. Observation method- this is the main method of modern psychology, the essence of which is that scientific facts are collected through not interference in the life of the object, but passive contemplation of this fact

Observations can be carried out both short-term and long-term. Therefore, these types of observations are the cross-sectional method (short-term) and longitudinal (long-term)

The researcher can play the role of a passive observer (detached observation), or can actively interact with the object of study while simultaneously observing him (participant observation)

Observation can be either selective or general, subject and object. For example, what is common to an object is that all members of the team are monitored. Selective by object - until observation, only individual members of the team are included. General on the subject - all manifestations of the psyche (character, temperament, will) are examined in the object of observation. Selective by subject - only one problem (thinking or memory) is studied for the entire array (in the Object).

The use of surveillance is subject to the following conditions:

1) determination - defining the goal, task of the study;

2) natural conditions- typical surveillance conditions (so that persons do not know that they are being monitored);

3) having a plan;

4) precise definition object and subject of observation;

5) limitation by the researcher of the signs that are the subject of observation;

6) development by the researcher of unambiguous criteria for assessing these characteristics;

7) ensuring clarity and duration of observation

. Figure 124. Advantages and disadvantages of the observation method

The observation method is used not only by scientists, but also by students, for example, when accumulating data for writing psychological characteristics of a person

. Experiment- the main method of psychology, which consists in the fact that facts are obtained by creating special conditions in which the object could most clearly manifest the subject being studied

There are experiments: laboratory and natural, ascertaining and molding

. Laboratory carried out in special psychological laboratories using appropriate equipment

. Natural experiment carried out under normal operating conditions for the subject under study. A natural experiment, just like a laboratory experiment, is carried out according to a specific program, but in such a way that the person does not know that it is being studied and solves the problem calmly, at her usual pace.

. Constitutive experiment aimed at fixing existing psychological characteristics human, molding focused on stimulating desired mental manifestations

. Figure 125. Advantages and disadvantages of the experiment

Features of auxiliary methods of psychology

. Conversation-method of obtaining information based on verbal (verbal) communication, includes questions and answers

. The conversation can be diagnostic (detects), corrective (forms)

The conversation method can produce valuable results under the following conditions:

1) a clear definition by the researcher of the purpose of the conversation;

2) clear planning of the system of questions;

3) the system of questions must correspond to age and individual characteristics subjects, be dynamic, i.e. contents of the following

the question should depend on the content of the answer to the previous one, etc.;

4) the conversation should be relaxed and friendly

. Questionnaire- a method of socio-psychological research using questionnaires, the content of questions and the method of answers in which are planned in advance

The reliability of questionnaire data is checked in two ways:

1) a repeated survey of the same persons using the same procedure;

2) control of questionnaire data by other methods:

Questioning third parties;

Observation;

Analysis of available documents

The questionnaire method can be used by correspondence, a relatively economical method of collecting data. It allows you to analyze and process data using statistics. This method is used in mass surveys

. Interview- a method that is used to collect primary information in psychological, sociological and pedagogical research

. Sociometry (from Lat. societas - society metreo- I measure) - developed. J. Moreno

This method is used to derive or formulate a working hypothesis in the early stages of research; data collection, addition, clarification, expansion, control of data obtained by other methods. Interview as a method three types:

1) a standardized interview, in which the wording and sequence of questions are determined in advance;

2) non-standard interview, in which the person conducting it is guided only by the general plan of the survey and formulates the question in accordance with the specific situation;

3) writing a standard interview containing a certain number of possible questions

. Test (from English test - test). Tests are tasks that are small in scope and time to complete, and are the same for all subjects.

