Federal agency by education

Russian State University

Innovative Technologies and Entrepreneurship

Penza branch

Abstract on the discipline “Ecology”

On the topic: “Biotic environmental factors”

Completed by: student gr. 05U2

Morozov A.V.

Checked by: Kondrev S.V.

Penza 2008

Introduction

1. General pattern action of biotic factors

2. Biotic factors of the environment and ecosystem

Conclusion

List of used literature

Application

Introduction

The most important biotic factors include food availability, food competitors, and predators.

1. General pattern of action of biotic factors

The environmental conditions of organisms play a major role in the life of each community. Any element of the environment that has a direct impact on a living organism is called an environmental factor (for example, climatic factors).

There are abiotic and biotic environmental factors. Abiotic factors include solar radiation, temperature, humidity, light, soil properties, water composition.

Food is considered an important environmental factor for animal populations. The quantity and quality of food affect the fertility of organisms (their growth and development) and life expectancy. It has been established that small organisms need more food per unit mass than large ones; warm-blooded - more than organisms with unstable body temperature. For example, a blue tit with a body weight of 11 g needs to consume food annually in the amount of 30% of its weight, a song thrush with a body weight of 90 g - 10%, and a buzzard with a body weight of 900 g - only 4.5%.

Biotic factors include various relationships between organisms in a natural community. Distinguish between the relationships between individuals of the same species and individuals different types. The relationships between individuals of the same species have great value for his survival. Many species can reproduce normally only when they live in a fairly large group. Thus, a cormorant lives and reproduces normally if there are at least 10 thousand individuals in its colony. The principle of minimum population size explains why rare species difficult to save from extinction. For survival African elephants the herd must contain at least 25 individuals, and reindeer- 300-400 heads. Living together makes it easier to find food and fight enemies. Thus, only a pack of wolves can catch large prey, and a herd of horses and bison can successfully defend themselves from predators.

At the same time, an excessive increase in the number of individuals of one species leads to overpopulation of the community, increased competition for territory, food, and leadership in the group.

Population ecology studies the relationships between individuals of the same species in a community. Main task population ecology- study of population size, its dynamics, causes and consequences of population changes.

Populations of different species long time living together on certain territory, form communities, or biocenoses. A community of different populations interacts with environmental environmental factors, together with which it forms a biogeocenosis.

The existence of individuals of the same and different species in a biogeocenosis is greatly influenced by the limiting or limiting environmental factor, that is, the lack of a particular resource. For individuals of all species, the limiting factor can be low or high temperature, for inhabitants of aquatic biogeocenoses - water salinity and oxygen content. For example, the distribution of organisms in the desert is limited by high air temperatures. Applied ecology studies limiting factors.

For economic activity It is important for people to know the limiting factors that lead to a decrease in the productivity of agricultural plants and animals and to the destruction of insect pests. Thus, scientists have found that the limiting factor for click beetle larvae is very low or very high soil moisture. Therefore, to combat this pest of agricultural plants, the soil is drained or heavily moistened, which leads to the death of the larvae.

Ecology studies the interaction of organisms, populations, communities with each other, and the impact of environmental factors on them. Autecology studies the connections of individuals with the environment, and synecology studies the relationships between populations, communities and habitats. There are abiotic and biotic environmental factors. Limiting factors are important for the existence of individuals and populations. Population and applied ecology have received great development. Ecological achievements are used to develop measures to protect species and communities in agricultural practice.

Biotic factors are a set of influences of the life activity of some organisms on the life activity of others, as well as on inanimate nature. Classification of biotic interactions:

1. Neutrality - neither population influences the other.

2. Competition is the use of resources (food, water, light, space) by one organism, which thereby reduces the availability of this resource for another organism.

Competition can be intraspecific and interspecific. If the population size is small, then intraspecific competition is weak and resources are available in abundance.

At high population densities, intense intraspecific competition reduces resource availability to a level that inhibits further growth, thereby regulating population size. Interspecific competition is an interaction between populations that adversely affects their growth and survival. When imported into Britain from North America Carolina squirrel numbers have decreased common squirrel, because the Carolina squirrel turned out to be more competitive. Competition can be direct and indirect. Direct is intraspecific competition associated with the struggle for habitat, in particular the protection of individual areas in birds or animals, expressed in direct collisions.

