It has become the most important social factor in human evolution. Social factors of human evolution

The monkeys did not immediately begin to walk straight. Changes in the environment - the transition from forests for living to open areas - caused some of them to have a tendency to walk upright, which was preserved and improved over millions of years in the process of the struggle for existence and natural selection. Upright walking limited the motor activity of great apes, which led to the fusion and immobility of the sacrum bones. And this, although it somewhat complicated childbirth, made it possible to see approaching danger from afar, freeing up hands for making tools.

At the beginning of the process of human formation, his hands were not yet well developed and only performed simple movements. Thanks to mutational variability, the struggle for existence and natural selection, individuals with modified hands capable of performing labor operations were preserved. It took millions of years for the first apes to be able not only to use ready-made objects (stones, sticks) as tools, but also to learn how to make them. The creation of tools led to the emergence of increasing differences between the hands of man and ape and reduced his dependence on external environment. This is exactly what F. Engels meant when he noted that labor created man.

Living in a community played an important role in the process of transformation of ape into man. Any individual possessing a weapon could not alone withstand the attack of predatory animals. Therefore, the most ancient and ancient people began to live in communities. In this way they protected themselves from predatory animals, hunted, and raised children. Community elders taught young members how to make tools, how to hunt, how to keep fire, and how to find edible plants and animals.

The ancient people formed primitive communal relations, namely, caring for the wounded and sick members of the community, and burying the dead. There were 50-100 people living in the community. Living in a community was of great importance. Communities survived that knew how to resist in the struggle for existence, hunt well, provide themselves with food, take care of each other, help reduce mortality among the elderly and children, and overcome unfavorable living conditions. The remaining communities perished.

With the development of the labor process, the usefulness of mutual assistance became increasingly obvious. The experience that people accumulated while understanding the environment, nature in general, was passed down from generation to generation and improved. Living in a community allowed its members to communicate with each other using sounds, gestures and facial expressions. Gradually, the horns and oral apparatus as a result of hereditary variability and natural selection, they turned into a speech organ in humans. Material from the site

Man and higher animals react to external objects and events with the direct participation of vision, hearing and other senses. Unlike higher animals, humans have developed a second signaling system. A person perceives external signals through words. This is a sign that qualitatively distinguishes the highest nervous activity humans and animals. Thanks to speech and joint work, social relations developed that strengthened the interaction of people.

In the process of the emergence of man, the consumption of food cooked over fire also played an important role. Hunting and fishing made it possible to eat not only plant foods, but also mixed foods, which naturally caused a reduction in the length of the intestines. Over the course of thousands of years, consumption of food cooked over fire gradually eased the load on the masticatory apparatus, as a result of which the rib of the upper bone, which connects the powerful chewing muscles in monkeys, lost its biological significance.

Do you think the principles that explain the origin and evolution of animal species apply to explain the origin and evolution of humans? From the perspective of synthetic theory, biological factors of evolution organic world- the mutation process, waves of life, genetic drift, isolation, struggle for existence and natural selection - apply to human evolution. The cooling of the climate and the displacement of forests by steppes determined the transition of the ancestors of great apes to a terrestrial way of life. This fact became the first step on their path to upright walking.

Deficiencies in the speed of movement when walking upright were compensated by the fact that the forelimbs were freed. At the same time, the vertical position of the body made it possible to obtain a larger amount of information. For example, human ancestors could have reacted more timely to the approach of predators. Hands began to be used to make and use various tools. Because the listed devices were aimed at increasing survival, it was along this path that the further action of natural selection was carried out. Consequently, biological factors of anthropogenesis contributed to the formation of human morphophysiological characteristics (upright posture, increased brain volume, developed hand).

