions, skin color, shape and hair color.

According to these signs modern humanity divided into three main races: Caucasian, Negroid And Mongoloid. Each of them has its own morphological characteristics, but all of these are external, secondary characteristics.

The features that make up the human essence, such as consciousness, labor activity, speech, the ability to cognize and subjugate nature, are the same in all races, which refutes the claims of racist ideologists about “superior” nations and races.

The children of blacks, raised together with Europeans, were not inferior to them in intelligence and talent. It is known that the centers of civilization 3-2 thousand years BC were in Asia and Africa, and Europe at that time was in a state of barbarism. Consequently, the level of culture depends not on biological characteristics, but on the socio-economic conditions in which peoples live.

Thus, the claims of reactionary scientists about the superiority of some races and the inferiority of others are groundless and pseudoscientific. They were created to justify wars of conquest, plunder of colonies and racial discrimination.

The races of man must not be mixed with such social associations, as a nationality and nation, which were formed not according to a biological principle, but on the basis of the stability of a common speech, territory, economic and cultural life, formed historically.

In the history of his development, man emerged from subordination biological laws natural selection, its adaptation to life in different conditions occurs through their active alteration. However, these conditions still have a certain effect on the human body to some extent.

The results of this influence are visible in a number of examples: in the peculiarities of digestive processes among reindeer herders of the Arctic, who consume a lot of meat, among residents of Southeast Asia, whose diet consists mainly of rice; in an increased number of red blood cells in the blood of highlanders compared to the blood of inhabitants of the plains; in the pigmentation of the skin of the inhabitants of the tropics, distinguishing them from the whiteness of the skin of the northerners, etc.

After the completion of the formation of modern man, the action of natural selection did not cease completely. As a result, in a number of regions globe humans have developed resistance to certain diseases. Thus, among Europeans, measles is much milder than among the peoples of Polynesia, who encountered this infection only after the colonization of their islands by settlers from Europe.

In Central Asia, blood group O is rare in humans, but the frequency of group B is higher. It turned out that this is due to a plague epidemic that took place in the past. All these facts prove that biological selection exists in human society, on the basis of which human races, nationalities, and nations were formed. But the ever-increasing independence of man from environment almost stopped biological evolution.

The phylogenetic tree of Homo sapiens was built only in general outline. The main stages of human evolution are described in the table:

Main stages of human evolution

Anthropoids	Hominids
Dryopithecus	Australopithecus (Australopithecus)	A skilled man	The earliest people (Pithecanthropus, Sinanthropus)	Ancient people (Neanderthal)	New people (Cro-Magnon, human)
Age, years
18 million	5 million	2-3 million	2 million - 200 thousand	250-35 thousand	50-40 thousand
Appearance
Small animals with a rounded skull, binocular vision, and a well-developed brain; can be in a vertical position	Weight up to 50 kg, height up to 150 cm, hands free, upright posture	The phalanges of the toes are flattened, the first toe is not laid aside	Height is about 160 cm, massive bones, half-bent body position	Height 155-165 cm, stocky people, walked slightly bent	Height is about 180 cm, the physical type of a modern person
Brain volume, cm 3
—	550-650	750	700-1200	Up to 1400	Around 1400
Scull
The skull is close in structure to the skull of great apes	Massive jaws, small incisors and fangs	Human type teeth	The skull bones are massive, the forehead is sloping, the brow ridges are pronounced	Sloping forehead and occiput, large supraorbital ridge, poorly developed chin protuberance	The brain skull predominates over the facial skull, there is no continuous supraorbital ridge, the mental protuberance is well developed
Tools
Manipulation with surrounding objects	Systematic use of natural objects	Making primitive tools	Making well-made stone tools	Making a variety of stone tools	Manufacturing of complex tools and mechanisms
Lifestyle
Herd lifestyle	Herd lifestyle, hunting, gathering	Cooperation during hunting and group defense	Social lifestyle, keeping fire, primitive speech	Collective activity, caring for others, developed speech	Real speech, abstract thinking, development of agriculture and industry, technology, science, art

According to modern paleontological data, the predecessors of humans are ancient primitive insectivorous mammals, which gave rise to Parapithecus.