With a lack of resources, it is possible to eat animals of their own species (wolves, lynxes, predatory bugs, spiders, rats, pike, perch, etc.) Indirect - between shrubs and herbaceous plants in California. The type that settles first excludes the other type. Fast-growing, deep-rooted grasses reduced the soil moisture content to levels unsuitable for shrubs.

And the tall bushes shaded the grasses, preventing them from growing due to lack of light.

Aphids, powdery mildew - plants.

High fertility.

They do not lead to the death of the host, but inhibit vital processes. Predation is the eating of one organism (prey) by another organism (predator). Predators can eat herbivores and also weak predators. Predators have wide range food, easily switch from one prey to another more accessible one. Predators often attack weak prey.

The mink destroys sick and old muskrats, but does not attack adult individuals. Ecological balance is maintained between prey-predator populations.

Symbiosis is the cohabitation of two organisms of different species in which the organisms benefit each other.

According to the degree of partnership, symbiosis occurs: Commensalism - one organism feeds at the expense of the other without harming it.

Cancer - sea anemone.

The sea anemone attaches to the shell, protecting it from enemies, and feeds on leftover food. Mutualism - both organisms benefit, but they cannot exist without each other.

Lichen - mushroom + algae.

The fungus protects the algae, and the algae feeds it. Under natural conditions, one species will not lead to the destruction of another species. Ecosystem. An ecosystem is a collection of different types of organisms living together and the conditions of their existence, which are in a natural relationship with each other. The term was proposed in 1935 by the English ecologist Texley.

The largest ecosystem is the Earth's biosphere, then in decreasing order: land, ocean, tundra, taiga, forest, lake, tree stump, flower pot. Ocean ecosystem. One of the largest ecosystems (94% of the hydrosphere). Living environment The ocean is continuous, there are no boundaries in it that prevent the settlement of living organisms (on land the boundary is the ocean between continents, on the continent there are rivers, mountains, etc.).

Biotic– the totality of influences of the life activity of some organisms on the life activity of others, as well as on the inanimate environment. Relationships between organisms, being extremely widespread, obvious and in some cases vital to humans, have attracted the attention of observers and researchers of wildlife since antiquity.

Table 2 – Main abiotic environmental factors

Factors	Rhythm of influence	Sphere of influence
Light	Daily and seasonal rhythms	1 Development of organisms (can either accelerate or slow down) 2 Formation of pigments and vitamins (UV radiation) 3 Inactivation of growth hormones in plants (UV radiation) 4 Determines the progress and productivity of photosynthesis (visible radiation) 5 Stimulates reproduction 6 Regulates behavior 7 Affects cyclicity biological processes(photoperiodism) 8 Heat source ( infrared radiation)
Temperature	Daily and seasonal rhythms	1 Development of organisms (can either accelerate or slow down) 2 Activity: a) threshold and exciting temperatures; b) metabolic activity; c) food consumption 3 Reproduction 4 Thermoperiodism as a signaling factor
Humidity	Daily and seasonal rhythms	1 Development of organisms 2 Stimulates reproduction 3 Regulates metabolic processes 4 Regulates activity and other behavioral reactions
Pressure	Arrhythmic	1 Reproduction (low constant pressure leads to male infertility) 2 Regulates activity
Wind	Arrhythmic	1 Regulates transpiration 2 Determines the shape of plants 3 Pollen transfer (anemogamy) 4 Anemochory (dispersal by wind) 5 Transmission of odors 6 Determines the number of flying forms

The scientific basis for studying relationships in natural communities founded by Charles Darwin. Further development this area is associated with the names of E. Haeckel, K. Mobius, F. Clements, V. Shelford, C. Elton, G. F. Morozov, V. N. Sukachev, V. N. Beklemishev, G. A. Novikov and others Biotic relationships are diverse. The type of interaction between organisms, populations, species can change over time due to changes in both themselves and environmental situation. Therefore, none of the classifications of biotic relationships is comprehensive. First of all, it is necessary to note the presence of such forms of relationships as intraspecific and interspecific. Intraspecific relationships include the entire set of connections and dependencies, most diverse in content, nature and significance, between organisms and groups of organisms of the same species.