Role social factors in anthropogenesis was revealed by F. Engels in his work “The Role of Labor in the Process of Transformation of Ape into Man” (1896). Social factors of evolution can be logically arranged in the following sequence: joint lifestyle → thinking → speech → work → social lifestyle. Human ancestors began to unite in groups to live together and mastered the manufacture of tools. It is the manufacture of tools that is a clear boundary between ape-like ancestors and humans. In the struggle for existence, groups of individuals began to gain an advantage, which together could resist unfavorable conditions environment. Thus, the social factors of anthropogenesis were aimed at improving relations between people within a group.

The role of labor in the formation of man

The evolution of the hand after being freed from the function of support went in the direction of its improvement for work activity. This fact reflected in the manufacture of various tools. This was noted when studying the fossil remains of Homo habilis ( Homo habilis).

The structure of the bones of the hand Homo habilis indicates a well-developed grasping ability of the upper limb. The nail phalanges have become short and flat, which once again emphasizes the active use of the brush. Extended phalanges of the fingers are evidence of heavy lifting physical work. In addition, the hand has become the leading human organ in making contacts at a distance using various objects.

The use of manufactured hunting tools significantly increased the efficiency of this process. Along with plant foods, people began to widely include more high-calorie foods of animal origin in their diet. Cooking over fire reduced the load on the masticatory apparatus and digestive system. As a result, the head skeleton became lighter and the intestines became shorter.

With the development of work activity, people continued to unite to live together. This expanded man's understanding of the world around him. New ideas were generalized in the form of concepts, which contributed to the development of thinking and the formation articulate speech. With the improvement of speech came the development of the brain. It was in the listed directions that the action of the driving form of natural selection was realized. As a result, ancient people had very short term brain volume increased significantly.

Social way of life as a factor in human evolution

During the transition to a terrestrial way of life, human ancestors faced a number of difficulties in the struggle for existence. This includes the development of new habitats and constant danger, associated with predators in open spaces. For successful survival, human ancestors united into groups, and work contributed to the unity of their members. Ancient people collectively defended themselves from predators, hunted, and raised children. The older members taught the younger ones to find natural materials and make tools, taught them to hunt and maintain a fire. The use of fire, in addition to cooking, helped protect against bad weather and predators.

Social life provided unlimited opportunities for communication through sounds and gestures. Gradually, the undeveloped larynx and oral apparatus of ape-like ancestors turned into organs of articulate human speech. This was facilitated by hereditary variability and natural selection.

The leading role of social factors in the history of human development

At the stage of evolution of ancient people, the leading role belonged to biological factors - the struggle for existence and natural selection. Selection was aimed at the survival of individual human populations. Those who were most adapted to unfavorable conditions and those who were more skilled in making tools survived. As people united into groups, social factors began to play a leading role in anthropogenesis. The advantage in the struggle for existence did not necessarily go to the strongest. Gradually, herding and associated forms of communication became the object of selection. Those who survived were those who preserved as much as possible children—the future of the population—and the elderly—bearers of life experience.

Through labor and speech, man began to gradually master the culture of producing tools and constructing dwellings. Training and education, as well as the transfer of experience, were an important prerequisite for the emergence of elements human culture. At first they appeared in the form of rock paintings, figurines, and funeral rites. The improvement of the collective way of life and the distribution of responsibilities among group members reduced the role of biological factors in human evolution.

Qualitative differences of a person

Speaking about qualitative differences, we will try to summarize the previously discussed prerequisites for anthropogenesis. A skilled man, the first true representative of the family Homo, distinguishes it from representatives of the animal world precisely by the ability to make tools.

What is important here is the manufacture, and not the simple use of a stick or stone by ape-like ancestors to satisfy the needs for protection or food. Animals can also use improvised means to obtain food. Monkeys, for example, use sticks and stones to knock bananas and coconuts off palm trees. Sea otters use stones to crack shells of mollusks. Some species of Galapagos finches use cactus spines to extract insects from under the bark of trees.

All ways of using objects in the life of animals are random nature or driven by instinct. Therefore, the main qualitative difference of a person is, of course, conscious work. It is labor that represents the boundary that separates man and his distant ancestors.

Man has the same body plan as all mammals. At the same time, there are a number of differences in the structure of the human body related to upright posture, work activity and speech development.