Parapithecus appeared about 35 million years ago. These were arboreal apes from which modern gibbons, orangutans and dryopithecus descended.

Dryopithecus arose about 18 million years ago. These were semi-arboreal, semi-terrestrial apes that gave rise to modern gorillas, chimpanzees and australopithecines.

Australopithecus appeared about 5 million years ago in the treeless steppes of Africa. These were highly developed monkeys that walked on two hind limbs in a semi-extended position. Their height was 120-150 cm, body weight - 20-50 kg, brain volume - about 600 cm 3. With their forelimbs freed, they could pick up sticks, stones, and other objects and use them for hunting and protection from enemies. The manufacture of tools by Australopithecines has not been established. They lived in groups and ate both plant and animal foods. Australopithecus may have given rise to Homo habilis. This issue remains controversial.

A skilled man formed 2-3 million years ago. Morphologically, he differed little from australopithecines, but it was at this stage that the transformation of ape into man took place, since Homo habilis made the first primitive tools. From that moment on, the conditions of existence of human ancestors changed, as a result of which individuals with characteristics promoting upright walking, ability to work, improvement of the upper limbs and cognitive activity of the brain received advantages in survival. A skilled person is considered the ancestor of the archanthropes.

The most ancient people (archanthropes)

These include, in particular, Pithecanthropus and Sinanthropus, which belong to the same species - Homo erectus. Remains Pithecanthropa were discovered in 1891 on the island of Java; remains Sinanthropa- in 1927 in a cave near Beijing. Pithecanthropus and Sinanthropus were more similar to Australopithecus than to modern humans. They had a height of up to 160 cm, brain volume - 700-1200 cm 3. They lived 2 million - 200 thousand years ago, mainly in caves and led a gregarious lifestyle. The tools they made were more varied and sophisticated than those of Habilitation Man. It is believed that they had the rudiments of speech. They used fire, which made food easier to digest, protected them from predators and cold, and contributed to the expansion of their range.

Ancient people (paleoanthropes)

These include Neanderthals. For the first time their remains were found in the river valley. Neanderthal in Germany in 1856 Neanderthals were widespread in Europe, Africa and Asia during the Ice Age 250-35 thousand years ago. Their brain volume reached 1400 cm3. They still have brow ridges, a relatively low forehead, a massive lower jaw with the rudiment of a chin protrusion. They lived in caves in groups of 50-100 people, knew how to make and maintain fire, ate plant and animal foods, and made a variety of stone, bone and wooden tools (knives, scrapers, choppers, sticks, etc.). They had a division of labor: men hunted, made tools, women processed animal carcasses, and collected edible plants.

Modern people (neoanthropes)

Neanderthals were replaced by people of modern physical type - Cro-Magnons- the first representatives of the species Homo sapiens. They appeared about 50-40 thousand years ago. For some time, paleoanthropes and neoanthropes existed together, but then the Neanderthals were supplanted by the Cro-Magnons. Cro-Magnons had all the physical characteristics of living people: high growth(up to 180 cm), large brain volume (about 1400 cm 3), high forehead, smoothed brow ridges, developed chin protrusion. The latter indicates developed articulate speech. Cro-Magnons built dwellings, made clothes from skins sewn with bone needles, made products from horn, bone, flint and decorated them with carvings. The Cro-Magnons learned to grind, drill, and knew pottery. They lived tribal communities, domesticated animals, and practiced agriculture. They had the beginnings of religion and culture.

Taxon- a classification unit in the taxonomy of plant and animal organisms.

The main evidence of human origin from animals is the presence of rudiments and atavisms in his body.