Interspecific relationships arise on a different basis than intraspecific relationships and represent a different type of relationship. Trophic connections serve as the basis for the emergence of interspecific relationships. One of the results of interspecific relations is the formation of various protective devices. Adaptations that arose on the basis of interspecific relationships include the phenomenon of phagocytosis, mimicry, the release of phytoncides, the formation of thorns, prickles, and needles.

Figure 3.3 – Main types of environmental interactions

(according to A. S. Stepanovskikh, 2003)

The main types of relationships are positive and negative.

Competition(–, –) are relationships in which organisms, in the struggle for food sources or territory, influence each other negatively. Its special cases are: 1) competition (in the narrow sense of the word) for one or another limited resource (rivalry); 2) direct “fight” between representatives of different species (aggression); 3) mutual allelopathic inhibition (antagonism).

The study of competition has shown that it is most intense when the competing species have the same or similar requirements.

This is the basis for numerous cases of displacement of one species by another observed in nature. Thus, the red cockroach displaces the black one, the narrow-fingered crayfish displaces the wide-fingered one, gray rat– black. Even more stringent, as Charles Darwin noted, are the relationships between individuals, populations of the same species, because individuals of the same species live in similar conditions, need the same food and are exposed to the same dangers.

In the mid-30s, the Russian scientist G. F. Gause (1910–1986) carried out a series of works on laboratory reproduction of the phenomenon of interspecific competition. Research by G.F. Gause on protozoa (experiments with ciliates) established that when keeping two species on limited nutrition after some time, only one species remains, that is, two species cannot exist in the same territory (occupy the same ecological niche) if their ecological needs are identical. Research by G. F. Gause was the first to experimentally prove the possibility of implementing different options competitive interactions between species. Work on the study of competition in laboratory and natural conditions were extremely important for the development of ecology.

Predation(+, –) is a form of interspecific relations in which one species lives at the expense of another - it hunts and eats its prey. Predation can be specialized, when one or another type of predatory animal feeds on strictly specific prey. For example, the osprey eats only fish. Polyphagous predators (wolves) are also common.

Since the mid-60s of the 20th century, very significant research on the study of predation began to be carried out on the basis of modern computer technology, and generalizations appeared, which are based on broad ideas about this type of biotic relationships. The following functional classification of predators can be given:

- true predators, killing their prey immediately after attacking it and, in most cases, eating the prey entirely. These are lions, eagles, ladybugs, whales and many others;

– predators with a grazing type of diet. These are large herbivorous mammals - zebras, antelopes, goats, sheep, cattle. Typically they only use part of their prey;

Mutualism– cohabitation of different types, beneficial for both partners. A classic example of this type is the cohabitation of sea anemones and hermit crabs (Figure 3.4). Another example is the symbiosis of ants and aphids. Ants act as protectors of their feeders - aphids, producers of sugary secretions that the ants feast on. The intestines of all mammals, including humans, contain intestinal bacteria that help digest food. The symbiosis of nodule bacteria and legumes is widespread.

Protocooperation- a simple type of symbiotic relationship. In this form, coexistence is beneficial for both species, but not necessarily for them, i.e., it is not an indispensable condition for the survival of species (populations).

Figure 3.4 – Symbiosis of hermit crab and sea anemone

(according to A. S. Stepanovskikh, 2003)

Cooperation– both species form a community. It is not mandatory, since each species can exist separately, in isolation, but living in a community benefits both of them.

Commensalism(+, 0) – relationships of types in which one of the partners benefits without harming the other. Commensalism includes freeloading, co-feeding, and tenantry.

Freeloading– consumption of the host’s food remains, for example, the relationship between sharks and sticky fish (Figure 3.5).

Figure 3.5 – Freeloading

(according to E. A. Kriksunov et al., 1995)

Companionship– consumption different substances or parts of the same resource. For example, the relationship between various types of soil saprophyte bacteria, which process various organic substances from rotted plant residues, and higher plants, which consume the mineral salts formed during this process.

Tenancy– the use by some species of others (their bodies or their homes) as a shelter or home.

