The diversity and significance of reptiles. Biology at the Lyceum Practical significance of reptiles

Goals:

1. Show the diversity of modern reptiles;
2. Determine the importance of reptiles in nature, human life and the need for their protection;
3. Develop educational, social and communication competencies: the ability to solve problems, think creatively, communicate;
4. Foster a sense of respect for any manifestation of life; understanding the interconnection and harmony in nature.

Equipment: multimedia projector, computer, tables "Class of Reptiles", collections "Snake", "Turtle".

Topic presentation plan:

1. The diversity and importance of modern reptiles:
   • Squad Crocodiles
   • Order Beakheads
   • Turtle Squad
   • Order Scaly
2. Protection of reptiles. Reptiles listed in the Red Book

During the classes

Ι. Organizational moment (setting lesson goals)

ΙΙ. Testing students' knowledge

Written work on a test task. After solving the test, students conduct a peer review. The test is given in Appendix 1 .

ΙΙΙ. Learning new material

Reptiles (reptiles, reptiles - from the Latin Reptilia) - a class (according to the outdated classification), or a paraphyletic group (according to the modern classification) of predominantly terrestrial vertebrates, including modern turtles, crocodiles, lizards and snakes.

Let's look at a few modern units reptiles according to a single plan:

1. Squad name
2. Representatives of the detachment
3. The importance of representatives of the order in nature and human life
4. Protected reptiles

Squad Crocodiles

Crocodiles (Crocodylia, or Loricata) are an order of aquatic reptiles. The word "crocodile" comes from the Greek. κροκόδειλος, "pebble worm", given because of the bumpy skin of these animals. It is believed that crocodiles appeared 84 million years ago during the Late Cretaceous period.

Families:

• True crocodiles (Crocodylidae);
• Alligators (Alligatoridae);
• Gavialidae.

Once upon a time, crocodiles were often found in reservoirs of hot regions of all continents (especially South America, Africa and Asia). Many of these animals were exterminated by people for the sake of beautiful and durable skin.

Crocodiles externally resemble giant lizards, up to 10 m long. The tail of these animals is noticeably compressed from the sides, which is associated with their by water life. Among modern reptiles, crocodiles have the most complex structure. In particular, the lungs of crocodiles have many partitions inside, and the heart, unlike all other reptiles, is four-chambered, although the venous and arterial blood leaving the heart is partially mixed.

Crocodiles usually lie in wait for their prey, hiding under water and exposing only their eyes and the tip of their muzzle with nostrils to the surface. Young small crocodiles eat fish, amphibians, and birds, while larger ones also attack animals that come to a watering hole.

Crocodiles are dangerous to humans to varying degrees. Some never attack humans (gharial), others attack systematically ( saltwater crocodile), still others (Nile crocodile) attack occasionally. Crocodile meat is edible and consumed by the population of many tropical countries. The skin of crocodiles, especially alligators, is used to make various haberdashery products (briefcases, suitcases, etc.). Predatory extermination of crocodiles led to a sharp reduction in their numbers and the adoption of protective measures. In a number of countries there are special farms for breeding crocodiles.

It's interesting to know: Exists ancient legend that a crocodile cries “crocodile tears” when eating a person. The first known mention of this legend is in the book The Voyage and Travel of Sir John Mandeville, which first appeared in England between 1357 and 1371. Among other things, it mentions that in Ethiopia there are crocodiles that cry when they eat person.

Order Beakheads

Beakheads (lat. Sphenodóntia) are one of the orders of the Reptile class. Currently, the order is represented by the wedge-toothed family (Sphenodontidae), in which there are only two species of the genus Sphenodon: hatteria ( Sphenodon punctatus) and the Brother Island tuatara (Sphenodon guntheri).

Hatteria, tuatara (Sphenodon punctatum), a lizard-like reptile in appearance, is the only modern species of the wedge-toothed family (Sphenodontidae), which today represents the ancient order of beak-headed, or proboscis-headed (Rhynchocephalia). Hatteria is now found only on small islands near New Zealand's North Island, although until the end of the last century it lived throughout New Zealand. The structure retains many primitive features for reptiles. A remarkable feature is the third, or parietal, eye on the top of the head, consisting of a transparent integumentary scale, lens, pigmented retina and a well-developed nerve leading to the brain through the superior opening in the skull. The animal is tightly built, up to about 60 cm long, olive-brown or dull yellow in color. A low ridge of enlarged scales runs along the back and tail (in the Maori language, “tuatara” means “spiny”). The hatteria feeds mainly on insects and lays eggs with a leathery shell, which are incubated for at least a year. Ironically, having survived many millions of years almost unchanged, these animals were brought to the brink of extinction by European colonists, who sharply worsened their living conditions mainly due to the development of sheep farming in New Zealand and the introduction of many new animals, including predatory ones. On islands where tuataria are preserved, they often settle in burrows dug by petrels nesting there. The species is now protected by the New Zealand government, and the number of its individuals is increasing.

Turtle Squad

Turtles (lat. Testudines) are a group of reptiles that have existed for 250 million years. Contains about 230 species, grouped into 12 families and 2 suborders, distributed throughout the earth and living both in water and on land. Sometimes they are classified as Parareptiles or even placed in a separate class.

