How many human races are there on earth? Modern division into races
For more than a century, various expeditions of anthropologists have been working in different parts of the world. globe, studying the diversity of humankind. Tribes were studied in the most inaccessible areas (in tropical forests, deserts, highlands, islands), and as a result modern humanity in morphological and physiological respects, it has been studied, perhaps, better than any other biological species. Research has revealed the exceptional diversity of physical and genotypic characteristics of human populations and their fine adaptation to living conditions. Research has also shown that although modern humanity belongs to one single species Homo sapiens, this type is polymorphic , since it forms several different intraspecific groups, which have long been called races.
Race(fr. race- “genus”, “breed”, “tribe”) is a historically established intraspecific grouping consisting of populations Homo sapiens, characterized by similarities in morphophysiological and mental properties. Each race is distinguished by a set of hereditarily determined characteristics. Among them: skin color, eyes, hair, features of the skull and soft parts of the face, body size, height, etc.
External features of the structure of the human body were the main criteria for dividing humanity into races.
Modern humanity is divided into three main races: Negroid, Mongoloid and Caucasian.
Races of man |
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Negroid race |
Mongoloid race |
Caucasian |
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There are two large branches - African and Australian: the blacks of West Africa, the Bushmen, the Pygmy Negritos, the Hottentots, the Melanesians and the aborigines of Australia |
indigenous people Asia (except India) and America (from the northern Eskimos to the Indians of Tierra del Fuego) |
population of Europe, the Caucasus, southwest Asia, northern Africa, India, as well as the population of America |
Negroid race characterized dark color skin, curly, spirally twisted hair (on the head and body), a wide and slightly protruding nose, thick lips. The Negroid race includes the blacks of West Africa, Bushmen, Pygmy Negritos, Hottentots, Melanesians and aborigines of Australia. There are two large branches of the Negroid race - African and Australian. Groups of the Australian branch are characterized, in contrast to the African branch, by wavy hair type.
Mongoloid race characterized by dark or light skin, straight and rather coarse hair, a flattened face shape, prominent cheekbones, protruding lips, a narrow palpebral fissure, a strong development of the upper eyelid fold and the presence of an epicanthus, or “Mongolian fold.”
Epicanthus - a fold of skin in the area of the corner of a person’s eye, covering the lacrimal tubercle; It is especially strongly developed in children and women and occurs more often in women than in men.
The Mongoloid group includes all the indigenous populations of Asia (with the exception of India) and America. The Americanoids are distinguished as a special branch in the Mongoloid race, i.e. indigenous people of America (from northern Eskimos to Tierra del Fuego Indians). They differ from Asian Mongoloids in two features - significant protrusion of the nose and the absence of epicanthus, which brings them closer to Caucasians.
Caucasian characterized by light or dark skin, straight or wavy soft hair, a narrow protruding nose, light (blue) eye color, thin lips, a narrow and wide head. Caucasoids inhabit Europe, the Caucasus, southwest Asia, northern Africa, India and are part of the population of America.
Within each race distinguish small races , or subracess (anthropological types) . For example, the Caucasian group includes the Atlanto-Baltic, Indo-Mediterranean, Central European, Balkan-Caucasian and White Sea-Baltic. Within the Mongoloid - North Asian, Arctic, Far Eastern, South Asian and American. There are also several subraces within the Negroid race. According to the concept, which does not take into account origin, large races are divided into 22 small ones, some of which are transitional.
The very existence of transitional races testifies to the dynamism of racial characteristics. Transitional small races combine not only morphological characteristics, but also genetic characteristics large. Social factors and characteristics environment caused differences between races and their subraces in connection with human settlement around the globe.
Racial characteristics are hereditary, but at present they do not have significant significance for human life. Therefore, now representatives of different races often live in the same territory. But in the distant past, when there was still action social factors was small, of course, many of the characteristics characteristic of a particular race were an adaptation to certain physical-geographical and climatic conditions environment and were developed under the influence of natural selection.
N For example, the dark coloring of the skin and hair of the inhabitants of the equatorial regions of the Earth arose as protection from the burning effect ultraviolet rays sun. The blacks of Africa have developed a high, elongated cranium, which is heated less than a round and low one. Curly hair, which creates an air layer around the head, developed as protection against overheating when exposed to hot sun rays; thick lips, a wide nose, and elongated body proportions with low weight emerged as ways to increase body surface area, useful for thermoregulation (heat loss) in hot climates. The type with wider body proportions relative to volume developed in climate conditions with significant negative temperatures. The flat face of the Mongoloids with a slightly protruding nose turned out to be useful in conditions of a sharply continental climate and strong winds; moreover, the smooth, streamlined surface is less susceptible to frostbite.
Many morphological characteristics of races serve as evidence that in race formation natural environment, its abiotic and biotic factors had a great influence. Like the entire living world, man in the period of his formation external conditions caused variability and the appearance of various adaptive properties, and natural selection preserved the most successful adaptation options. Adaptive properties of the race manifested themselves not only in appearance, but also in human physiology, for example, in the composition of the blood, the characteristics of fat deposition, and the activity of metabolic processes.
These differences arose in connection with the settlement of people in new habitats. It is believed that Homo sapiens formed off the eastern shores Mediterranean Sea and in northeast Africa. From these areas the first Cro-Magnons settled in Southern Europe, along the South and East Asia all the way to Australia. Through the northeastern tip of Asia they came to America - first to the west of North America, from where they descended to South America.
Foci of race formation and ways of dispersal of races: 1 - the ancestral home of man and resettlement from it; 2—center of disorganization and dispersal of Australoids; 3 - center of race formation and settlement of Caucasians; 4—center of race formation and settlement of Negroids; 5 - center of race formation and settlement of Mongoloids; 6.7 - centers of race formation and settlement of Americanoids
Races began to form during the process of human settlement of different territories of the Earth about 40-70 thousand years ago, i.e., even at the stage of the early Cro-Magnon man. At that time, many racial characteristics had great adaptive significance and were fixed by natural selection in a certain geographical environment. However, with the development of social relations (communication, speech, joint hunting, etc.) and the strengthening of social factors, the influence of the environment, as well as the pressure of natural selection, ceased to be a shaping force for humans. Despite the emergence of numerous racial differences in morphological and physiological characteristics, reproductive isolation between human races did not occur. In terms of intellectual potential and mental abilities races also have no differences.