The choice of types of interviews depends on the content of the study, the level of study of the problem, and the training of the researcher

. Testing is one of the auxiliary methods of psychology, the use of which can serve to identify:

1) the level of development of certain mental functions (observation, memory, thinking, imagination, attention, etc.);

2) the presence or absence of certain knowledge, abilities, skills, mental qualities, good breeding, etc.);

3) the degree of suitability or readiness of a growing individual or adult for a certain profession;

4) mental illness;

5) interests, opinions, abilities of a person

. Analysis of activity products- This is one of the auxiliary methods of psychology. This includes analysis of drawings, certain images

. Sociometric method studies the nature of relationships in a team through the selection procedure

Psychology also uses data processing methods - these are quantitative and qualitative methods. Quantitative methods include, for example, the determination of average values ​​and measures of dispersion, correlation coefficients, graphs, histograms, diagrams, tables, etc. The qualitative method involves the analysis and synthesis of the data obtained, their systematization and comparison with the results of other data.

There are many methods used in psychology. Scientists decide which one is rational to use in each specific case, depending on the tasks and object of study. In this case, as a rule, they use not just one method, but several, which complement and control each other.

To solve the problems set in the study, the following methods were used: analysis and study of scientific methodological literature and practical activities of specialists in the field of physical education and sports, psychological and pedagogical observations, control tests (testing), experiment, methods mathematical statistics. And methods of comparative and graphical analysis

Brief description of research methods

1. Analysis and study of scientific and methodological literature and practical activities of specialists in the field of physical education and sports

The study of scientific and methodological literature was used to identify the degree of scientific development of the problem we have chosen, and to determine general theoretical positions. The method of analyzing literary data was implemented in several aspects: consideration theoretical aspects mental activity, techniques sports orienteering and physiological patterns of fatigue.

2. Psychological and pedagogical observations

Conducted during training sessions

3. Control tests (testing)

Tests are standardized psychodiagnostic methods, which are a series of relatively short tests (tasks, questions, situations, etc.). With the help of such tests, with a known probability, the level of development of an individual’s psychological properties, the necessary theoretical knowledge, practical skills, skills and others personal characteristics. Testing involves a clear procedure for collecting and processing primary data, followed by their qualitative analysis and interpretation.

Based on the form of presentation, tests can be divided into two main types: standardized and projective. Standardized ones, in turn, are divided into two subtypes: questionnaire tests and task tests.

Standardized tests are tests that have passed the standardization stage (testing for validity and reliability, compliance with other requirements for tests). Such tests are assessment-oriented and can serve as a reliable means of psychodiagnostics.

Questionnaire tests contain a series of questions, the answers to which are used to judge the psychological qualities test subject. In task tests, the subject is offered a series of relevant tasks, based on the results of which the presence or absence and degree of development of his characterological traits (personality properties) are determined.

Projective tests are designed to study the psychological characteristics of people and their behavior - characteristics that cause a negative attitude on the part of the subjects themselves. At the core projective tests lies the mechanism of projection, according to which the individual tends to attribute unconscious psychological properties of the individual and behavioral shortcomings to other people. ABOUT psychological abilities the subject is judged on the basis of how he perceives and evaluates relevant situations, people’s behavior, what personal qualities and motives he attributes to them.

Projective techniques, as it were, “portrait” the entire individuality of a person, not directly, but indirectly, allowing one to study his emotional characteristics and neurotic reactions.

Classification of projective tests as described by I. B. Grishpun:

1. Constitutive tests. The content of the subject’s work is giving meaning to the material, its structuring.

2. Constructive tests, which involve creating a whole from individual parts.

3. Interpretive tests, involving interpretation, interpretation of events, proposed situations, images.

4. Cathartic tests, suggesting creative activity in specially organized conditions.

5. Expressive tests involving drawing or similar activities on a free or given topic.

6. Impressive tests that require choice, preference for some stimuli over others.

7. Additive tests, involving the completion of a phrase or story.

Projective tests on the subject of psychodiagnostics can be classified as personality tests - psychodiagnostic techniques aimed at assessing the emotional-volitional components of an individual’s mental activity.

The tests we have chosen allow us to determine the level of development of the most significant properties of the mental activity of athletes - orienteers and to trace their dynamics.

The following tests were proposed for initial and final testing:

1. Proofreading text

2. NOP (test that determines visual-figurative memory)

3. Test for memorizing numbers according to the Schulte table (25 numbers of a single color)

This testing was used at the beginning and at the end of the experiment on both groups, control and experimental.