Suborders:

• Hidden-necked turtles (Cryptodira);
• Side-necked turtles (Pleurodira);
• Shieldless turtles (Athecae);
• Sea turtles (Chelonioidea);
• Trionyxes (Trionychoidea).

The body of turtles is covered with a shell, which is formed by expanded bones of the skeleton, covered on top with horny plates. In case of danger, the turtle draws its head, limbs and tail into its shell or hides them under its protrusions. In this state, it is well protected from enemies, since the shell is very durable. Turtles are toothless and have a horny beak covering their jaws. Land turtles have a high shell and short toes. Aquatic animals have a flattened shell. Turtles that live in lakes and rivers have a swimming membrane between their toes, and sea turtles have feet that have turned into flippers.

Land turtles live in the southern regions of Kazakhstan and throughout Central Asia. In the spring, they wander through deserts and steppes, feeding on succulent parts of plants, and laying eggs. At the beginning of summer, when the vegetation burns out, turtles dig holes and hibernate. They wake up in the fall to feed on the sparse autumn vegetation, and again go into burrows for the whole winter.

In many countries, turtle meat and eggs are eaten. The horny plates of some turtle species are used to make crafts.

Listed in the Red Book of Russia: Far Eastern tortoise, Mediterranean tortoise.

Order Scaly

Scaly (lat. Squamata) is one of four orders of reptiles, including snakes, lizards, and the lesser-known moths. The most numerous group of reptiles (approximately 6.1 thousand species).

Suborders:

• lizards (Sauria);
• snakes (Serpentes);
• two-year-olds (Amphisbaenia).

As the name indicates, the body of representatives of this order (lizards and snakes) is covered with scales.

In addition to the sand lizard, many other species are known. IN middle lane Russia is home to the snapping lizard, to the north the viviparous lizard is common, and in the southern regions geckos, agamas and the largest lizard live - gray monitor lizard(up to 2 m long).

Everyone has heard about snakes. Many have seen them in nature or in the zoo. However, it is not so easy to say how a snake differs from a lizard. The fact is that there are legless lizards (for example, the spindle), which are often confused with snakes. From external signs The structure of the eyelids is important: in snakes they grow together, become transparent and cover the eyes like a watch glass. Hence the strange, unblinking gaze of the snake, which gave rise to absurd opinions about their supposedly inherent hypnotic effect. Lizards (including legless ones) have developed movable, opaque eyelids.

When molting, the entire skin of the snake comes off in one piece, turning inside out like a stocking. Superstitious people groundlessly attribute miraculous properties to these “crawls.” Snakes move by writhing their bodies along the ground - they reptile. Hence the name of the class - reptiles.

This is interesting: The largest snake is the giant anaconda boa, up to 11 m long, lives in South America.

The poisonous nature of snakes is well known, although Poisonous snakes constitute only one tenth total number their types. The front teeth of venomous snakes have a groove or channel through which the venom, when bitten, is introduced into the body of the victim or enemy. If you are bitten by a snake, you should not self-medicate (make incisions, cauterizations, pressure bandages, etc.). The victim must be taken to a doctor as soon as possible. The most effective treatment- injection of a special anti-snake serum and blood transfusion. If you are bitten by a viper, it is recommended to drink hot tea or coffee.

You should not kill snakes, even poisonous ones. Poisonous snakes do not attack humans themselves. Most often they bite those who tease them or step on them.

All snakes, including poisonous ones, are useful by exterminating harmful rodents. Snake venom is used in medicine to prepare medicines. For this purpose, snakes are kept in special nurseries.

The Red Book includes: squeaky gecko, gray gecko, Barbour's foot-and-mouth disease, Przewalski's foot-and-mouth disease, middle lizard, Far Eastern skink, western boa snake, Japanese snake, Aesculapian snake, Transcaucasian snake, thin-tailed snake, striped snake, red-banded dinodon, eastern dinodon, cat snake, Dinnik's viper, Kaznakov's viper, Kaznakov's viper, Nikolsky's viper, viper.

Poisonous snakes cause great harm, especially in tropical countries. Large crocodiles pose a danger to people and cause damage to livestock. Many turtles harm fisheries.

Student messages.

Each presentation is accompanied by a display of illustrations. The speakers answer questions that students may have. Messages are supplemented with comments from the teacher. Messages are given in Appendix 2 .

ΙV. Consolidation of knowledge

1. Representatives of which order live only on land?
2. Representatives of which order have a tongue with a thickening at the end?
3. Representatives of which order have a bone-horny shell?
4. Representatives of which order have strong regeneration?
5. Representatives of which order have a laterally flattened tail with a crest?
6. Representatives of which order have fused transparent eyelids?
7. Representatives of which order have an increased ability for mimicry?
8. Representatives of which order have poisonous glands?
9. Representatives of which order have nostrils and eyes on tubercles?
10. Representatives of which order have jaws without teeth, similar to a beak?

Students, having answered the questions, fill out a table with the answers: put a cross in the boxes under the question number and opposite the desired unit.