Active movement around the planet and the resulting joint settlements of many people in the same territories have shown that the isolation of human races, their morphological, physiological and mental differences as a result of mixed marriages is reduced and even lost. This serves as convincing confirmation of the unity of the species Homo sapiens and proof of the biological equivalence of all human races. Racial differences concern only the characteristics of morphology and physiology, but they are variations of the single heredity of man as a species.
Despite the diversity of races of modern man, they are all representatives of one single species. The presence of fertile marriages between people different races confirms their genetic non-isolation, which indicates the integrity of the species. Unity of the species Homo sapiens ensured by a common origin, an unlimited ability to interbreed between people of different races and ethnic groups, as well as the same level of their general physical and mental development.
All human races are at the same biological level of development.
There is a high probability that in the past there were only four large islands on the Arctida archipelago, inhabited by tribes of primitive man. Each of the islands became uninhabitable at different times, so in prehistory there were four mass migration processes with an interval of 0.5 million years. Each migration process led to the formation of a new race. There are four races of people on the globe: blacks (African race, Africans, Africonoids), red-skins (American race, American Indians, Americanoids), yellow-skins (Mongoloid race, Mongoloids or Asians) and white-skins (European race, Europeans or Europoids). It is known from everyday practice that the more time a naked person spends under the rays of the sun, the darker his skin becomes. Several million years ago it was very warm on all continents of the northern hemisphere, except for the lands of northern Atlantis. Therefore, all primitive people, getting from the cold continent to the warm regions of Europe, Asia or Africa, took off their clothes made from animal skins and walked naked.
The skin color of all peoples, tribes and races on the territory of snow-covered Northern Atlantis was white. The earlier a person left his “northern homeland,” the longer he “sunbathed” under the sun on other continents, and the darker the color his skin acquired. The difference in skin color between races depends on the amount of organic substance melanin, which is produced in skin cells due to exposure to sunlight (mainly ultraviolet). Based on these considerations, the conclusion suggests itself that the black race was the first to leave North Atlantis. According to rough estimates, this happened 4 million years ago. Red-skinned American Indians migrated to America second - 3.5 million years ago, yellow-skinned Asians third - 3 million years ago, and white-skinned Europeans were the last - 2 million years ago. Black-skinned Negroes settled Africa, red-skins - America, yellow-skinned - Asia, white-skinned - Europe. The reason for this “fair distribution” of the continents is that each of the four islands of the North Atlantis archipelago, inhabited by primitive people, was located at a considerable distance from the others. Therefore, one island was located exactly opposite the territory of the continent of North America (Alaska), another was close to Europe, and the third was to Asia (Siberia).
At the same time, Africa occupies a special position. It is located 5,000 kilometers from the former continent of Arctida (Northern Atlantis) when measured in a straight line (through Europe). How could the tribes of ancient man from North Atlantis get to the African continent earlier than to North America, Europe and Asia? There is a very simple explanation for this. The fact is that until about 10,000 years ago there was another continent in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean, which was called Atlantis (or South Atlantis). It started from Arctida, where it connected with the continent of Arctida. Continued as a thin strip 500–1000 kilometers wide in the middle Atlantic Ocean, passed through the island of Iceland, had a huge plateau measuring 5000 × 2000 kilometers at the level of the Iberian Peninsula, and then connected with Africa. South Atlantis has now sunk to the bottom of the Atlantic Ocean and has become the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.
Therefore, there is a high probability that African blacks come from the northern island of Spitsbergen. Based on the geographical conditions of the Arctida archipelago that developed on Earth in the period 3–5 million years ago, it can be argued that from the North Atlantis archipelago, primitive man could populate the continents using the southern direction of migration. Let us briefly describe the distribution paths of each race.
Direction of migration of the black race (Africans)
The first island of the North Atlantis archipelago (Hyperborea), inhabited by primitive man, began to sink to the bottom of the North Arctic Ocean 5 million years ago. Apparently, this island was about. Spitsbergen. Presumably, the tribes first settled across the continent of South Atlantis, which is about 10,000 kilometers long. For about 4 million years, the very first civilization on the planet developed in this place - the Negroid civilization of the Atlanteans. According to rough estimates, the total population of South Atlantis 4 million years ago reached 0.2 million people. Atlantis was directly connected to Africa in two places: at Atlantic coast North and Central Africa. Starting about 1 million years ago, this continent began to slowly, in parts, sink to the bottom of the Atlantic Ocean, and Atlantis as a continent finally ceased to exist 5 - 10 thousand years ago. This caused the death of up to 80% of the Atlantean population.
The ancient continent of Atlantis has become the underwater Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Due to the flooding of the Arctida islands, the Atlantean Negroid tribes were forced to hastily migrate to the African mainland. For 4 million years ago, Central (Equatorial) Africa was inhabited by primitive people. Consequently, the African continent was inhabited by ancient man from the West, the “Negroid Atlanteans.” This is why archaeologists find large number stone tools from 0.5 - 3 million years old in Central Africa, and they are not found in Southern and Northern Africa. Ancient people inhabited 20% of Africa and only Central Africa for 3 million years.
By the way, 50 thousand years ago the Sahara Desert did not exist, but in this place there was a savannah with a large number of lakes, swamps, tall grass and a diverse plant and animal life. The skin color of Africans changed in the following order: white skin color was 4 million years ago on the lands of the snowy Arctic, yellow - 3 million years ago on the lands of hot Atlantis, red - 2 million years ago among the first settlers on the land of Africa, black - starting from 0 1 million years ago in areas of Central Africa. The population of Africans 0.5 million years ago reached millions of people. From a long stay on the sunny African continent (over 4 million years), the white skin of white-skinned Africans became black. All other races (Americans with red skin, Asians with yellow skin and Europeans with white skin) lived on warm continents for 1-2 million years less than Africans, and therefore their skin did not acquire a black color. However, Arabs and Indians are representatives of the European race with white skin color, but after several millennia of existence in hot countries (for example, in Africa), they acquired dark skin color (Algerians, Egyptians, Sudanese, Somalis).