Rudiments- these are organs that have lost their meaning and function in the process of historical development (evolution) and remain in the form of underdeveloped formations in the body. They are laid down during the development of the embryo, but do not develop. Examples of rudiments in humans can be: coccygeal vertebrae (remains of the skeleton of the tail), appendix (process of the cecum), body hair; ear muscles (some people can move their ears); third eyelid.

Atavisms- this is the manifestation, in individual organisms, of characteristics that existed in individual ancestors, but were lost during evolution. In humans, this is the development of a tail and hair throughout the body.

Historical past of people

The first people on Earth. The name of the ape-man - Pithecanthropus - was given to one of the earliest finds, made in the 19th century in Java. For a long time this find was considered a transitional link from ape to man, the first representatives of the hominid family. These views were facilitated by morphological features: a combination of modern-looking bones of the lower limb with a primitive skull and intermediate brain mass. However, the Pithecanthropus of Java is quite late group hominids. From the 20s of the twentieth century to the present, an important discovery was made in southern and eastern Africa: the remains of bipedal Plio-Pleistocene primates (from 6 to 1 million years old) were found. They marked the beginning of a new stage in the development of paleontology - the reconstruction of these stages of hominid evolution based on direct paleontological data, and not on the basis of various indirect comparative anatomical and embryological data.

The Age of the Bipedal Apes Australopithecus. The first australopithecus of East Africa - Zinjanthropus - was discovered by the spouses L. and M. Leakey. The brightest distinguishing feature Australopithecus - upright walking. This is evidenced by the structure of the pelvis. Upright walking is one of the oldest human acquisitions.

The first representatives of the human race in East Africa. Together with the massive australopithecines, other creatures lived in East Africa 2 million years ago. This first became known when, the next year after the discovery of Zinjanthropus, the remains of a miniature hominid were discovered, the brain volume of which was no less (and even more) than that of Australopithecus. It was later revealed that he was a contemporary of Zinjanthropus. Major discoveries made in the lowest layer, dating back to 2–1.7 million years. His maximum thickness is 40 meters. The climate when this layer was laid was more humid and its inhabitants were zinjanthropus and prezinjanthropus. The latter did not last long. In addition, stones with traces of artificial processing were also found in this layer. Most often it was pebbles ranging in size from walnut up to 7–10 cm, with a few chips of the working edge. Initially it was assumed that the Zinjanthropes were able to do this, but after new discoveries it became obvious: either the tools were made by a more advanced Zinjanthropus, or both inhabitants were capable of such initial stone processing. The emergence of the fully opposable thumb grip must have been preceded by a period of predominant power grip, when the object was grabbed by the handful and clamped in the hand. Moreover, it was the nail phalanx of the thumb that experienced particularly strong pressure.

Prerequisites for anthropogenesis.The common ancestors of apes and humans were gregarious narrow-nosed monkeys who lived in trees in tropical forests. The transition of this group to a terrestrial lifestyle, caused by climate cooling and the displacement of forests by steppes, led to upright walking. The straightened position of the body and the transfer of the center of gravity caused the replacement of the arched spinal column with an S-shaped one, which gave it flexibility. An arched springy foot was formed, the pelvis expanded, the chest became wider and shorter, the jaw apparatus was lighter, and most importantly, the forelimbs were freed from the need to support the body, their movements became more free and varied, and their functions became more complex. The transition from using objects to making tools is the boundary between ape and man. The evolution of the hand followed the path of natural selection of mutations useful for work activity. Along with upright walking, the most important prerequisite for anthropogenesis was the herd lifestyle, which, with the development of work activity and the exchange of signals, led to the development of articulate speech. Concrete ideas about surrounding objects and phenomena were generalized into abstract concepts, and mental and speech abilities developed. A higher education system was being formed nervous activity, and developed articulate speech.

Stages of human development. There are three stages in human evolution: ancient people, ancient people and modern (new) people. Many populations of Homo sapiens did not replace each other sequentially, but lived simultaneously, fighting for existence and destroying the weaker.