V. Homework

VΙ. Conclusions on the topic

Reptiles are numerous vertebrates. Reptiles have great importance in the biotic cycle of substances. Most species of lizards and snakes, destroying harmful agriculture insects, mollusks and rodents are of great benefit. However, some species of reptiles are harmful. At fish-breeding stations, water snakes cause serious harm, destroying a large number of fry commercial fish: carp, salmon, sturgeon.

Reptiles can serve as a source of raw materials for industry. Crocodile skin has long been large snakes and the lizards were used to make suitcases, briefcases, shoes, etc. A sharp drop in the number of crocodiles forced them to be taken under protection; now almost all of their species are listed in the IUCN Red Book. Turtles and their eggs have been eaten for a long time. Beautiful combs, hairpins, and eyeglass frames were made from the horny scutes of turtle shells.

What is the significance of reptiles in nature? and got the best answer

Answer from Ekaterina Frolova[guru]
reptiles serve as food for different groups of vertebrates;
Most representatives of the order Scalyata will destroy a large number of agricultural pests;
the poison is used in medicine;
products are made from turtle shells;
Some species are eaten by humans.

Answer from now Zenya[newbie]
yes

Answer from Oksana[expert]
a class (according to the traditional classification) or paraphyletic group (according to the cladistic classification) of predominantly terrestrial vertebrates, including modern turtles, crocodiles, beaked animals, amphisbaenians, lizards and snakes. In the 18th-19th centuries, reptiles, cold-blooded terrestrial vertebrates, were grouped together with amphibians. Now they are considered the closest to birds (or even combined with them into one taxonomic group). About 9,400 species of reptiles are known in the world; 77 species live in Russia.

Answer from Galina Ermakova[newbie]
Most reptiles, especially in the steppes and deserts, have a noticeable effect on the number of mollusks, small rodents and other animals on which they feed. In turn, many reptiles serve as food for commercial animals, in particular foxes and ferrets. In a number of countries, the skin of crocodiles, large snakes and lizards has long been used to make shoes, briefcases, and belts. In order to preserve the number of crocodiles, farms are being created where they are bred, thereby strengthening their protection in nature.
In some countries, turtle meat and eggs are used as food; the horny plates of the shells are used to make frames for glasses, combs and jewelry. Sea turtles are included in the Red Book, and their fishing is controlled.
Snake venom is widely used in medicine, for example, in the manufacture of medicinal ointments. Snake nurseries have been created to obtain venom. The largest of them operate in Tashkent and Bishkek. Cobras, vipers, sand ephs and other poisonous snakes are kept here

Answer from 2 answers[guru]

Hello! Here is a selection of topics with answers to your question: what is the importance of reptiles in nature?

Answer the question. How do humans use animals? The importance of animals in human life!? The questions are stupid...but it’s necessary!(((
According to human laws, animals can be human property.
Domesticated animals

Lower vertebrates (Tetrapoda) - amphibians (Amphibia) and reptiles (Reptilia) - are much less known to people than, say, mammals, birds or insects. Meanwhile, these ancient groups of animals are interesting for many reasons. Now there are about 4834 known species of amphibians, reptiles - about 8000. This is not much compared to fish and fish-like species, of which there are 20,000 species, but not so few compared to birds and mammals - 8600 and 4500-5000 species, respectively.

Amphibians are the first terrestrial vertebrates, which, however, could not break the connection with water, with the aquatic environment and use 2 biocycles of the Earth. Hence their name (amphi - double, BIOS - life), hence their characteristics (breathing with the help of gills, lungs, through the skin and mucous membranes of the oral cavity; reproduction in water, poikilothermism, etc.).

Reptiles are next step in the development of land by vertebrates. They have virtually no cutaneous respiration; a dense scaly cover protects them from drying out; they all breed on land; in addition to laying eggs (covered with a leathery membrane, sometimes calcified), they develop ovoviviparity and even viviparity; better regulation of body temperature.

Thus, both of these groups of animals, both classes are of interest to science from the point of view of the theory of evolution. The age of the amphibian class is about 340 million years (Lower - Middle Devonian), the reptile class is about 270 million years (Upper Carboniferous - Lower Permian). Despite such a venerable age, they are not only well preserved, but have also adapted to new conditions, exist next to the young classes of birds and animals - their “descendants”, and have populated almost the entire Earth- from the Arctic to the Strait of Magellan, although they are especially richly represented in the tropics. They developed the most interesting adaptations, both general and specific, many of which are still poorly studied.

Thus, the small size of amphibians and many reptiles, gluttony and indiscriminateness in food, fertility and protection of offspring, protective coloring and poisonousness - all this helps to survive in competition with higher organized groups: small sizes - new ecological niches; gluttony and lack of selectivity in food - the ability to live off almost any food, using as much as possible those foods that are more abundant in the biotope; fertility is one of the forms of protection of offspring, and a primitive one, along with which complex forms of protection appear and are consolidated (the first - in the lake frog, green toad; the second - in the sharp-faced frog, midwife, blacksmith tree frog, phyllomedusa); protective coloring allows one to hide without shelter and is widespread, reaching particular perfection in some groups of amphibians (frogs) and reptiles (chameleons); toxicity increases the possibility of survival by reducing the number of enemies (toads): it is often accompanied by warning coloring (salamanders, toads, dart frogs, coral adders).