Direction of migration of the red race (American Indians)
Many scientists erroneously claim that people came to America from Siberia (Asia). Scientists have put forward a hypothesis that primitive people 30,000 years ago sailed on boats from Chukotka to Alaska through the Bering Strait. But it is well known that Siberia in the period from 3 million years ago to 1000 AD was inhabited by tribes exclusively of the Asian race. The classic representative of the Asian race has a small height (150 centimeters), a narrow eye shape, a wide, short and not protruding nose, a smoothed facial part of the skull with cheeks convex in both directions; men have almost no beard or mustache. American Indians have completely different face and body shapes. These are tall and strong people, their height reaches almost 2 meters, their eye shape is European type, their aquiline nose protrudes far forward, and so on. American Indians are absolutely different from narrow-eyed Asians and Africans with thick noses and lips. They look more like Europeans, and if not for their skin color, it would be difficult to distinguish them from Europeans. Therefore, the hypothesis of the Asian origin of American Indians is erroneous.
Another hypothesis is more plausible. American Indians are representatives of the European race, who were the first to “split off” from the Europoids of the sunken continent of Arctida, and moved to the territory of North America in the area of Alaska (or Greenland). Events unfolded in the following sequence. The second island of the North Atlantis archipelago (Hyperborea - site), inhabited by primitive people, began to sink to the bottom of the Arctic Ocean 3.5 million years ago and was located about 100 kilometers from the territory of Alaska or the northern lands of Canada. North America was settled by tribes of future red-skinned American Indians from Alaska and in the direction from west to east (from Pacific Ocean to the Atlantic coast). It must be emphasized that the first Reasonable Man arose on the territory of Northern Atlantis 5 million years ago; over the course of 1.5 million years, the ancestors of the red-skinned race developed on “their own” northern territory, but migrated to the lands of North America only 3.5 million years ago.
As archaeological excavations show, American civilization developed exclusively in North America (modern Canada and the USA) for 3 million years. This conclusion is made based on the fact that the highest concentration of stone tools in North America is in the Rocky Mountains (western United States). The population of America reached 1 million people 0.5 million years ago. Primitive people did not come to South America. The Amazon River, the mountains and the surrounding dense rain-forest served as a natural barrier for primitive people to spread massively across the southern continent. For this reason, the territory of modern South American states (Brazil, Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay, Argentina and Chile) has absolutely no signs of primitive man. People appeared in South America only 3 thousand years ago, and in North America - 3 million years ago. The skin color of the American Indians changed in the following order: white skin color was 3.5 million years ago on the lands of the snow-covered Arctic, yellow - 3 million among the first settlers on American soil, red - 0.1 million years ago. The population of American Indians 0.5 million years ago reached millions of people.
Direction of migration of the yellow-skinned race (Asians)
The third island of the North Atlantis (Hyperborean) archipelago, from which the tribes of the Mongoloid (Asian) race migrated 3 million years ago, is the now existing group of islands called the New Siberian Islands. The islands are 1,000 kilometers from the North Pole and separated from the Asian continent by the 80-kilometer-wide Sannikov Strait. At that time, the New Siberian Islands represented a very large part of the land, approximately 8 times larger than the modern area. On this solid and huge island of Arctida, Homo sapiens also arose 5 million years ago, but for 2 million years he developed in the conditions of the polar tundra. The main reason for its migration is not the flooding of land by ocean waters, but the cooling of the climate with all the ensuing consequences. The continuous evolutionary process of development of tribes on the territory of the New Siberian Islands for 2 - 5 million years contributed to an increase in the population to 30 thousand people. The same number of people swam across the Sannikov Strait 3 million years ago and populated the lands of modern Yakutia.
Gradually the tribes migrated west to Ural mountains, to the east to the lands of Chukotka and to the south in the territory of modern Mongolia. For 3 million years, civilization Mongoloid race developed over a vast area located between the Ob and Kolyma rivers. In 1982, during archaeological excavations in the Diring-Yuryakh region (140 kilometers from Yakutsk), stone tools were discovered, the age of which was determined by experts to be 1.8 - 3.2 million years. The Asian population reached millions of people 0.5 million years ago. In the period 0.5-3 million years ago, plants grew in this area. mixed forests with an unprecedentedly large diversity of plant and animal life. The primitive people who lived there had an abundance of meat food, berries, mushrooms, nuts, fish. The onset of significant climate cooling in this area caused a massive migration of Asians to the south, southeast and east. Five barriers prevented the ancient Asian tribes from migrating to the west, to Europe: the Yenisei and Ob rivers, in the north the wide sea bay of the Ob Bay 100 kilometers wide and 900 kilometers long, the Ural Mountains and the endless swamps of swamps between the Yenisei and Ob with the Irtysh tributary.
The swamps of the West Siberian Lowland, 1500 kilometers wide and 3000 kilometers long, are the main and natural barrier that did not “let” the Asian race into European territory. Below the swamp zone, exactly in the direction from north to south, stretches a “solid wall” of high mountains: the Sayans, Pamirs, Tien Shan, Himalayas. Thus, geographical barriers exist throughout the entire Asian continent, “swamp and mountain barriers” extending from north to south. The distance from the Yamal Peninsula (Arctic Ocean) to Bangladesh (Indian Ocean) is almost 7000 kilometers. About 2.5 thousand kilometers of this distance are occupied by swamps, and about 4 thousand kilometers are mountains. There remains a narrow gap of 500 kilometers in the south of Siberia, which has no natural barriers to the migration of Asians from east to west. Due to natural barriers, the primitive people of the Mongoloid race were absent from Central Asia and Europe for a long time. The skin color of the Mongoloids changed in the following order: white was 3 million years ago on the lands of the snow-covered Arctic, yellow - 0.1 million years ago among the tribes inhabiting the warm (at that time) territories of Mongolia and China. The population of Asians 0.5 million years ago reached millions of people. The main directions of their migration were as follows.