You can monitor the state and dynamics of attention development using a “proofreading test”. It is used to evaluate:

Intensity of attention. For testing - 1 minute. At the signal “March!” open the sheet with the “proof text” and start looking for and crossing out combinations of the letters “BC”. The found combinations of letters must be crossed out with one line (top - left - down). View the text sequentially, line by line, starting from the top. At the signal “Stop!” Stop work immediately and mark the last letter with a vertical line.

Distribution of attention. For the test - 2 minutes. At the signal “March!” it is necessary to cross out the combination “BC” from top to left to bottom, and to underline the combination “AI”.

Switching attention. For the test - 2 minutes. At the signal “March!” start looking for and crossing out the combination “CX” with an oblique line from top to left to down. After 30 sec. at the signal “Damn! BC" place a vertical line at the end and immediately, without stopping, cross out the combination "BC" in the same way. After another 30 seconds. after a new signal “Damn! BC”, put a vertical line and continue working, finding and crossing out the combination “BC”.

Sustainability of attention. Test time - 10 minutes. It is necessary to cross out the combination “BC” as quickly and accurately as possible, underline “AI”, and circle “CX”.

Indicators of intensity, switching, distribution and stability of attention are calculated using the formula

where a - total number letters in the reviewed text, b - the number of combinations that should be crossed out, c - the total number of errors (the sum of missing combinations and excessively crossed out ones).

To study visual-figurative memory (VFM), five complexes of conventional signs have been developed (each complex consists of 15 conventional symbols arranged in a certain sequence). Athletes are asked to memorize the maximum and number. The drawing is shown for 30 seconds. Then conventional signs it is necessary to reproduce from memory, drawing them in the same sequence in which they were located in the table. The NOP of orienteers can be studied before and after training, as well as after running the orienteering route.

The test for memorizing numbers is as follows: numbers are written on punched cards, starting with two-digit numbers and ending with nine-digit numbers, which are shown to students in ascending order. For a certain amount of time, you need to remember the numbers and write them down (the time can vary: from 2 to 15 s).

4. Natural pedagogical experiment

An experiment is a specially organized study conducted with the aim of identifying the effectiveness of certain methods, means, forms, types, techniques and new content of teaching and training. An experiment involves the creation of a new experience in which the innovation being tested plays an active role. When processing indicators obtained during an experiment, they widely use mathematical methods, primarily methods of mathematical statistics.

5. Methods of mathematical statistics

The data we obtained was processed by methods of mathematical statistics. Standard statistical processing of the results of the experimental study was carried out on a personal computer using Microsoft Excel.

The average value of the measured values ​​was calculated using the formula:

where is the measurement result, is the arithmetic average result, n is the number of measurements.

The standard deviation, which is determined by the formula

The significance of the differences between the two comparative groups was determined using the Student's t test. Differences between comparative groups were calculated using the formula

where is the standard deviation, are the average values ​​of the first and second comparative groups, respectively, n1, n2 are the number of measurements.

The critical value of the Student coefficient (tst) was found by the number of degrees of freedom for a 0.05% significance level (b = 0.95). Differences between comparative groups were considered significant at P<0,05.

6. Methods of comparative and graphical analysis

The indicators of the control and experimental groups were compared.

Characteristics of teaching methods

Teaching methods are the most important tool in the hands of a teacher to guide the process of teaching natural history. Consequently, there is a need to reveal their essence and pedagogical effectiveness. Let us dwell briefly on the characteristics of groups and types of teaching methods used in teaching natural science in elementary school.

Verbal methods. In the process of teaching natural science, an important source of knowledge is the spoken or printed word. It is often illustrated with various visual aids. The teacher’s activity here consists in the fact that he conveys or organizes the transmission of information in words. The student's activity consists of listening to the word.