High numbers, which often reach amphibians and reptiles, also help survival: lake and pond frogs - up to 3.5-6 specimens. per 1m 2; per 1 hectare up to 386-410 sand lizards, 1300 green toads, 700 spadefoots, 300 sharp-faced frogs. About the latest academician S.S. Schwartz said that in the southern taiga they can compete with elk in terms of biomass (in the Raifa section of the Volga-Kama Nature Reserve, the biomass of the elk reaches 2.5 kg/ha, the biomass of the sharp-faced frog is up to 6 kg/ha). All of the mentioned adaptations are also expressed in reptiles, however, with a special refraction. Thus, in snakes, the ability to swallow large prey is followed by the ability to digest it for a rather long time. At the same time, reptiles have more pronounced selectivity in the choice of food and specialization in nutrition, sometimes going very far, which is more relevant to tropical species. Consumers meet there cephalopods and ichthyophages (warty snakes, sea ​​snakes), batrachophages, like our common snake (big-eyed snake), saurophages, like our copperhead (arrow snake, sharp-headed snake), ophiophages (hamadryad, mussurana, in our country - lizard snake), oophages (egg eater), entomophages, like eirenis, steppe viper , consumers of marine plants (sea turtle, marine iguana), etc. Reptiles have no less complex forms of protection for their offspring than amphibians. Turtles, lizards, and many snakes that lay eggs select suitable places for this (sand, piles of rotting leaves or manure, shelters under flat stones heated by the sun, etc.).

Female pythons “incubate” a clutch of eggs, regulating not only their temperature, but also their humidity. Some large lizards (jacrouaru - South America, Nile monitor - Africa) lay eggs in termite structures, breaking their hard walls, and the young hatched from the eggs leave termite mounds during the rainy season. The king cobra (hamadryad) guards a clutch of eggs, attacking anyone who approaches the nest, which, by the way, has a complex structure. Crocodiles (Nile crocodile, Mississippi alligator) make nests in which they lay eggs. Females “talk” to the embryos, help them get rid of their egg shells, and later continue to look after them for several weeks and even years. Poisonousness in reptiles often has not a color, as in amphibians, but a sound warning accompaniment (the hiss of vipers, the cracking of epha scales, the rattle of a rattlesnake) with appropriate behavior (vertical position of the upper body, widening of the neck). It should also be noted the “sculpture” of the integument, which undoubtedly plays a certain role in the animal’s defense system. These are, in particular, the spines of iguanas, roundheads, toad-like lizards, moths, spiny tails, etc. In some cases, we also know about their direct use (spiketail, long-eared roundhead).

Mass species of amphibians and reptiles play a significant role in food chains, being consumers of the first (turtles, lizards) and subsequent orders (amphibians, sea turtles, lizards, snakes, crocodiles). Thus, in deserts and steppes, lizards have the same effect on arthropods as birds in oak forests and replace them ecologically (Bogdanov, 1965; Tertyshnikov, Shcherbak, 1973). In other zones, amphibians and lizards are an additional factor, in addition to birds and insectivorous mammals, regulating the number of invertebrates in the corresponding ecological systems. Thus, sharp-faced frogs in a linden-oak forest on 1 hectare eat 300 thousand-2 million insects per season, among which phytophages (ground beetles) do not always predominate. As is known, this is the special role of second- and higher-order predators: regulating the number of first-order predators (in this case, ground beetles, etc.) makes it possible to prevent an “outbreak in numbers” of first-order phytophagous consumers. The destruction of other “beneficial” insects (bees and other pollinators, ants, etc.) is a special case due to the absence of species narrowly specialized for these groups among our amphibians and lizards (such as the blind snake). This particularly applies to the consumption of honeybees by aquatic frogs, which is often associated with the lack of drinking stations in apiaries; Eating a significant number of ants by the common toad has been noted in various geographical locations, and in Western Siberia There is even an ecological form of the gray toad, which switched from polyphagia to feeding on ants and acquired diurnal activity (Strelkov, 1962; 1963). The myrmecophagy of the common toad is undoubtedly associated with the large number of ants and the toad’s lack of selectivity in feeding; There is no evidence yet that the death of ants at the expense of toads exceeds the limits of natural mortality in populations.

The accusations that were once brought against aquatic turtles and frogs, especially lake frogs, for the extermination of fish fry (Idelson and Vonokov, 1938; Stepanek, 1953; Krestyaninov, 1956) were removed by the works of V.A. Sigova (1936), A.G. Bannikov (1951) and V.K. Marcuse (1964). Detailed studies have revealed that fish takes up an insignificant share in the diet of marsh and Caspian turtles, and the consumption of fish by lake frogs can be significant only in some cases (concentration of fry in fish ponds) and is offset by the extermination of predatory aquatic insects by frogs (larvae of dragonflies, water scorpions, swimmers , smooth bugs, swimming beetles and their larvae), causing much more harm to fish farming. Thus, the larva of the fringed diving beetle is capable of destroying up to 40-60 fry or tadpoles per day.