Amensalism(–, 0) – a type of interspecific relationship in which, in a joint environment, one species suppresses the existence of another species without experiencing opposition.

Neutralism(0, 0) – both types are independent and do not have any influence on each other.

In the course of evolution and development of ecosystems, there is a tendency to reduce the role of negative interactions at the expense of positive ones that increase the survival of interacting species (for example, altruism in human evolution).

Thus, biotic relationships are one of the most important mechanisms for the formation species composition communities, spatial distribution of species, regulation of their numbers are important for the process of evolution.

Biotic factors

Indirect interactions consist in the fact that some organisms are environment-formers in relation to others, and the priority importance here belongs, of course, to photosynthetic plants. For example, the local and global environment-forming function of forests, including their soil- and field-protective and water-protective roles, is well known. Directly in the forest conditions, a unique microclimate is created, which depends on the morphological characteristics of the trees and allows specific forest animals, herbaceous plants, mosses, etc. to live here. The conditions of the feather grass steppes represent completely different regimes of abiotic factors. In reservoirs and watercourses, plants are the main source of such an important abiotic component of the environment as oxygen.

At the same time, plants serve as a direct habitat for other organisms. For example, many fungi develop in the tissues of a tree (wood, bast, bark), the fruiting bodies of which (tinder fungi) can be seen on the surface of the trunk; Many insects and other invertebrates live inside the leaves, fruits, and stems of herbaceous and woody plants, and tree hollows are the usual habitat for a number of mammals and birds. For many species of secretive animals, their feeding place is combined with their habitat.

Interactions between living organisms in terrestrial and aquatic environment

Interactions between living organisms (mainly animals) are classified in terms of their mutual reactions.

There are homotypic (from Greek. homos- identical) reactions, i.e. interactions between individuals and groups of individuals of the same species, and heterotypic (from the Greek. heteros- different, different) - interactions between representatives of different species. Among animals, there are species that are able to feed on only one type of food (monophages), on a more or less limited range of food sources (narrow or broad oligophages), or on many species, using not only plant but also animal tissues for food (polyphags). The latter include, for example, many birds that are capable of eating both insects and plant seeds, or such known species, like a bear, is a predator by nature, but willingly eats berries and honey.

The most common type of heterotypic interactions between animals is predation, i.e., direct pursuit and consumption of some species by others, for example, insects - birds, herbivorous ungulates - carnivorous predators, small fish - larger ones, etc. Predation is widespread between invertebrate animals - insects, arachnids, worms, etc.

Other forms of interactions between organisms include the well-known pollination of plants by animals (insects); phoresia, i.e. transfer by one species to another (for example, plant seeds by birds and mammals); commensalism (common eating), when some organisms feed on the leftover food or secretions of others, an example of which are hyenas and vultures devouring the leftover food of lions; synoikia (cohabitation), for example, the use by some animals of the habitats (burrows, nests) of other animals; neutralism, i.e. mutual independence of different species living in a common territory.

One of the important types of interaction between organisms is competition, which is defined as the desire of two species (or individuals of the same species) to possess the same resource. Thus, intraspecific and interspecific competition are distinguished. Interspecific competition is also considered as the desire of one species to displace another species (competitor) from a given habitat.

However, real evidence of competition in natural (rather than experimental) conditions is difficult to find. Of course, two different individuals of the same species may try to take pieces of meat or other food from each other, but such phenomena are explained by the different quality of the individuals themselves, their different adaptability to the same environmental factors. Any type of organism is adapted not to one particular factor, but to their complex, and the requirements of two different (even close) species do not coincide. Therefore, one of the two will be forced out into natural environment not because of the competitive aspirations of the other, but simply because it is less adapted to other factors. A typical example is the “competition” for light between coniferous and deciduous tree species in young stands.

Deciduous trees (aspen, birch) outstrip pine or spruce in growth, but this cannot be considered competition between them: the former are simply better adapted to the conditions of clearings and burnt areas than the latter. Many years of work on the destruction of deciduous “weeds” with the help of herbicides and arboricides (chemical preparations for the destruction of herbaceous and shrubby plants), as a rule, did not lead to the “victory” of conifers, since not only light supply, but also many other factors (such as biotic , and abiotic) did not meet their requirements.