Due to upright posture The position of the body changed and the center of gravity shifted to the lower limbs. This caused a change in the shape of the spine from arched to S-shaped. This shape gave the spine additional flexibility when moving. Shortening the spinal column ensures a stable position of the body on lower limbs, which in humans, unlike ape-like ancestors, are longer than the upper ones.

Other progressive elements associated with walking on two legs included an arched, springy foot, an expanded pelvis, and a shorter, wider ribcage. In humans, the foramen magnum moves toward the center of the base of the skull, allowing the skull to balance on the cervical vertebrae.

Due to labor activity The human hand is small in size, distinguished by its thinness and mobility. This gives her the opportunity to perform a variety of movements. Retraction thumb and its contrast with the rest allows a person not only to take an object, but also to comfortably grasp it.

The increase in brain volume led to an increase in the size of the cerebral part of the skull to an average of 1500 cm 3. It is 4 times larger in volume than the facial region, although in monkeys this ratio is 1:1.

WITH speech development The human lower jaw took on the appearance of a horseshoe with a protruding chin. Another distinctive feature was the presence of a second signaling system. The word and the thinking associated with it allow a person to reason logically and generalize accumulated facts. This is the basis for the transfer of experience, culture, traditions, and knowledge over many generations. The knowledge and experience accumulated by a person throughout his life become the property of the entire society. This became possible thanks to the development of speech, and subsequently writing.

Such human qualities as hard work, plasticity of thinking, and culture of speech develop on the basis of education and upbringing in society. Outside of human society the formation is harmonious developed personality impossible.

The basis of human evolution is biological (mutation process, waves of life, genetic drift, isolation, struggle for existence, natural selection) and social (labor, thinking, speech, public life) factors of evolution. Labor contributed to the unification of human ancestors into groups. The development of speech, the improvement of a collective way of life, the distribution of responsibilities between group members - all this strengthened the role of social factors in anthropogenesis. The word and the thinking associated with it allowed a person to reason logically and generalize accumulated facts. Distinctive feature human is the presence of a second signaling system.

Human development: upright posture, increase in brain volume and complication of its organization, development of the hand, lengthening the period of growth and development.

Developed hand tools of labor advantages over animals.

Making fire individual behavior speech factor accelerated development increased brain volume.

Speech is a society, division of responsibilities between its members.

Factors of human anthropogenesis: biological and social.

Biological factors– hereditary variability, the struggle for existence, natural selection, as well as the mutation process. Morphological changes of the ape-like ancestor - anthropomorphoses.

Social factors (leading role) - work activity, social lifestyle, development of speech and thinking.

The Becoming of Man as biological species passed through four main stages of evolution within the hominid family:

1. Predecessors of man (australopithecus, Homo habilis);

2. The most ancient man (archanthropes);

3. Ancient man (paleanthropes);

4.Man modern type(neoanthropes).

At present, there is still no paleontological data to construct all the intermediate stages in the development of hominids that led to modern humans.

All Cenozoic era characterized gradual development primates. Descendants of the first forms of primates of the Tertiary period now form a suborder lower primates or prosimians. About 30 million years ago, a branch separated from prosimians, which later led to the formation of ancient apes. They were small animals that lived in trees and ate plants and insects. From them descended all modern anthropoids and the subsequently extinct group of arboreal monkeys - Dryopithecus.

Dryopithecus lived approximately 25 million years ago in southern Asia and Europe, in Africa. Analysis of the finds shows that Dryopithecus was similar to both great apes, so it is with a person.

In addition to Dryopithecus, there were also Ramapithecus, which were rather small creatures that moved on four limbs. The height reached 100 - 110 cm, and the weight of an adult did not exceed 18 - 22 kg. The brain volume was 350 - 380 cm. Ramapithecines were inhabitants of open spaces. They may have used primitive tools (sticks, stones), but they were not processed.