Migration direction No. 1. A small number of tribes (5% of Mongoloids) migrated east: Yakutia → Chukotka → Kamchatka Peninsula → Aleutian Islands. Some Asian tribes even penetrated into Alaska through the narrow Bering Strait. However, at that time, North America had already been inhabited by American Indians for 0.5 million years, so after numerous military clashes, the migration of Asians to Alaska was stopped.
Migration direction No. 2. The second small direction of migration (15% of Mongoloids) occurred in a southeastern direction: Yakutia → Far East→ Sakhalin Island → Japan → Korea.
Migration direction No. 3. The main direction of migration of the Mongoloid race (80%) was to the south: Yakutia → Lake Baikal → Mongolia → China → Indochina Peninsula → Indonesia → Philippines → New Guinea → Australia. The migration process of Asians from the regions of Central Siberia over the past 0.5 million years occurred mainly in a southern direction. An example can be given from recent history: numerous tribes of the Manchus and Chinese, who previously inhabited the regions of Central Siberia near the Lower Tunguska River, migrated to China only a few thousand years ago.
Direction of migration of the white-skinned race (Europeans)
The fourth island of the archipelago of North Atlantis (Hyperborea), from which the tribes of the European race migrated 2 million years ago, is the now existing island called New Earth. This is the most south island Arctida archipelago. It is located 2 thousand kilometers south of the Earth’s north pole, so a cool climate later established on it, which became the main reason for migration primitive people. In the past, the island of Novaya Zemlya was approximately 5 times larger in size. Man also arose on this island 5 million years ago, but for 3 million years he developed in polar conditions. Due to the more southern location of the island, the need for primitive man to leave it appeared only 2 million years ago, as severe cold began and mass extinction plant and animal world. Until this moment, the island of Novaya Zemlya had good conditions for human life.
Novaya Zemlya Island is separated from Eastern Europe the Kara Gate Strait, 70 kilometers wide. About 2 million years ago, approximately 100 thousand primitive people crossed the strait on boats and rafts. In the north of the European continent, man found favorable living conditions. The climate on the coast of the Arctic Ocean 2 million years ago was quite warm, similar to the climate of modern Italy. The tundra did not exist at that time. In northern Europe, the tundra appeared only 0.3 million years ago. The Arctic coast of Europe was covered with dense forests. This geographical area is located 1.5 thousand kilometers south of the Arctic coast, and therefore, 2 million years ago it was many times warmer than the climate on the island of Novaya Zemlya. Two million years ago, the area between the Ob and Northern Dvina rivers was much warmer than today, covered first with tropical, and after 1 million years ago with mixed forests with an abundance of animals, berries, mushrooms, nuts, and there was a lot of fish in the rivers. In the summer there was an abundance of wild apples, plums, pears, grapes, cherries, and cherries in the forests. Vegetables grew in the clearings: beets, carrots, pumpkins, watermelons, onions, garlic.
The area of the Pechora River became the main center of primitive European civilization for millions of years. For quite a long time (over 1 million years), the center of development of the ancient peoples of the European race was located in the area between the Pechora and Northern Dvina rivers. There, archaeologists find a huge number of stone tools, rock paintings, and numerous sites of primitive people. Millions of years ago, the climate in the north of America, Europe and Asia was the same as it is now in Italy - warm and humid.. In the primitive communal era, man was poorly armed (with a club and a stick), and at the same time he was “densely” surrounded by large predators, which in the past there were thousands of times more than now. Paleontological studies prove that there once existed huge saber tooth tigers and cave bears weighing up to several tons (Siberia), predators up to two meters high, similar to a very large wild boar (Central Asia), predators in the form of huge ostriches up to 5 meters high (South America) and so on.
Every day, ancient man witnessed how one of his relatives (a child or a woman) was eaten by predatory animals. But most often those who suffered from predators were men who, alone, went far from the location of the tribe to hunt and fish. A lone hunter, armed with a stone ax or spear, almost always died, since millions of years ago he was instantly surrounded by dozens of hungry and large predators. The resistance was short and futile. Danger forced people to unite into clans and tribes, forced them to live and hunt collectively, 10 to 30 people each.
Further climate cooling in northern Eastern Europe forced people to migrate from the Pechora River area. People of the white race began to intensively settle in European continent. The ancient Europeans were prevented from spreading to the east, to the Siberian lands, by the same natural barriers as the Mongoloid race to the west: the swamps of the West Siberian Lowland, the Yenisei and Ob rivers, the wide sea bay of the Ob Bay, the Sayan Mountains, the Pamirs, the Tien Shan, and the Himalayas.
Over 1 million years, the population of Europeans in the Pechora region increased to approximately 0.7 million people. The hypothesis of the existence of the Pechora center of ancient European civilization has many confirmations.
For example, the Hungarian tribes moved to Central Europe from the cold regions of the Ural Mountains 3 thousand years ago, and the Sumerians migrated from Eastern Europe to Mesopotamia (Iran) 11 thousand years ago. The Etruscans migrated to Central Europe and then to northern Italy.
Archaeological confirmation of the settlement of ancient man from the Pechersk center of the primary settlement of the European race throughout the territory Western Europe and Asia Minor (Middle East) is the distribution of microliths that are completely identical in shape. Microliths are very sharp stone fragments made of obsidian or silicon, which were firmly attached to one side of a short wooden stick (no more than half a meter long). It was a stone prototype of a modern sickle, a reaping knife. The stone sickle was the most common stone tool of ancient agricultural peoples in European and Asia Minor territories. Before the era of expansion agriculture(0.2 million years ago), stone sickles were widely used to cut the stems of various cereals from huge fields of wild wheat, barley, oats, rye, and so on. When archaeologists from different countries compared stone microliths from the Urals and microliths found in the most ancient cultural layers of the earth in France, Germany, Italy, Greece, Iraq, Iran, Pakistan and India, they did not find the slightest difference between them. These were stone products made using the technology of a once united people of the European race, whose primary center was in Northern Europe.