Tadpoles of the lake frog, which were considered serious food competitors of commercial fish fry, have also been rehabilitated. Research by Z.V. Belova (1966) found that these tadpoles feed mainly on algae: out of 60 forms of algae (green, blue-green, diatoms and flagellates), only 10 were noted in the food of juvenile fish; food differentiation between juvenile fish and tadpoles takes place not only in the selection of food, but also in the places and times of feeding. Consequently, frog tadpoles cannot be competitors in the diet of juvenile fish, including commercial fish (roach, bream, carp). In addition, by eating algae that is not consumed by the fry, tadpoles introduce additional links into the food chain and, with usually high numbers, distract many piscivorous predators. In various reservoirs of Kazan, according to M.Yu. Motkova (1987), tadpoles of 7 species of tailless amphibians consume 110 species of algae, including blue-green algae, which cause “blooming” of water.

Individual ecological forms and groups of some amphibians and reptiles, “specializing” in connection with the peculiarities of ecology, create a “press” that influences the determination of the prey group. The common newt and red-bellied firebird destroy significant numbers of mosquito larvae. Toaded toads are capable of reducing the number of mosquitoes in a reservoir by 50% within a month (Lac, 1959). At one time, it was even proposed to breed common newts in breeding areas of malaria mosquitoes (Ptushenko, 1934). Green frogs eat a lot of aquatic insects and their larvae (Kaletskaya, 1958; Marcuse, 1972, etc.), the sand lizard prefers weevils, click beetles, beetles, hymenoptera, butterflies and their caterpillars (Utrobina, 1952; Tertyshnikov, 1972), spindle - slugs , caterpillars, earthworms. Individual populations common viper consist of myophages, the steppe viper prefers orthoptera, Eirenis feed on insects; copperheads and arrow-snake are typical saurophages; common grass snake, big-eyed snake - batrachophagous; water snake, warty snakes, ichthyophagous sea snakes; the lizard snake, despite the name, more readily takes snakes (likes steppe vipers), the king cobra (hamadryad) and mussurana are ophiophages, and egg snakes (ovi- eaters), as the name shows, feed on bird eggs. There is no doubt about the positive role of predators in ecosystems as orderlies and factors of natural selection. But the direction of the predator’s influence on the prey population is still poorly understood, although individual examples known. Thus, outbreaks in the number of bank voles, a widespread species of our forest rodents and a carrier of such a zoonosis as HFRS (hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome), are largely associated with the extermination of predators, including the common viper, which preys on voles in their burrows. In South America, after the local extermination of caimans, their role in curbing the growth of piranha numbers was revealed. IN North America Even the habitat-forming activity of the Mississippi alligator in the Florida swamps has been established. In its individual area, an alligator (a male or female with cubs) digs out and constantly cleans a pond, the banks of which (the edges of the raft) are overgrown with grass and bushes, and fish settle in the pond itself and ducks nest.

With high numbers and corresponding biomass, amphibians and reptiles serve as additional, replacement, and often the main food for higher vertebrates and fish. According to various authors, from the species of amphibians and reptiles of the Volga-Kama region within their range, up to 5 species of amphibians and 1 species of lizards were found in the diet of pike, 2 species of amphibians in the diet of perch, 1 species of amphibian and 1 species of reptiles (lake frog) in the diet of catfish , which serves as the favorite food of catfish, on which its fishing is based on the “kwok”). In the food of the river gull, 6 species of amphibians were found, marsh harrier and rook - 8 species of amphibians and reptiles each, common kestrel - 9, black stork and shrike - 10 each, gray heron and short-tailed snake eagle - 11 each, black kite and eagle owl - 12 each, white stork and the tawny owl - 13 each, and the buzzard - 16 species. In total, 5 or more species of amphibians and reptiles are found in the diet of 34 birds of Eastern Europe, as well as in 14 species of mammals in this territory. 6 species of amphibians and reptiles were found in the food of the common hedgehog, raccoon dog, American mink and otter - 9 each, polecat -11, fox -12, badger -15 species. In some cases, feeding on amphibians and reptiles is a necessary stage in the seasonal dynamics of the life of a species. Osprey in the spring, during the flood period, switches to feeding on frogs (Zarudny, 1888) due to the difficulty of fishing in muddy water. Young chicks are fed buzzard and spotted eagles frogs, then switch to feeding on “mice”, i.e. here amphibians are used as "baby food". The Lesser Spotted Eagle may not reproduce at all during years of low numbers of frogs and mouse-like rodents (Likhachev, 1957). In the spring, the badger hunts for terrestrial frogs (the most accessible and at the same time high-calorie food), replenishing the energy spent during wintering. Amphibians and reptiles living in the Volga-Kama region were found in the diet of a total of 11 species of fish, 121 species of birds and 34 species of animals.