Human Precursor Stage. Australopithecines are the most ancient, transitional forms of higher animals from monkeys to humans, found in South Africa and became extinct about 1 million years ago. The common ancestor of all australopithecus is Australopithecus ramidus, which was followed by Apharensis. This Australopithecus gave different directions evolution: 1) Australopithecus - African, Ethiopian, Robustus and 2) Homo - skilled, upright. Australopithecines were relatively large organisms (weight approximately 20 -65 kg, height 100 - 150 cm). Their evolution continued for a very long time > 3 million years. They walked on short legs with their bodies straightened. The brain mass reached 450 g in some species, which is more than that of modern apes. Australopithecus lived on open spaces where they hunted and collected plant food. In their activities they used large pebbles, as well as long bones of large ungulates; the lower jaws and shoulder blades of the same animals were used for cutting and chopping. Australopithecines were omnivores. There are finds indicating their use of fire. In a number of ways, Australopithecines were closer to humans than modern apes.

Archanthrope stage(ancient people). Their ancestors were various branches of the species Homo habilis. The most ancient people are united into one species - Homo erectus. Quite a significant number of forms of ancient people have been studied. The most famous are: Pithecanthropus (Java), Sinanthropus (China), Heidelberg man ( Northern Europe), Atlantrop (Algeria), etc. Outwardly they were similar to modern people, although they had significant differences: a powerful development of the brow ridge, the absence of a real chin protrusion, a low forehead and a flat nose. The volume of the brain was approximately 1000 cm. The average height of an adult archanthropus was almost 160 cm, but forms are known that significantly exceed these dimensions.

Apxanthropes widely used tools in their activities, such as axes and pointed points. They successfully hunted large mammals and birds. They lived mainly in caves and were able to build primitive shelters from large stones. At permanent camp sites, fires were usually maintained. Cannibalism existed within populations - eating their own kind. Joint work activity and herd lifestyle led to further development brain, the size of which gave scientists reason to assume that these people must have had real, albeit very primitive speech.

After a period of maximum prosperity 600 - 400 thousand years ago, these people quickly died out, giving rise to a new branch - the Neanderthals (ancient people).

Paleoanthropus stage(ancient people). There are several groups of ancient people. Neanderthals have been well studied. The name of this species Neanderthal Man (Homosapiensncandertales) is associated with the Neanderthal Valley in Germany, where the remains of these people were first found (19th century). Neanderthals lived 20,035 thousand years ago. The era of the Great Glaciation coincided with the era of the Neanderthals. From the beginning of its appearance, this species gave two branches of evolution: one was represented by large, physically developed, but in terms of brain structure they were closer to to the most ancient people; they were a dead-end branch of evolution. People of another branch were shorter and less developed physically, but in terms of brain structure and morphological characteristics they were closer to modern humans. They are characterized by: a low sloping forehead, a low occiput, a continuous supraorbital ridge, a large face with widely spaced eyes, usually weak development of the chin protuberance, and large teeth. Their height reached 160 cm, their muscles were unusually well developed. The large head seems to be pulled into the shoulders.

They lived in large herds, they had a division of labor between men (making tools, hunting, making fire, protection) and women (gathering wild fruits and roots), speech was still primitive, but logical thinking has already been developed. They built simple dwellings, protected themselves from the cold with clothes made from animal skins, and made more advanced flint and bone tools.

Neanderthals buried their dead or deceased fellow tribesmen. Neanderthals suddenly disappeared 40 - 35 thousand years ago. They are believed to have been partially exterminated by modern humans.

Neoanthropus stage. This name refers to both fossil forms of humans of the modern physical type and living people. Cro-Magnons are the first modern people belonging to the species Homo sapiens. The first find was made in the south of France near the town of Cro-Magnon. The appearance of Cro-Magnons dates back to 40 -30 thousand years BC. e. These people had appearance modern people are characterized by the absence of brow ridges, the presence of a chin, and a straight forehead. Their height was about 180 cm. The Cro-Magnons had a good command of speech, and they developed fine arts. The most important contribution of these people to the history of mankind was their habituation of a number of animals and the development of agriculture, breeding cultivated plants.