Three directions of the earliest migration of the European race can be distinguished.
Southern direction of European migration (to Egypt and India). The main routes of European settlement were directed to the south, where probably 60% of the population of the Pechora region migrated. In this direction, the Indian migration path is distinguished (north of East Europe → Kazakhstan → Turkmenistan → Iran → Afghanistan → Pakistan → India) and the Arabian Migration Way (north of Eastern Europe → Volga region → Turkey → Iraq → Saudi Arabia → Egypt → Somali) . Near the village of Tripolye (Ukraine, near the city of Kiev), archaeologists excavated an ancient settlement of Neolithic farmers. They called this culture Trypillian. Later it was established that the Trypillians occupied a vast territory of Moldova and Ukraine, and related tribes (Boyan, Keresh, Cucuteni, Linear-Ribbon) lived in the Balkans and in the south of Western Europe. Remains of grain and bones of domestic animals were found in Trypillian settlements. The most interesting thing is that the Trypillians and their relatives decorated dishes in the same way as people of Mesopotamian cultures (Hassun and Halaf), i.e.
without extruding drawings on raw clay, and painting with colored paints. They made from clay figurines of goddesses, mostly seated, as in Catal Guyuk (Iraq), and figurines of a bull, as in Crete and Greece. These archaeological finds once again prove that the settlement of Europeans from the Pechersk center mainly occurred to the south: Ukraine → Greece, Ukraine → Iraq.
It is interesting to note that the territory of Egypt was first inhabited by Negroids, and then by Europeans. In confirmation of what has been said, there is such information from the history of the Ancient East. The territory of Africa, including Egypt, was inhabited by peoples of the black race from 1 to 3 million years ago. Archaeologists on site North Africa found a large number of graves of ancient man himself early period. The deceased person was buried with his head to the south and on his left side, that is, facing west. With this body position, ancient people indicated the place of their origin - the face was directed towards the Atlantic Ocean, towards the location of the ancient continent of Atlantis. The head was directed to the south, which indicated that people of the African race came to Egypt from Central Africa, from the south. After 1 million years ago, the territory of Egypt was already inhabited by the peoples of the “white race”, who arose in the north of Europe and settled Africa from the Arabian Peninsula, that is, from the east.
Therefore, burial customs have changed greatly. They began to bury the dead with their body facing north and also on the left side, that is, facing east, facing Arabian Peninsula. From this we can conclude that after 1 million years ago, the territory of modern Egypt began to be populated by Europeans who came to Arabia from the northern lands of Eastern Europe, and came to Africa from Arabia, that is, from the eastern territories in relation to Africa. That is why the face of the deceased person was directed to the east, towards the location of the Arabian Peninsula. Thus, the posture of the deceased person indicated the place from which the migration of the ancestors of the European race to the African continent began. In addition, the deceased person was buried in a position with the head directed not to the south (not towards the location of Central Africa), but to the north, that is, towards the location of Eastern Europe, the Arctic Ocean, towards the location of the first homeland of the European race - Arctida. Based on these archaeological documents, it can be argued that after 1 million years ago, the territory of Egypt began to be inhabited by tribes of the European race. This opinion is also confirmed by the fact that the ancient Egyptian language has some similarities with the ancient Semitic languages (Phoenician, Akkadian, Assyrian and Hebrew).
Western direction of European migration to Scandinavia. Probably 10% of ancient Europeans from the area of the Pechera River migrated westward (to the Scandinavian Peninsula). The Scandinavian migration route starts from the north of Eastern Europe → Finland → Sweden → Norway. From 4 million to 0.2 million years ago the climate on the Scandinavian Peninsula was relatively warm, especially along the coast Baltic Sea. The peninsula is washed by the warm waters of the Atlantic Ocean, so the winters were very short (1 - 2 months) and mild (no more than 5 degrees Celsius below zero). It was very hot in summer - about forty degrees Celsius. The territory was covered with dense forests, where wild animals were found in abundance, and there were many fish in the rivers and lakes. The ancient Varangians dressed in animal skins in winter and wore coarse home-woven clothes in summer. Even in very ancient times, Viking sailing boats sailed across the Baltic Sea and reached England, Iceland and Greenland. Probably, immediately after the occupation of Scandinavia, the Vikings began to smelt iron tools. The Scandinavian migration route has a certain historical continuation of its development.
Southwestern direction of European migration. Probably more than 30% of the European population left Eastern Europe between 1 and 2 million years ago and settled throughout Western Europe. Over the course of 2 million years, Europeans settled from the Pechora River to the Atlantic Ocean. The Atlantic migration route began from the north of Eastern Europe → Ukraine → Romania → Yugoslavia → Germany → Italy → France → Spain → Portugal.
CONCLUSION. So, in the period from 3 to 5 million years ago, humanity (except for the Negroid race) concentrated on the northern lands of three continents: American Indians - in the territory of modern Canada and the USA (north America), the Mongoloid race - in the territory of Yakutia (northern Siberia), the European race - in the area of the Pechora River (northern Europe). Over the next 2.7 million years, the continents were slowly repopulated. It was the primary, free and peaceful process of human migration across the uninhabited expanses of the continents - website. The primary and free migration of humanity across continents occurred very slowly during the period 3 – 5 million years ago. American Indians settled North America and only much later (30 thousand years ago) part of South America (Colombia, Ecuador, Peru). The Amazon River became a serious obstacle for the ancient people of America, since ancient people settled south of the river only 2 thousand years ago. Tribes of the Mongoloid race spread to the south of China. Tribes of the European race from the Pechora River “spread” to Spain in the west and to India in the east.