The word is the oldest, and once the only way to influence students. But, starting from the time of A. Ya. Komensky, the role of the word in the educational process was gradually limited, which is very important for natural science subjects. In fact, verbal and book teaching alone cannot give correct, complete ideas about natural objects and phenomena, without which the process of conscious assimilation of theory is impossible. This approach to teaching practically does not allow students to achieve their development goals, but the role of nature in this development is invaluable. And yet, the learning process does not proceed without the use of verbal methods. The living and printed word continue to be important ways of influencing students.

Lecture It is not used in the process of teaching primary natural history, so we will not dwell on its characteristics.

Story - This is a consistent descriptive presentation of educational material. The story is used in cases where it is necessary to convey new information that is not based either on the students’ life experience, or on previously studied, or on observations. Thus, the teacher uses the story method to communicate the reasons for the differences between indoor plants and wild ones in our conditions; differences in nature in remote geographical areas. This method is used when there is a need to create an image through verbal description and convey to the class the content of personal observations and experiences.

the story must meet certain requirements. First of all, it should not be long. According to our observations, a story in natural history lessons should not exceed 5-7 minutes by the end of primary school. This length of the story should increase gradually, starting from one minute in grades I-II. It is also very important that the teacher’s speech is clear, accessible, lively, and imaginative. Imagery is especially necessary when using a story as verbal clarity. In a story, the teacher must carefully monitor the use of scientific terminology, avoid everydayisms, a variety of facts and terms, and, if necessary, use visual aids. In his story, the teacher can include stories from students, small excerpts from popular science and non-fiction literature, and be sure to establish connections with what has been studied.

The positive aspects of the story are that the student receives a fairly large amount of information in a short period of time and assimilates the educational material more or less holistically. This method develops memory, as well as such an important personality quality as the ability to listen to a story or lecture. At the same time, this is a method of formal transmission of information that students must accept in finished form, on faith. It poorly develops children's creative thinking.

Conversation - a teaching method with which the teacher, by purposefully asking questions, mobilizes the knowledge and practical experience of students, leading them to new knowledge.

The main structural component of a conversation is a question. Questions should be based on students’ existing knowledge and experience and help children discover new knowledge. You should include different types of questions in your conversation. First of all, questions that require the reproduction of factual information from observations, life experience,

from what was previously studied, etc. Such knowledge consists mainly of ideas or initial concepts. Therefore, most often questions are used here with the words: “Who is this?”, “What is this?”, “Which one?”, “What does it do?” etc. Another group of questions should direct children’s activities to comprehend (analysis and synthesis) factual information. Questions and tasks for comparison, classification, clarification of causes and relationships, and generalization are appropriate here. The third group of questions forces students to practice knowledge. A variety of training exercises are appropriate here. The main part of the tasks in the workbooks is also aimed at practicing knowledge. At the end of the conversation, a conclusion is drawn, which will constitute new knowledge.

The conversation can be built inductively and deductively. According to the laws of induction, it is built by studying several similar objects, when in conclusion a general conclusion is drawn. The same type of conversation is used at the beginning of studying a topic. Concluding conversations on a topic or lesson are most often constructed deductively. In this version, the source material is a general position that is familiar to students. They first formulate this position, then confirm and develop the latter with additional facts. At the conclusion of any conversation, a conclusion is drawn, which in an inductive conversation will constitute new knowledge, and in a deductive conversation - updated knowledge.

The value of this method is that the teacher has the opportunity to receive feedback on the cognitive and developmental level of a large group of students in a relatively short time; the conversation activates the students’ activities, develops communication skills, self-control and self-esteem skills by comparing the levels of knowledge of their own and their classmates. However, this method fragments students’ knowledge, makes it difficult to generalize it and the ability to holistically perceive educational material, and does not teach students to convey scientific knowledge in a coherent form.

Explanation- consistent presentation of educational material, having the nature of evidence, reasoning with the formulation of a conclusion. A type of explanation is instruction in carrying out observations, experiments, practical work, and various types of independent work, including with a notebook, textbook, and visual aids. Instructions may be given in writing or orally. Examples of written instructions include assignments in the textbook for practical and laboratory work, instruction cards, and assignments on the board.