Human Ancestors	Progressive features in appearance	Lifestyle	Tools
Parapithecus (discovered in Egypt in 1911)	We walked on two legs. Low forehead, brow ridges, hairline	Considered to be the oldest ape	Tools in the form of a baton; hewn stones
Dryopithecus (bone remains found in Western Europe, South Asia and East Africa. Antiquity from 12 to 40 million years)		According to most scientists, Dryopithecus is considered a common ancestral group for modern apes and humans.
Australopithecus (bone remains dating back 2.6-3.5 million years were found in Southern and Eastern Africa)	Had small body(length 120-130 cm), weight 30-40 kg, brain volume - 500-600 cm 2, walked on two legs.	Consumed plant and meat food, lived in open areas (such as savannas). Australopithecines are also considered as a stage of human evolution that immediately preceded the emergence of the most ancient people (archanthropes).	Sticks, stones, and animal bones were used as tools.
Pithecanthropus (the oldest man, remains discovered - Africa, Mediterranean, Java; 1 million years ago)	Height 150 cm; brain volume 900–1,000 cm2, low forehead, with brow ridge; jaws without chin protrusion	Social lifestyle; They lived in caves and used fire.	Primitive stone tools, sticks
Sinanthropus (China and others, 400 thousand years ago)	Height 150–160 cm; brain volume 850–1,220 cm3, low forehead, with brow ridge, no mental protuberance	They lived in herds, built primitive dwellings, used fire, dressed in skins	Tools made of stone and bones
Neanderthal (ancient man); Europe, Africa, Asia; about 150 thousand years ago	Height 155–165 cm; brain volume 1,400 cm3; few convolutions; forehead low, with brow ridge; the chin protuberance is poorly developed	The social way of life, the construction of hearths and dwellings, the use of fire for cooking, dressed in skins. They used gestures and primitive speech to communicate. A division of labor appeared. First burials.	Tools made of wood and stone (knife, scraper, multifaceted points, etc.)
Cro-Magnon - first modern man (everywhere; 50–60 thousand years ago)	Height up to 180 cm; brain volume - 1,600 cm2; high forehead; the convolutions are developed; lower jaw with mental protuberance	Tribal community. They belonged to the species Homo sapiens. Construction of settlements. The emergence of rituals. The emergence of art, pottery, agriculture. Developed. Developed speech. Domestication of animals, cultivation of plants. They had rock paintings.	Various tools made of bone, stone, wood

Modern people. The emergence of people of the modern physical type occurred relatively recently (about 50 thousand years ago), who were called Cro-Magnons. Increased brain volume (1,600 cm3), well-developed articulate speech; the construction of dwellings, the first rudiments of art (rock painting), clothing, jewelry, bone and stone tools, the first domesticated animals - everything indicates that real man finally separated from his animal-like ancestors. Neanderthals, Cro-Magnons and modern humans form one species - Homo sapiens. Many years passed before people moved from an appropriating economy (hunting, gathering) to a producing economy. They learned to grow plants and tame some animals. In the evolution of Cro-Magnons great importance had social factors, the role of education and the transfer of experience increased immeasurably.

Races of man

All modern humanity belongs to one species - Homo sapiens. The unity of humanity follows from common origin, similarity of structure, unlimited crossing of representatives of different races and the fertility of offspring from mixed marriages. Inside the view - Homo sapiens- There are five major races: Negroid, Caucasoid, Mongoloid, Australoid, American. Each of them is divided into small races. Differences between races come down to features of skin color, hair, eyes, shape of the nose, lips, etc. These differences arose in the process of adaptation of human populations to local natural conditions. It is assumed that black skin absorbed ultra-violet rays. Narrow eyes protected from harsh sunlight in open spaces; a wide nose cooled the inhaled air faster by evaporation from the mucous membranes, on the contrary, a narrow nose warmed the cold inhaled air better, etc.

But thanks to work, man quickly escaped the influence of natural selection, and these differences quickly lost their adaptive significance.