Amphibians and reptiles are intermediate and additional hosts of a number of helminths that live as adults in the bodies of other vertebrates - herpeto- and batrachophages (Dubinina, 1950, 1953; Pastukhova, 1950; Volgar-Pastukhova, 1959; Mazurmovich, 1951, 1959, 196 4 , 1964; Sharpilo, 1976; Ryzhkov, Sharpilo, Shevchenko, 1968, 1970, 1971; Many reptiles, especially the Central Asian tortoise, and some amphibians, like the green toad, serve as feeders for ixodid ticks (Zemskaya, 1952; Melnikova, 1953; Naumov et al., 1957; Boyko, 1959; Emchuk, 1960; Mishchenko, 1960, etc.) . In most cases, reptiles are of some importance as feeders of ixodid ticks during periods of depression in the number of mouse-like rodents; amphibians play practically no role here.

Known to participate in circulation anthrax crocodiles, aquatic turtles, monitor lizards (Colonies, 1969), toxoplasmosis - agamas, yellowbellies (Berdyev, 1968), about the susceptibility of frogs to tularemia (Slinkina, 1953). At the same time, there is immunity to tick-borne encephalitis in green and viviparous lizards (Morozov, 1961), insensitivity to the Omsk hemorrhagic fever virus in the sharp-faced frog (Vorobyova, 1969), and a decrease in virulence to Bacterium tularense in amphibians (Novikova and Lalazarov, 1940). Terrarium animals can be carriers of salmonellosis. In general, reptiles and amphibians are resistant to many pathogens, causing diseases in warm-blooded animals. All these contradictory data do not give grounds to talk about the “harmfulness” of amphibians and reptiles in this regard.

The question of using amphibians and reptiles as bioindicators of state changes is extremely interesting environment. Changes in the content of microelements in the body mass species herpeto-fauna (green toad, sand lizard) allows them to be used in this regard (Sharygin, 1979, 1980; Vershinin, 1983, 1990, 1997; Muratov, 1989, 1990), as well as common snake(Al-Zawahra, 1992). A sign of changes in the natural environment may be the manifestation of polydactyly in amphibians (Borkin, Pikulik, 1986).

Many species of amphibians and reptiles are of interest for theoretical research in the fields of zoogeography, population ecology, genetics and other sciences. Thus, L. Berger opened a new direction in the study of speciation based on a group of forms of green frogs (1969), which was joined by herpetologists from Europe, Asia and America. Direct connection with microclimatic conditions, wide distribution, high numbers, fairly long life expectancy, etc. allow the use of amphibians and reptiles as models. Other representatives of the herpetofauna are relics of past eras and endemics of certain regions, representing interest when studying the history of the fauna (hatteria - New Zealand, giant tortoises - Galapagos and Seychelles, giant salamander - China, Japan, Chinese alligator - Yangtze, crested newt, rock and Crimean lizards - Crimea, Siberian salamander - Europe, patterned snake - Zhiguli, steppe viper - mouth of the Kama, etc.).

Amphibians, and to a lesser extent reptiles, are used by scientific institutions and educational institutions in experimental work of various kinds. Leningrad University alone used up to 15 thousand frogs annually (Terentyev, 1950). In Kazan, medical institutions and educational establishments consumed in the 1950s-70s. up to 30 thousand frogs, and in the territory Soviet Union the annual consumption of frogs for these purposes was close to 1 million. (Bannikov, Rustamov, 1974). Frogs (lake) and toads (green) were used to diagnose early pregnancy in humans (Miretsky, 1935; Dykhno, 1936; Voitkevich and Popova, 1950) in European countries (Bulgaria). The first attempts were made to use the SGC (secretion of the skin glands) of amphibians, in particular, the green toad (Zakharov, 1960), to study the secrets for this purpose fire salamander, toaded toad (Fedyarova, 1973).

Widely known for use in medicine and biology snake venoms. Of the 3,000 species of snakes, about 450 (20%) are poisonous, and they can pose a danger to humans. Up to 500 thousand bites are registered annually, of which 30-40 thousand are fatal (1970s). Of the deaths, 2/3 occur in India and Southeast Asia; in South America, 3-4 thousand people die per year, in Africa - 800-1000. In the USA, there are 2-3 thousand bites per year, of which up to 120 end in the death of the bitten person. For comparison, we can say that in the USA about 130 people die annually from lightning strikes, and up to 300 thousand people die under the wheels of vehicles and in road accidents. . In Western Europe in the 19th century. there were 60, now there are up to 14 bites per year, deaths are rare and do not happen every year. In the USSR, up to 12 people a year died from snake bites, mainly in Central Asia. Vital Brasil Mineiro founded in 1899 a bacteriological station in Butantan, near the city of Sao Paulo, which turned under him (he died in 1950) into an institute - the largest center for the study of poisonous snakes and the use of their poisons, which in 70 years received more than 750 thousand poisonous snakes (mainly jararak and cascavel) and organized the “Poisonous Snake Service”: an ampoule of anti-snake serum was sent free of charge in exchange for 4 snakes or 20 frogs, spiders, centipedes.