It is assumed that intelligent life on Earth was created purposefully by a whole complex of higher forces, for which there are no words in human languages. The first monads, created simultaneously with the emergence of the Earth, consisted of subtle bodies and were deprived of reason. This was the First Race. Gradually all the primary monads disintegrated, and from their elements the Second Race was formed. These were monads similar to the first ones, but in the course of evolution they found new way reproduction, which can be described as "the release of an egg." Gradually this method became dominant. And as a result, the Third Race arose - the race of the Egg-born, who at the beginning also did not have a dense, physical body (the geological conditions on Earth were then unsuitable for the physical existence of protein bodies). The third race, which arose at the beginning of the Archean era, quickly developed to the level of separation of the sexes and the formation of the rudiments of intelligence. The first three subraces (traditionally there are seven of these subraces within the boundaries of the “basic” races, according to Theosophy) of the Third Race gradually built up a dense shell, until finally, during the period of the fourth subrace of the Third Race, the first actual people with a real physical body appeared. This happened during the era of dinosaurs, i.e. about 100-120 million years BC. The dinosaurs were big, and people looked the same: up to 18 meters tall or more. In subsequent subraces, their growth gradually decreased. Proof of this, according to Theosophy, should be the fossil bones of giants and myths about giants. The first people did not yet have a complete set of bodies: they did not have a conscious soul, i.e. bodies of spiritual mind. From these human animals we descended great apes(monkeys). After this, according to one version, the higher powers-creators, who brought about intelligent life on Earth, introduced into the consciousness of people those actually rational principles that allowed them to act as teachers of subsequent generations.
The last subraces of the Third Race created the first intelligent civilization of people on the proto-continent of Lemuria, according to other versions - Gondwana. This continent was located in the Southern Hemisphere and included the southern tip of Africa, Australia and New Zealand, and in the north - Madagascar and Ceylon. Easter Island also belonged to the Lemurian culture. During the period of the seventh subrace of the Third Race, the Lemurian civilization fell into decay, and this continent itself went under water. This happened at the end of the Tertiary period, i.e. about 3 million years BC. (The Third Race is sometimes also called the Black Race. Its descendants are considered to be black tribes, African and Australian.) At that time, the Fourth Race had already arisen - the Atlantean race on the continent called Atlantis (it is assumed that Atlantis with its northern edge extended several degrees east of Iceland, including Scotland, Ireland and the northern part of England, and the southern part to the place where Rio de Janeiro is now located). The Atlanteans were the offspring of the Lemurians, who moved to another continent about a million years before the death of Lemuria. The first two subraces of the Atlantean race descended from these first settlers from Lemuria. The third subrace of the Atlantean race appeared after the destruction of Lemuria or Gondwana: these were the Toltecs, the Red Race. According to theosophy, the Atlanteans worshiped the Sun, and their height reached two and a half meters. The capital of the Atlantean Empire was the city of the Hundred Golden Gates. Their civilization reached the pinnacle of its development precisely during the Toltec or Red Race period. This was about 1 million years ago. The first geological catastrophe, which occurred about 800 thousand years ago, disrupted the land connection of Atlantis with future America and Europe. The second - about 200 thousand years ago - divided the continent into several islands, large and small. Modern continents emerged. After the third catastrophe, about 80 thousand years BC, only the island of Poseidonis remained, which sank about 10 thousand years BC. The Atlanteans foresaw these catastrophes and took measures to save their scientists and the knowledge they had accumulated: they built giant temples in Egypt and opened the first schools of esoteric wisdom there. Esotericism in that era acted as a kind of state philosophy and a familiar view of the world. In the face of the threat of the destruction of continents, the highest Initiates were considered to be of the highest value, thanks to whom ancient knowledge was able to survive thousands of years. The catastrophes of Atlantis caused new waves of migrations and the following subraces of the Fourth Race arose: the Huns (fourth subrace), proto-Semites (fifth), Sumerians (sixth) and Asians (seventh). The Asians who mixed with the Huns are sometimes also called the Yellow Race, and the proto-Semites and their descendants who formed the Fifth Race are called the White Race.
According to the teachings of Theosophy, all human races and their subraces perform one or another task of universal human evolution. When one race completes its mission, then the next one appears to replace it, and this is always connected with the transition of human civilization to a new stage.
|
Race |
Appearance |
Characteristics and habitat |
|
First root race |
about 150-130 million years BC |
Arose on Earth under the sign of the Sun, in the form of astral, semi-ethereal beings through compaction subtle world, that is, the world of psychic energy. Ethereal, sexless and unconscious. These were creatures with a wave body structure that could freely pass through any solid objects. They looked like luminous, ethereal forms of moonlight in the form of shadows, and could live in any conditions and at any temperature. The self-born had astral-etheric vision. Communication with the outside world and the Supreme Cosmic Mind was carried out telepathically. It reproduced by separating from the parent bodies, which was eventually refined to “budding,” and it was in this way that the second root race began. |
|
Second Root Race |
about 130-90 million years BC |
The second race was denser, but did not have a physical body; its height was about 37 meters. The “Man” of the Second Race underwent a process of densification, had significant elements of matter, representing an ethereal, ghost-like creature. |
|
Third Root Race |
18.5 million years BC |
The bodies of the first subrace of the Lemurians consisted of astral matter (like the first root race). The second Lemurian subrace had the appearance of condensed astral matter (like the second root race). And already the third Lemurian subrace, in which the separation of the sexes occurred, became purely physical. The bodies and sense organs of the third subrace of the Lemurians became so dense that the people of this subrace began to perceive the physical climate of the Earth. |
|
Fourth Root Race |
About 5 million years BC |
The first Atlanteans were shorter than the Lemurians, although they reached 3.5 meters. Gradually their growth decreased. The skin color of the first subrace was dark red, and the second was red-brown. |
|
Fifth Root Race |
About 1.5 million years BC |
Modern humanity is interpreted by esotericism as the Fifth or Aryan race, which also traditionally includes seven subraces, of which only five are currently available: 1) Indians (light-skinned tribes), 2) younger Semites (Assyrians, Arabs), 3) Iranians, 4) Celts (Greeks, Romans and their descendants), 5) Teutons (Germans and Slavs). The Sixth and Seventh Root Races must come later. |
|
Sixth and Seventh Root Races |
in the future |
Between the second and third sub-races of the sixth root race there will be a transition from organic to etheric life. |
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The species of animals and plants inhabiting the Earth differ in the degree of their variability: some of them are stable, uniform (monomorphic), others, on the contrary, are diverse (polymorphic). Everyone is well aware of the diversity and polymorphism of representatives of the species Homo sapiens - Homo sapiens. People's facial features, body composition, skin color, hair color and structure, and many biochemical indicators vary. Groups of people similar in such characteristics are called races.