Human races began to take shape, believed to have started to take shape, about 30–40 thousand years ago during the process of human settlement of the Earth, and then many racial characteristics had adaptive significance and were fixed by natural selection in the conditions of a certain geographical environment. All human races are characterized by species-wide characteristics of Homo sapiens, and all races are absolutely equal in biological and mental respects and are at the same level of evolutionary development.

There is no sharp boundary between the main races, and there are a number of smooth transitions - small races, whose representatives have smoothed out or mixed the features of the main masses. It is assumed that in the future, differences between races will completely disappear and humanity will be racially homogeneous, but with many morphological variants.

The races of a person should not be confused with concepts nation, people, language group. Different groups can be part of one nation, and the same races can be part of different nations.

Anthropogenesis (from the Greek anthropos - man + genesis - origin) is the process of historical formation. Today there are three main theories of anthropogenesis.

Creation theory, the oldest in existence, states that man is the creation of a supernatural being. For example, Christians believe that man was created by God in a one-time act “in the image and likeness of God.” Similar ideas are present in other religions, as well as in most myths.

Evolutionary theory states that man evolved from ape-like ancestors in a process of long development under the influence of the laws of heredity, variability and natural selection. The foundations of this theory were first proposed by the English naturalist Charles Darwin (1809-1882).

Space theory claims that man is of extraterrestrial origin. He is either a direct descendant of alien creatures, or the fruit of experiments by extraterrestrial intelligence. According to most scientists, this is the most exotic and least likely of the mainstream theories.

Stages of human evolution

With all the diversity of points of view on anthropogenesis, the vast majority of scientists adhere to evolutionary theory, which is confirmed by a number of archaeological and biological data. Let us consider the stages of human evolution from this point of view.

Australopithecus(Australopithecus) is considered to be the closest to the ancestral form of humans; he lived in Africa 4.2-1 million years ago. The body of Australopithecus was covered with thick hair, and appearance he was closer to a monkey than to a man. However, he already walked on two legs and used various objects as tools, which was facilitated by the spaced big toe. Its brain volume (relative to body volume) was smaller than that of a human, but larger than that of modern apes.

A skilled man(Homo habilis) is considered the very first representative of the human race; he lived 2.4-1.5 million years ago in Africa and was named so because of his ability to make simple stone tools. His brain was one third larger than that of Australopithecus, and biological features brain indicate possible rudiments of speech. In other respects, Homo habilis was more similar to Australopithecus than to modern humans.

Homo erectus(Homo erectus) settled 1.8 million - 300 thousand years ago throughout Africa, Europe and Asia. He made complex tools and already knew how to use fire. His brain is close in volume to the brain of modern humans, which allowed him to organize collective activities (hunting large animals) and use speech.

In the period from 500 to 200 thousand years ago there was a transition from Homo erectus to to a reasonable person(Homo sapiens). It is quite difficult to detect the boundary when one species replaces another, so representatives of this transition period sometimes called the oldest homo sapiens.

Neanderthal(Homo neanderthalensis) lived 230-30 thousand years ago. The brain volume of the Neanderthal was similar to the modern one (and even slightly exceeded it). Excavations also indicate a fairly developed culture, which included rituals, the beginnings of art and morality (caring for fellow tribesmen). Previously, it was believed that Neanderthal man was the direct ancestor of modern man, but now scientists are inclined to believe that he is a dead-end, “blind” branch of evolution.

reasonable new(Homo sapiens sapiens), i.e. modern humans appeared about 130 thousand (possibly more) years ago. The fossils of the “new people” were called Cro-Magnons after the place of their first discovery (Cro-Magnon in France). Cro-Magnons looked little different from modern humans. They left behind numerous artifacts that allow us to judge the high development of their culture - cave painting, miniature sculpture, engravings, jewelry, etc. Thanks to his abilities, Homo sapiens populated the entire Earth 15-10 thousand years ago. In the course of improving the tools of labor and accumulating life experience, man moved to a producing economy. During the Neolithic period, large settlements arose, and humanity entered the era of civilizations in many areas of the planet.