The explanation method has its advantages, because it contributes to the formation of educational skills, practical skills, and develops thinking and attention. At the same time, he requires

the student experiences great tension of attention and thought, since in him each subsequent position follows from the previous one and is connected with it. Therefore, even a small omission of an explanation deprives the student of perceiving it as a whole, and therefore of doing the work consistently and efficiently.

Visual methods. The use of visual methods in teaching is closely related to the implementation of the principle of visibility. However, these concepts are not identical. Visualization as a teaching principle is implemented using any methods. The function of the method of visualization is fulfilled when it becomes the main source of knowledge, methods of practical action, and developing and educating influence on the student. The student, working with visualization, independently analyzes it, reasons and comes to some of his own conclusions; we will prove this difference with an example.

Visual aids are widely used in verbal methods. The teacher talks or conducts a conversation about any plants, animals, processes occurring in nature, etc., and for greater specificity, he reinforces the word by demonstrating visual aids. Here, visual aids are not the main source of information, material for independent conclusions, but only reinforce and specify the word, which remains the main way of pedagogical influence on the student. In this case, the independent cognitive activity of students is limited.

Visual aids in visual methods are a source of independent reasoning, generalizations, and conclusions. This problem is solved in stages:

The presence of the object of study itself in nature or in the image;

Determining the type of activity of a child with a given object through a system of targeted tasks that can be given orally, written on the board or cards, indicated in a textbook, etc. Questions and tasks should be formulated in such a way and offered to the class in a sequence that will ensure as much as possible a more detailed, comprehensive and consistent study of the demonstrated objects or phenomena;

The presence of a certain duration of the stage of independent research and their presentation in the form of conclusions;

Discussion of particular conclusions and formulation of a generalized result. At this stage, it is useful to refer to the manuals you have already studied to clarify some details.

Thus, the word in visual methods plays a different role than in verbal ones: here, with the help of the word, the teacher directs the action.

students’ ability to analyze visual aids, and the word acts as a form of expression of conclusions, generalizations, i.e., information obtained through the use of visual methods.

The use of visual methods has its positive and negative sides. It is valuable that the use of these methods sufficiently increases the activity of students and their independent cognitive activity. Visualization makes it possible to eliminate verbalism in the teaching of natural history and creates good conditions for the practice of knowledge. The developmental impact of visual methods on the student is also great: they develop empirical thinking, without which the development of theoretical thinking is impossible, improve speech, observation, self-esteem and self-control skills, creative imagination, academic work skills, etc.

The difficulties of using visual methods are associated, first of all, with the availability of the objects for study and auxiliary equipment. Providing the educational process with natural visual aids is difficult due to the presence of serious environmental problems. The production of visual aids requires additional material costs. Schools often use homemade visual aids, but they, as a rule, do not comply with GOST standards, they are difficult to unify, but this does not mean they are rejected. In addition, the use of homemade visual aids requires the teacher and students to have certain skills and experience and adherence to safety regulations. The results of the educational process are achieved in a longer time than when using verbal methods. Children experience certain difficulties in verbal expressions.

Visual methods can be used both when learning new material and when consolidating it. When learning new material, they are a way to form new knowledge, and when consolidating it, they are a way to practice knowledge.

Exploring nature with demonstrations of natural objects allows you to form fairly complete and reliable ideas about the object being studied, facilitates the formation of ideas about objects and natural phenomena that, for various reasons, cannot be studied in nature itself, creates opportunities for direct contacts of the child with living nature. An important condition for the success of this method is to ensure the perception of an object or phenomenon by all students and as many senses as possible. To achieve this goal, objects are placed on special stands, a special background and lighting are created, and auxiliary equipment is used, such as projection equipment. Small objects can be displayed

carry it around the class. Moving objects, such as small and medium-sized animals, are placed in cages and transparent containers (glass or plastic jars, test tubes, aquariums, terrariums).