A person must take all these circumstances into account when managing wildlife, when exploiting animals and plants, that is, when fishing or carrying out such economic activities as plant protection in agriculture.

Soil biotic factors

As mentioned above, soil is a bioinert body. Living organisms play a vital role in the processes of its formation and functioning. These include, first of all, green plants that extract nutrient chemicals from the soil and return them back along with dying tissues.

But in soil formation processes, the living organisms (pedobionts) inhabiting the soil play a decisive role: microbes, invertebrates, etc. Microorganisms play a leading role in the transformation of chemical compounds and migration chemical elements, plant nutrition.

The primary destruction of dead organic matter is carried out by invertebrate animals (worms, mollusks, insects, etc.) in the process of feeding and excreting digestive products into the soil. Photosynthetic carbon sequestration in soil is carried out in some types of soil by microscopic green and blue-green algae.

Soil microorganisms carry out the main destruction of minerals and lead to the formation of organic and mineral acids, alkalis, and release enzymes, polysaccharides, and phenolic compounds synthesized by them.

The most important link in the biogeochemical nitrogen cycle is nitrogen fixation, which is carried out by nitrogen-fixing bacteria. It is known that the total production of nitrogen fixation by microbes is 160-170 million tons/year. It is also necessary to mention that nitrogen fixation, as a rule, is symbiotic (joint with plants), carried out by nodule bacteria located on the roots of plants.

Biologically active substances of living organisms

Environmental factors of biotic nature include chemical compounds, active produced by living organisms. These are, in particular, phytoncides - predominantly volatile substances produced by organisms by plants that kill microorganisms or suppress their growth. These include glycosides, terpenoids, phenols, tannins and many other substances. For example, 1 ha deciduous forest emits about 2 kg of volatile substances per day, coniferous - up to 5 kg, juniper - about 30 kg. Therefore the air forest ecosystems has the most important sanitary and hygienic importance, killing microorganisms that cause dangerous human diseases. For the plant, phytoncides serve as protection against bacterial, fungal infections, and protozoa. Plants are able to produce protective substances in response to infection by pathogenic fungi.

Volatile substances some plants can serve as a means of displacing other plants. The mutual influence of plants through the release of physiologically active substances into the environment is called allelopathy (from the Greek. allelon- mutually, pathos- suffering).

Organic matter, formed by microorganisms and having the ability to kill microbes (or prevent their growth) are called antibiotics; a typical example is penicillin. Antibiotics also include antibacterial substances found in plant and animal cells.

Dangerous alkaloids that have toxic and psychotropic effects are found in many mushrooms, higher plants. Severe headaches, nausea, and even loss of consciousness can occur as a result of a person’s long stay in a wild rosemary swamp.

Vertebrate and invertebrate animals have the ability to produce and secrete repellent, attractive, signaling, and killing substances. Among them are many arachnids (scorpion, karakurt, tarantula, etc.), and reptiles. Man widely uses animal and plant poisons for medicinal purposes.

The joint evolution of animals and plants has developed in them the most complex information-chemical relationships. Let's give just one example: many insects distinguish their food species by smell; bark beetles, in particular, fly only to a dying tree, recognizing it by the composition of the volatile terpenes of the resin.

Anthropogenic environmental factors

The entire history of scientific and technological progress is a combination of man’s transformation of natural environmental factors for his own purposes and the creation of new ones that previously did not exist in nature.

The smelting of metals from ores and the production of equipment are impossible without the creation high temperatures, pressure, powerful electromagnetic fields. Obtaining and maintaining high yields of agricultural crops requires the production of fertilizers and chemical plant protection products from pests and pathogens. Modern healthcare is unthinkable without chemotherapy and physiotherapy. These examples can be multiplied.

Achievements of scientific and technological progress began to be used in political and economic purposes, which was extremely manifested in the creation of special environmental factors affecting people and their property: from firearms to means of mass physical, chemical and biological influence. In this case, we can directly talk about a set of anthropotropic (i.e., aimed at the human body) and, in particular, anthropocidal environmental factors that cause pollution environment.