Paleontological finds indicate that during the period of the emergence of modern humans, the last Neanderthals also lived out their lives. In particular, skeletal remains of hybrids between Neanderthals and modern humans were found in Palestine.

Starting with the Cro-Magnons, biological evolution increasingly turns into social (public) evolution. As a result of the progressive development of Cro-Magnon man, modern man with characteristic racial characteristics appeared.

Evolutionary teaching is theoretical basis biology. It studies the causes and mechanisms of the historical development of all living organisms. Human evolution has its own characteristics and factors.

What is anthropology

According to evolutionary teaching, man was formed over a long period of time. The processes of its historical development are studied by the science of anthropology.

The emergence of man has its own characteristics. They lie in the fact that the process of formation is influenced by both social and biological factors. The first group includes the ability to work, speech. The biological factor in human evolution is, in particular, the struggle for existence. As well as natural selection and hereditary variability.

Basic provisions of evolutionary theory

According to Charles Darwin's theory, environmental conditions can cause changes in the structure of living organisms. If they are not inherited, then their role in the process of evolution is insignificant. In some individuals, changes occur in the germ cells. In this case, the trait is inherited. If it proves useful under certain conditions, then the organisms have a better chance of survival. They adapt successfully and produce fertile offspring.

Struggle for existence

Main biological factor human evolution is Its essence lies in the emergence of competition between organisms. The reason for its appearance is the discrepancy between the ability different types for food and reproduction. As a result, the species that could survive the best way adapt to specific conditions.

Despite the fact that the process of emergence modern man obeyed general patterns, there are a number of differences. Natural selection occurred not only for strength, agility and endurance. In addition to these physical signs, special meaning The level of mental development also played a role. Individuals who learned to make and use the most primitive tools, communicate with fellow tribe members, and act together had a greater chance of survival.

Natural selection

During the struggle for existence, natural selection occurs - biological process, during which adapted individuals survive and actively reproduce. Those who fail to adapt die.

Thus, natural selection is also a biological factor in human evolution. Its peculiarity was that individuals with pronounced social traits survived. The most viable people turned out to be those who invented new tools, acquired new skills and socialized. Over time, the importance of natural selection in the process of anthropogenesis decreased. This is due to the fact that ancient people gradually learned to build, improve and heat homes, make clothes, grow plants, and domesticate animals. As a result, the importance of natural selection gradually decreased.

Hereditary variability

Hereditary variability is also a biological factor in human evolution. This property of living organisms lies in the ability to acquire new characteristics in the process of their development and pass them on by inheritance. Naturally, only useful traits had evolutionary significance in the process of anthropogenesis.

Humans are similar to mammals by a number of similar biological traits. This is the presence of mammary and sweat glands, hair, and viviparity. The body cavity is divided by a muscular septum, the diaphragm, into thoracic and abdominal parts. Similar signs are the absence of nuclei in red blood cells, erythrocytes, the presence of alveoli in the lungs, the general plan of the structure of the skeleton, differentiated teeth. Both humans and animals have rudimentary (underdeveloped) organs. These include the appendix, the third eyelid, the rudiments of the second row of teeth and others. Scientists know cases of people being born with characteristic features animals - a developed tail, continuous hair, an additional number of nipples. This provides additional evidence from animals. But in the process of anthropogenesis, only the most useful characteristics were preserved.

The following biological traits are specific only to humans:

Upright walking;

Enlargement of the brain and reduction of the facial part of the skull;

Arched foot with strongly developed big toe;

Movable hand, thumb opposed to the rest;

Increase in brain volume, development of its cortex.

Human biological evolution is closely related to social evolution. For example, the ability to make fire and cook food led to a decrease in the size of teeth and the length of the intestines.

Biological factors of human evolution are a necessary condition for the formation of social ones, which together led to the appearance of Homo sapiens on Earth.