It is useful to combine the study of natural visual aids with visual clarity, with work based on the text of the textbook. The first of these conditions allows the child to see a given object in relationship with its environment, obtain additional information about habits, ways of manifesting some life processes, etc. The second is to find the necessary terms, compose formulations, etc. For example, in a lesson on the topic “Plants and Animals of the Field”, with the help of a herbarium, children study the morphological features of weeds. And the table “Field” and the corresponding figure in the textbook make it possible to understand the negative impact of weeds on cultivated plants: weeds grow among cultivated plants, shade the latter, take part (often significant) of water and mineral nutrients from the soil, and therefore reduce the yield of the main crop.

Application of the method image demonstrations natural objects and phenomena is of great importance in the study of natural history. It also allows you to form children's ideas about objects and natural phenomena. This is especially important in cases where a natural object cannot be presented to children in real life due to its size, environmental considerations, or other reasons. The value of this method also lies in the fact that it makes it possible to study natural objects in their environment, in relationships with this environment.

Using visual aids, you can study processes occurring in nature. At the same time, the use of this method does not always allow one to form accurate, correct ideas about the objects and phenomena being studied. Some details are often missed in the images, for example, in the diagram of the development of a plant from a seed, significant periods of the natural course of plant development are missed. In some cases, it is impossible to convey the exact dimensions of objects, for example, to depict large animals in their natural size; depict the entire object, for example, natural areas, natural landscapes, etc. Therefore, in visual visual aids it is necessary to use additional techniques in order to achieve the greatest possible degree of formation of accurate, complete knowledge. Thus, the idea of ​​the natural size of objects depicted in some visual aid can be strengthened by comparing it with objects familiar to children. Knowledge about natural areas, landscapes, etc. can be developed by combining several visual aids.

For example, in order to form a more or less holistic idea of ​​the features of the nature of the tundra, children are given a landscape image of the tundra, which allows them to form a general idea of ​​it, and for specification, images of individual objects of the tundra: plants, animals, life and work of people, etc. Useful combine static and dynamic visual aids, demonstrations of visual aids with drawings on the board and in notebooks, with short notes.

As in the case of studying nature using natural visual aids, when demonstrating visual visual aids, it is important to ensure that they are perceived by all students in the class and by as many senses as possible. Obviously, the largest role in this method belongs to vision, but it is also possible to involve hearing, for example, when demonstrating sound recordings, films and videos. In the application of this method, auxiliary means also play a significant role: stands, fixtures, additional lighting, technical training aids, etc.

Method of studying nature using demonstrations of experiments is used in cases where an object or phenomenon needs to be studied under conditions that are artificially changed or some artificial element is introduced into them.

This method is of great importance in teaching primary natural science, as it clearly allows you to study an object or phenomenon, which is difficult or even impossible under natural conditions. For example, under natural conditions it is difficult to observe the entire process of the water cycle. Experience allows you to see it in a fairly short period of time. Another example. In nature, plant propagation by roots (root shoots) is quite common. It is almost impossible to see this process in natural conditions. The latter is successfully solved in a specially designed experiment. The best material for successfully performing this experiment is raspberry root cuttings. Demonstration of experiments has a positive effect on the development of research skills. At the same time, experience requires more preparatory work from the teacher than when using verbal methods, knowledge and ability to comply with safe work rules.

Experiments can be short-term, carried out in one lesson, but they can also be long-term. In the above examples of experiments, one of them is short-term, the other is long-term. In the first case, the conclusion, new knowledge is formed in the same lesson. In the second case, either the result of a pre-established experiment is demonstrated in the lesson, or the experience is only being laid in this lesson. This means that in long-term experiments, a conclusion, new knowledge is formed

after a certain period of time. Sometimes, in order to obtain more complete, reliable information, the experiment is carried out in several versions. For example, to make sure that to propagate potatoes it is necessary to take parts of a tuber with eyes, you need to plant parts of a tuber with and without eyes. Moreover, parts of the tuber can be in one version with several eyes, in another - with one.