How many races of humans live on Earth? It's hard to say; different researchers give different numbers. The system of races is said to be hierarchical: “large” races, trunks, are divided into branches, branches into local, local races, and those, in turn, into groups of populations. What some anthropologists consider a branch, others classify as a trunk, and vice versa. Most people recognize three trunks - Negroids, Mongoloids and Caucasoids. Some scientists also add two to them - American Indians (Amerindians) and Australoids.
According to most scientists, the main characteristics of races, at the time when they were created, were adaptive, adaptive (see Adaptation). Having separated from the animal world, man remained for a long time (and in some places still is) under the direct influence natural conditions external environment. Then, in the Stone Age, the main features of the main races developed, showing in what climate these groups were formed.
For example, the signs of Negroids are adaptive: dark skin delays ultraviolet radiation, which can cause skin cancer, a wide nose and thick, swollen lips with a large surface of mucous membranes promote evaporation with high heat transfer, curly hair forms a natural “tropical helmet”, abnormal hemoglobin, saving them from tropical malaria.
The characteristics of Mongoloids are also adaptive - a flat and flat-nosed face, a fold in the corner of the eye (epicanthus), creating the impression of slanting. These are adaptations to the harsh continental climate with frequent dust storms. And although Mongoloids are now widespread from the tropics to the Arctic, their most pronounced types are characteristic of Transbaikalia, Mongolia, and Northern China.
Europeans have light skin, permeable to ultraviolet rays, which saves them from rickets in childhood, and a narrow, protruding nose that warms the inhaled air. In the humid and cold climate of Europe, recessive traits (see Dominance) became adaptive - light skin, straight hair, blue and gray eyes.
Sometimes the adaptability of characters is clearly visible. In humans, for example, there are three forms, three alleles of one enzyme - erythrocyte acid phosphatase. The allele designated r a is more common among residents of the Far North (Sami, Aleuts, Eskimos), the r a allele is found among the inhabitants equatorial belt. It is calculated that with increasing geographical latitude at 20°, the frequency of occurrence of the p a allele increases by 10%. The exception is the recent inhabitants of the North - the Yakuts and Evenks. Their “cold-resistant” allele has not yet had time to spread in populations.
At least twice, a complex of characteristics characterizing Negroids arose - in Africa and Melanesia. Curly-haired Melanesians were formed from Australoids - dark-skinned, but with wavy hair. The Tasmanians, now completely exterminated by white colonialists, also looked like Negroids. Some tribes of South American Indians in Brazil and Bolivia also have Negroid characteristics (dark skin, flattened nose, wavy rather than straight hair).
Mongoloid features (epicanthus) are characteristic of the Negroids - Bushmen and Hottentots living in southern Africa, in harsh conditions deserts. And the Caucasoid appearance arose not only in Europe. In Peru, in graves of the 3rd century. BC e. Well-preserved mummies of red, wavy-haired people were discovered, sharply different from the Indians with their black straight hair. Norwegian scientist, traveler and writer Thor Heyerdahl considers them to be descendants of Caucasians who sailed across the Atlantic on papyrus boats. Perhaps the situation was different: the upper castes of the ancient Peruvians had a custom of consanguineous marriages, and at the same time, as we know, recessive alleles appear in the offspring (see Inbreeding). The hair and eyes of the burning brunettes - Indo-Afghans who live in mountainous areas, in small villages, where all the inhabitants are relatives, also lighten.
Amerindians are close to the Mongoloids, but they have a rare epicanthus and often have “eagle” noses. They are called redskins without any justification; their skin is simply dark. Perhaps they descended from the first Mongoloids who went to America even before the classical Mongoloids of Central and Central Asia were finally formed.
Australoids - inhabitants not only of Australia, but also of southern India, Andaman and the Philippines - are something of a cross between Negroids and Caucasians, they are dark-skinned, but not curly-haired, many have luxuriant beards. In the Stone Age, people similar to them lived in the place where the city of Voronezh now stands. Perhaps they retained more of the features of the common ancestors of these races, so they are often combined into a single Euro-African trunk.
Since many structural features of a clearly adaptive nature arise independently in different trunks, the relative proximity of different racial groups is still a subject of heated debate among scientists. Apparently, this issue can be resolved only after the development of modern research methods (comparison of sequences in DNA and proteins, etc.).
Anthropologists still have a lot of work to do. Man is the most restless creature on Earth; even in the Paleolithic era, people roamed for many thousands of kilometers, mixing with each other. This gave rise to a diversity of variants of the Homo sapiens species that is difficult to account for.
Despite extreme diversity, all people on Earth belong to the same species. It is important that all races are equal in mental abilities and in any interracial marriage full-fledged and healthy children are born. Statements about the existence of superior and inferior races, capable and incapable peoples, and other misanthropic, racist theories have no scientific basis.
Human races are historically established biological divisions of the species “Homo sapiens” (Homo sapiens) in human evolution. They differ in complexes of hereditarily transmitted and gradually changing morphological, biochemical and other features. The modern geographic areas of distribution, or areas, occupied by races make it possible to outline the territories in which the races were formed. Due to social nature Human races are qualitatively different from subspecies of wild and domestic animals.
If for wild animals the term “geographical races” can be applied, then in relation to humans it has largely lost its meaning, since the connection of human races with their original areas is disrupted by numerous migrations of masses of people, as a result of which a mixture of very different races and peoples and new human associations were formed.