In the Soviet Union there were serpentariums (snake nurseries) in Tashkent, Frunze, Ashgabat, near Baku, in the Syunt-Khasardag reserve, in Kara-Kala, in the Moscow region, in Tolyatti. Viper, cobra, steppe and common vipers, as well as efa were mainly kept here. According to some data, the life expectancy of snakes in serpentariums: cobra - 6.3 months, epha - 195 days, viper - 8.8 months, steppe viper - 285 days, common viper (in Tashkent) - 102 days (T.N. Kugel ). IN last years in some serpentariums (Tolyatti) more encouraging results were obtained. Various medicinal preparations are produced from snake venom, such as “Viprosal”, “Lebetox” (viper), “Viperalgin” (sand viper), “Vipraxin” (common viper), “Vipratox” (various snakes), etc., used as hemostatic agents ( viper, chain viper), painkillers, sedatives (cobra, vipers), for diagnosing diseases (hemophilia), for making serums (“Anticobra”, “Anti-efa”, “Antigyurza”, “Polyvalent”), as well as in scientific research (biochemistry, genetics, microbiology).

When bitten by a poisonous snake, it is not recommended to drink alcohol, make an incision, cauterize, or apply a tourniquet above the bitten area. In one case, when a viper was bitten and a tourniquet was applied, which was not removed until the bitten person was taken to the hospital, tissue necrosis began and the leg had to be amputated to save the patient’s life. On average, after a viper bite, a patient spends 5.1 days in the hospital, and when a tourniquet is applied, 18.4 days. Recommended: sucking blood from the wound with your mouth ( contraindication - fresh abrasions on the lips), drinking plenty of fluids (especially coffee, tea), immobilization of the bitten limb. The use of serum is advisable for the bite of those snakes based on the poison of which it is made. Among medications, it is recommended to administer antihistamines (Prednisolone, etc.).

Less known is the use of non-venomous snakes for medical purposes, which was carried out in ancient times. So, in Turkey, in one of the small cities, headaches are treated by applying a live common grass snake. IN Ancient Egypt(probably in other Mediterranean countries) snakes (Aesculapian, four-striped) were used to treat small wounds and ulcers: the snake was applied with its open mouth to the wound. Probably, the growth substances contained in saliva caused increased cell division and healing of the wound.

The source of replenishment for snake nurseries, even after mastering the technique of breeding them in captivity (which has been successfully carried out in Vietnam), remains their natural foci, which will always require strict protection, and the extraction of snakes itself will require licensing. Licensing will be extended to many (if not all) reptile and amphibian species in the future. This is evidenced by the need to ban the fishing of a number of species in many countries and the increase in the number of herpetofauna species listed in the Red Books. Yes, only in Novosibirsk region in 1966-73 Almost 10 thousand common vipers were caught, and the total volume of their harvesting in Western Siberia in 1972-77. exceeded 42 thousand copies. In the 1970s The final destruction of the reserves of green frogs in the Chilia branch of the Danube was prevented only by the organization of a reserve there. For the same reasons, it was necessary to take the Central Asian tortoise under special protection in Kazakhstan and to include the viper in Uzbekistan in the Red Book. In tropical countries, the scale of harvesting of herpetofauna species is even more obvious. Already in the 1970s. 25 and 50 million frogs were exported from India and Indonesia per year, respectively; India and Bangladesh were exported to the USA, Australia and Western Europe in 1986 alone, more than 150 million frogs; Bangladesh's tiger frog export revenue was 1977-81. 14.5 million dollars. Export of green frogs from the USSR in the early 80s. amounted annually to 50 tons or 500,000 copies, and Central Asian turtles in the 60s from Kazakhstan and Central Asia - about 1 million copies. In 1970-71 More than 2 million turtles of 85 species and more than 600,000 specimens were imported into the United States. snakes and lizards. In 1977, about half a million reptiles were imported there. In the 50s in India, up to 12 million copies were mined annually. reptiles. In 1976, India sold 3.5 million snake and lizard skins. In 1978, Japan imported 124 tons of snake and lizard skins from Pakistan, Bangladesh, Thailand, Singapore, Indonesia and the Philippines. Every year, at least 17 million snake skins go on sale around the world, which, according to B. Grzimek’s calculations, is the length of the equator.

In 1881-91. In the USA, 2.5 million Mississippi alligators were killed, and back in the 1960s. up to 50 thousand specimens were mined annually. From 1950 to 1970 In Brazil, Peru and Colombia, about 9 million black and crocodile caimans were exterminated. In the 80s in the world annually: hundreds of millions of edible frogs, hundreds of thousands of other amphibians, up to 3 million turtles, up to 10 million turtle eggs, up to 3.5 million snakes, up to 7 million crocodiles, tens of millions of lizards and amphisbaenus.