As with the two previous visual methods, the successful use of the method of demonstrating experiments will be facilitated by a clear definition of the content and system of the child’s activity at all stages: the presence of an object for study (in this case, the presence of a setup for experiment), tasks for study, independent work and the discussion stage conclusions. It is useful to combine experiments with graphic work on the board or in notebooks. Sometimes, in order to clarify some details and more fully understand the essence of a phenomenon, repetitions of the experience as a whole or its individual fragments are possible.

So, in all visual methods, visualization acts as an independent source of knowledge. These methods are widely combined with verbal teaching methods, but the word here plays a supporting role.

Practical methods. In the history of the formation and development of primary natural science, these methods were developed and began to be used later than verbal and visual ones. The use of visual methods in teaching was a step forward compared to purely verbal ones. But ongoing research has increasingly convinced that when visual methods are used, the child remains largely a passive contemplator, while he is characterized by active activity. Therefore, methods are needed that would turn students into activists, researchers, creators, and workers. This is how practical methods emerged. When using them, objects, phenomena, and instruments are transferred into the hands of the students themselves for their independent research.

Practical teaching methods are of great importance in the educational process, since they make it possible to implement to the greatest extent the important principles of didactics - an activity-based approach and the humanization of the learning process. The child turns from an object of learning into a subject of his own activity, which is most consistent with his nature. In addition, it is the child’s subjective position that is a characteristic feature of developmental education. Practical methods develop interest in learning, form the creative abilities of children, activate the theoretical and practical cognitive activity of students,

developing their thinking, practical skills and educational skills. The role of practical methods is great in ensuring the first - empirical and third - practice of knowledge at the stage of formation and development of natural history concepts.

However, a number of issues make it difficult to use these methods. They require not one or two visual aids, but entire sets of handouts. Often, working with the latter is accompanied by the use of auxiliary equipment, which also must be available in accordance with the number of dispensing kits. Special devices are required to store all this material. The use of practical methods requires the teacher to organize the lesson in a special way, since guiding students’ independent practical work is quite difficult. The process of obtaining final learning results takes longer than when using verbal and visual methods.

In teaching practice, practical methods are implemented in stages.

1. Students receive a subject to study. Unlike visual methods, the subject to be studied is transferred directly to the student. Different students may have different, although similar, subjects.

2. Tasks that determine the type of activity of students with the received objects. Unlike visual methods, where all students receive the same tasks, in practical methods a certain individualization of tasks, and therefore the activities of children, is possible. The latter, to a certain extent, can be determined by children themselves through independently drawing up an activity plan.

3. Independent research work. Here it is more varied, complex and lengthy than when using the first two groups of methods.

4. Discussion of conclusions. With practical methods, compared to visual ones, children’s points of view are often more diverse, even contradictory, so discussions are frequent. Consequently, here the discussion is more active and often requires additional study of objects. The latter necessitates a return to the stage of independent research.

5. Formulation of conclusions.

Forms of organizing student activities in which practical methods are most often used are excursions, subject lessons, and within the lesson, individual practical and laboratory work, games. In particular, games can be frontal, group and individual. Among practical methods, their characteristic types are distinguished.

At Aquilev's. Methodology

Method, recognition And identifying signs. The action of this method is based on the analysis of external morphological and partially anatomical features of objects and phenomena. The method is used when working with handouts, when there is a need to create a description of objects, phenomena, highlight their characteristics, determine the place of a given object, phenomenon in a system of similar ones. The use of the method of recognition and identification of signs is usually combined with the use of instruction. The instructions may be written on the board, handed out on cards, or taken as instructions for a task from a textbook.

An example of the application of the method of recognition and determination of characteristics can be the study of the external structure of a plant during practical work. Specimens of plants with well-defined parts are distributed to students’ tables. In this case, different students or different groups of them may be offered different plants to study.

Another example. When developing the ability to read a map, practical work is organized. Here, the method of recognizing and identifying features allows you to develop the ability to recognize geographical objects using conventional signs, and gain knowledge about the distribution of these objects on Earth. This method is used to study the structure of a thermometer, the properties of water, soil, minerals, etc. This method is widely used on excursions and in the process of making independent observations.