On the other hand, in addition to such purposeful factors, during operation and processing natural resources by-product chemical compounds and zones are inevitably formed high levels physical factors. In some cases, these processes can be of an abrupt nature (in conditions of accidents and disasters) with severe environmental and material consequences. Hence, it was necessary to create ways and means of protecting people from dangerous and harmful factors, which has now been implemented in the above-mentioned system - life safety.

In a simplified form, an approximate classification of anthropogenic environmental factors is presented in Fig. 1.

Rice. 1. Classification of anthropogenic environmental factors

Biotic environmental factors are the totality of influences of the life activity of some organisms on others, as well as on the inanimate environment.

Based on the nature of the impact on the body, direct and indirect biotic factors are distinguished.

Intraspecific biotic factors include demographic, ethological (behavioral factors), intraspecific competition, etc. Interspecific biotic factors are more diverse and can be both negative and positive, and can also be both positive and negative.

Classification of interspecific biotic interactions.

Item no.	Interaction type	Species		General nature of interaction
		1	2
1	Neutralism	0	0	neither population influences the other
2	Interspecific competition (direct)	—	—	one population suppresses another, and vice versa
3	Interspecific competition (over resources)	—	—	indirect suppression during deficiency shared resource
4	Amensalism (1 - amensal; 2 - inhibitor) Neutralism- a type of interaction between populations of two species that do not interact with each other and neither of them affects the other. Rarely found in nature, since in any biocenosis there are always indirect interactions. At competition both types influence each other negatively. If two species of animals have similar ecological needs, then competition develops between them - direct enmity. Predation - a method of obtaining food and feeding animals (sometimes plants), called predators, in which they catch, kill and eat other prey animals. Predators of the first order attack “peaceful” herbivores, while predators of the second order attack weaker predators. The ability to “switch” from one type of prey to another is one of the necessary ecological adaptations of predators. The second device is the presence of special devices for tracking and catching their victims. For example, predators have a well-developed nervous system, sensory organs, there are also special devices that help to capture, kill, eat and digest prey. The victims also have protective devices, for example, thorns, prickles, shells, protective coloring, poisonous glands, the ability to quickly hide, etc. Thanks to special adaptations of predators and prey in nature, certain groups of organisms are created - specialized predators and prey. Symbiosis — various shapes the coexistence of organisms, different species, constituting a symbiont system in which one of the partners or both entrusts the other with the regulation of their relationships with external environment. The basis for the emergence of symbiosis is the following relationships: Trophic - nutrition of one partner is carried out at the expense of the other by using the remains of his food Spatial - settling on the surface or inside the body of a partner, sharing burrows. Commensalism - a form of relationship between two species, in which the 1-commensal species benefits by using the structural features or lifestyle of the host; for the other, these relationships are indifferent. When sharing a meal, commensal relationships arise on the basis of food connections. Tenancy ( synoikia) - spatial cohabitation, useful for one and indifferent for the other. Superficial placement of small animals on large ones - epioikia , and the placement of small organisms inside large ones is endoikia . At phoresia small, weakly mobile animals (commensals) use large animals for settlement, attaching to their body. Mutualism- a form of symbiosis in which each of the cohabitants receives a relatively equal form and none of them can exist without the other. This relationship is beneficial for the growth and survival of both organisms. For example, nodule bacteria and legumes. According to the degree of dependence on the owner: Amensalism- a set of relationships between populations of two species, one of which suffers inhibition of growth and reproduction by the other, and the other does not experience negative effects. Allelopathy is the impossibility of the existence of one or another species as a result of environmental intoxication (“royal crown”). Protocooperation - a community of populations of two species that is not obligatory, but benefits both species.

Biotic environmental factors(Biotic factors; Biotic environmental factors; Biotic factors; Biological factors; from Greek. Biotikos- vital) - factors of the living environment that affect the life of organisms.

The action of biotic factors is expressed in the form of mutual influence of some organisms on the life activity of other organisms and all together on the habitat. There are direct and indirect relationships between organisms.

Intraspecific interactions between individuals of the same species consist of group and mass effects and intraspecific competition.

Interspecific relationships are much more diverse. Possible combination types reflect various types relationships:

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