The basis for the conservation of herpetofauna remains the protection natural environment, i.e. general tasks of nature conservation. Propaganda, environmental awareness, education and upbringing are important, i.e. eliminating general biological and environmental illiteracy of the population and, as a consequence, preventing the direct extermination of animals. In addition to the direct destruction of snakes, spindles, toads and frogs, especially their tadpoles, roads with heavy traffic are fatal for amphibians and reptiles. Even in the Raifa section of the Volzhsko-Kama Nature Reserve, on the highway crossing the forest and the migration routes of amphibians and reptiles, hundreds of animals die every year: for example, 11 crushed grass snakes were found on just 1 km of the highway in September morning. The intensive use of pesticides in agriculture was probably the main reason for the decline in the numbers of the crested newt and red-bellied firebird in water bodies, the common spadefoot and green toad in fields, and the sand lizard in forest belts in Tatarstan. The latter, apparently, affected the number of gray snakes - copperheads. The increase in the number of wild boars caused a decrease in the number of spindles and common vipers, up to the disappearance of the latter in some places. The same effect on the spread of the viper has an increase in garden plots and expansion recreational areas. At the same time, there is a manifestation of broad ecological plasticity in a number of species: the spread of the lake frog along the banks of reservoirs, the colonization of forest strips by the sand lizard (before the period of infatuation with pesticides), the synanthropization of toads, especially green ones, and the common grass snake. In some places, the behavior of the common viper has changed, which, increasingly, settling near human settlements, can sometimes remain here for quite a long time. All this confirms the existence of broad ecological plasticity of many species of herpetofauna and the possibility of their preservation in a landscape developed by humans. In the countries of Western and Central Europe, almost all types of herpetofauna are taken under special protection. In the Red Book of the USSR there were 9 species of amphibians and 36 species of reptiles, of which in Russia there were 5 and 7, respectively. The Red Book of the Republic of Tatarstan (1995) lists 2 species of amphibians (crested newt and gray toad) and 4 species of reptiles (spindle, copperhead, common and steppe viper). It is possible that these lists will have to be expanded (red-bellied firebird, marsh turtle). The Red Book may be compatible with scientifically limited exploitation (common viper in the Volga-Kama region).



Reptiles are more adapted to life on land and have a more advanced structure than amphibians. Therefore, in the process of evolution, they occupied more diverse habitats, and this led to the diversity of reptiles.

IN Mesozoic era When dinosaurs lived, the diversity of reptiles was the greatest on Earth. However, even today reptiles are represented in various ecological niches, although not as widely as mammals. Reptiles live not only in warm (including arid) climates, but some of them have returned to aquatic life, although they still go to land and breathe through their lungs to lay eggs.

In the class of reptiles, there are four existing orders. These are squamates, crocodiles, turtles and beaked fish. The total number is more than 8,000 species.

Order Scaly

Representatives of the squamate order form the basis of the diversity of reptiles. This includes all lizards and snakes. Their body is covered with fairly small scales.

A quick lizard lives in our area.

Fast lizard

The spindle is a legless lizard. Unlike snakes, her eyelids do not grow together.

Chameleons are also lizards. They live in trees and are able to change body color. Their eyes move independently of each other. Insects are caught with a long sticky tongue.

In the process of evolution, snakes appeared later than all other groups of reptiles. Their ancestors had limbs. However, in snakes they were reduced due to their special method of movement (they twist their body along the ground). There have also been other changes in internal structure(the sternum and one lung have disappeared).

Representatives of the snakes that live in our area are the grass snake and the viper. The latter is poisonous.

The bones in the jaws of snakes are connected movably by ligaments. In addition, ligaments can stretch. Thus, snakes can open their mouths wide and swallow their prey whole, crawling onto it.

In venomous snakes, one of the salivary glands is modified into a poisonous gland. Its canal goes into the front tooth. When bitten, venom is injected into the victim's body.

Scaly animals are characterized by frequent molting, as scales impede growth. In snakes, the old skin comes off entirely, like a stocking, and is called a crawl.

Squad Crocodiles

Crocodiles are large reptiles (up to 7 meters) that cannot boast of their diversity (25 species in total). They live in rivers and lakes of tropical countries. The order Crocodiles is divided into alligators, true crocodiles, gharials, and caimans.
True crocodiles have a sharper snout than alligators.

The toes on the hind feet of crocodiles have membranes. The tail is flattened laterally. The nostrils and eyes are on elevations. Thus, a crocodile can sit underwater with only its nostrils and eyes exposed to the surface. This way he remains invisible to the victim. The skin of crocodiles is covered with scutes.

Crocodiles have a four-chambered heart, and not like all reptiles a three-chambered heart. In their heart ventricle, the incomplete septum becomes complete. However, the blood still partially mixes when the aortas leaving the heart join together.

Turtle Squad

The order Turtles are the most ancient of the living variety of reptiles. In the process of evolution, they appeared earlier than other groups. There are currently about 300 species of turtles.

Their shell consists of dorsal and abdominal shields. The dorsal plate is attached to the spine, and the abdominal plate is attached to the sternum. Most turtles can retract their limbs, tail and head into their shell, making them inaccessible to enemies.

Turtles have no teeth. Their jaws are covered with horny plates.

Among the turtles there are aquatic species, sea turtles have limbs transformed into flippers.

Order Beakheads

All representatives of this order are extinct, except for two species of tuataria, which live in New Zealand.

A number of primitive features are noted in the structure of the tuateria. For example, she has a so-called third (parietal) eye. Although many lizards have this eye.