Most anthropologists divide humanity into three large races: Negroid-Australoid (“black”), Caucasoid (“white”) and Mongoloid (“yellow”). Using geographical terms, the first race is called the equatorial, or African-Australian, the second, the European-Asian, and the third, the Asian-American race. The following branches of large races are distinguished: African and Oceanian; northern and southern; Asian and American (G. F. Debets). The Earth's population now amounts to over 3 billion 300 million people (data for 1965). Of these, the first race accounts for approximately 10%, the second - 50%, and the third - 40%. This is, of course, a rough summary, since there are hundreds of millions of racially mixed individuals, numerous minor races and mixed (intermediate) racial groups, including those of ancient origin (for example, Ethiopians). Large, or primary, races occupying vast territories are not completely homogeneous. They are divided according to physical (corporal) characteristics into branches, into 10-20 small races, and those into anthropological types.
Modern races, their origin and taxonomy are studied by ethnic anthropology (racial studies). Groups of the population are subjected to research for examination and quantitative determination of so-called racial characteristics, followed by processing of mass data using the methods of variation statistics (see). For this, anthropologists use scales of skin color and iris, hair color and shape, eyelid shape, nose and lips, as well as anthropometric instruments: compasses, goniometer, etc. (see Anthropometry). Hematological, biochemical and other examinations are also carried out.
Belonging to one or another racial division is determined in men 20-60 years old according to a complex of genetically stable and sufficiently characteristic features physical structure.
Further descriptive features of the racial complex: the presence of a beard and mustache, the coarseness of the scalp hair, the degree of development of the upper eyelid and its fold - the epicanthus, the slope of the forehead, the shape of the head, the development of the brow ridges, the shape of the face, the growth of body hair, the type of build (see Habitus) and body proportions (see Constitution).
Skull shape options: 1 - dolichocranial ellipsoid; 2 and 3 - brachycranial (2 - round, or spheroid, 3 - wedge-shaped, or sphenoid); 4 - mesocranial pentagonal, or pentagonoid.
A unified anthropometric examination on a living person, as well as on the skeleton, mostly on the skull (Fig.), makes it possible to clarify somatoscopic observations and make a more correct comparison of the racial composition of tribes, peoples, individual populations (see) and isolates. Racial characteristics vary and are subject to sexual, age, geographic and evolutionary variability.
The racial composition of humanity is very complex, which largely depends on the mixed nature of the population of many countries in connection with ancient migrations and modern mass migrations. Therefore, in the land area inhabited by humanity, contact and intermediate racial groups are found, formed from the interpenetration of two or three or more complexes of racial characteristics during the crossbreeding of anthropological types.
The process of racial miscegenation increased greatly during the era of capitalist expansion after the discovery of America. As a result, for example, Mexicans are half mixed race between Indians and Europeans.
A noticeable increase in interracial mixing is observed in the USSR and other socialist countries. This is the result of the elimination of all kinds of racial barriers on the basis of correct scientifically based national and international policies.
Races are biologically equivalent and blood related. The basis for this conclusion is the doctrine of monogenism developed by Charles Darwin, i.e. about the origin of man from one species of ancient bipeds great apes, and not from several (the concept of polygenism). Monogenism is confirmed by the anatomical similarity of all races, which could not, as Charles Darwin emphasized, arise through convergence, or convergence of characteristics, of different ancestral species. The species of monkey that served as the ancestor for humans probably lived in South Asia, from where ancient people spread across the Earth. Ancient people, the so-called Neanderthals (Homo neanderthalensis), gave rise to “homo sapiens”. But modern races did not arise from Neanderthals, but were formed anew under the influence of a combination of natural (including biological) and social factors.
The formation of races (raceogenesis) is closely related to anthropogenesis; both processes are the result of historical development. Modern man arose over a vast territory, approximately from the Mediterranean to Hindustan or somewhat larger. From here, Mongoloids could have formed in the northeast direction, Caucasoids in the northwest, and Negroids and Australoids in the south. However, the problem of the ancestral home of modern man is still far from being completely resolved.
In more ancient eras, when people settled on Earth, their groups inevitably found themselves in conditions of geographic and, consequently, social isolation, which contributed to their racial differentiation in the process of interaction of factors of variability (q.v.), heredity (q.v.) and selection. With an increase in the number of isolates, new settlement occurred and contacts with neighboring groups arose, causing crossbreeding. Natural selection also played a certain role in the formation of races, the influence of which noticeably weakened as the social environment developed. In this regard, the signs modern races are of secondary importance. Aesthetic, or sexual, selection also played some role in the formation of races; sometimes racial characteristics could acquire the meaning of identifying characteristics for representatives of one or another local racial group.
As the human population grew, both the specific importance and the direction of action of individual factors of raceogenesis changed, but the role of social influences increased. If for primary races miscegenation was a differentiating factor (when miscegenated groups again found themselves in conditions of isolation), now miscegenation levels out racial differences. Currently, about half of humanity is the result of crossbreeding. Racial differences, which naturally arose over many millennia, must and will, as K. Marx pointed out, be eliminated by historical development. But racial characteristics will continue to manifest themselves for a long time in certain combinations, mainly in individuals. Crossbreeding often leads to the emergence of new positive features of physical makeup and intellectual development.
The race of the patient must be taken into account when evaluating some medical examination data. This applies mainly to the peculiarities of the color of the integument. The skin color characteristic of a representative of the “black” or “yellow” race will turn out to be a symptom of Addison’s disease or icterus in a “white” race; A doctor will evaluate a purple tint of lip color and bluish nails in a Caucasian as cyanosis, and in a Negro as a racial feature. On the other hand, color changes due to “bronze disease,” jaundice, and cardiorespiratory failure, which are distinct in Caucasians, can be difficult to detect in representatives of the Mongoloid or Negroid-Australoid race. Much less practical significance have and less often may require adjustments for racial characteristics when assessing physique, height, skull shape, etc. As for the allegedly occurring predisposition of a given race to a particular disease, increased susceptibility to infection, etc., these characteristics, like As a rule, they do not have a “racial” character, but are associated with social, cultural, everyday and other living conditions, the proximity of natural foci of infection, the degree of acclimatization during relocation, etc.
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