The most widely used practical method in the process of studying natural history is the method observations. Considering the special importance of this method at the initial stage of natural science education, we include its characteristics in a separate paragraph (see pp. 135-140).

Experiment, or experience, As a teaching method, it is used in cases where it is not possible to study an object or phenomenon under normal conditions, but the artificial creation of special conditions is required. The experiment is also used when some artificial element is introduced into the natural process. For example, no matter how much we examine the soil, we will not find air in it. To detect the latter in the soil, it must be immersed in water. The water will displace the air in the soil, which will bubble through the water. This way, students are convinced that there is air in the soil.

Another example. To make sure that plants can propagate by cuttings, it is not necessary to conduct long-term observations in nature and wait for this to happen in it. You can specifically

separate a cutting from a plant and plant it for rooting in a specially created environment. I. P. Pavlov wrote that observation collects what nature offers, and experiment allows us to take what we want. This method is implemented in experiments. It requires special equipment. In its content, an experiment is richer than observation and provides more convincing data on identifying the essence of a phenomenon, cause-and-effect relationships, and, consequently, elucidating natural scientific laws.

The experiment can be short-term or long-term. A long-term experiment goes beyond the scope of the lesson and is completed or, conversely, started outside of class time. Short-term experiences are completed in a short period of time and usually do not extend beyond the scope of the lesson. The first of the above experiments is short-term, the second is long-term. Other short-term experiments include experiments to study some properties of water (transparency, fluidity, the ability of water to dissolve certain substances, etc.), soil (the presence of water, mineral salts in the soil), changes in the height of the liquid column in a thermometer when the ambient temperature changes, and etc. Examples of other long-term experiments are the study of the conditions of water freezing, its evaporation, the development of a plant from a seed, etc. These experiments can be introduced in a lesson, then their result is demonstrated after some time, which requires a preliminary repetition of the material already covered. The experiment can be planned in advance in such a way that its result coincides with the moment of studying the relevant material. In this case, children perform the experiment “blindly”. His realization comes later.

A special place is occupied by experiments conducted at the training and experimental site. They are usually long-lasting and often occupy the entire growing season. In such experiments there must be control and experience. A plant or animal is placed in them under the same conditions except for one, the test subject. For example, in an experiment it is necessary to study the effect of seed placement depth on the emergence of plant seedlings. To conduct this experiment, two plots of equal size, soil fertility, and illumination are allocated. The seeds of one plant, for example, beans, are taken and sown on both plots at the same time. In the future, the plants are equally cared for. The difference is only in one thing: on the control plot, bean seeds are planted at a normal depth, and on the experimental plot, either shallower or deeper, depending on what specific goal is set in the experiment.

During any experiment, it is very important to make careful observations, perform the necessary measurements, calculations, and it is useful to keep

9*

corresponding entries in special notebooks separately for control and experience, placing them in parallel columns of a single table. This makes it easier to compare results and generalize them. Let us give examples of other similar experiments. In connection with the study of material about the development of a plant from a seed, it is possible to conduct an experiment to study the influence of the density of sowing seeds on the appearance of plants or on their yield. On the topic “Plants and Animals of the Garden,” you can conduct an experiment to study the effect of pinching the tips of raspberry shoots of the first year of life on the berry yield. The result of this experiment will be obtained only next year. An interesting and quite accessible experiment for children is to study the effect of joint planting of potatoes and legumes (beans, legumes) on the spread of the Colorado potato beetle.

As we can see, the experimental method is based on students conducting research work, which is similar to the research work of a scientist. This similarity lies in the general direction of the logical process. Both the scientist and the student observe objects and phenomena in natural, modified conditions, compare data with each other, give an explanation of what is happening, and draw general conclusions. These conclusions in both cases are discoveries. Only the discoveries of scientists are truly discoveries that enrich science. Students' discoveries are discoveries for themselves. As a rule, in science these discoveries have already been made. It is also clear that the child’s research process, in comparison with scientific research, is shortened and simplified; many details, intermediate searches, and erroneous trials are omitted from it. And finally, a scientist most often carries out his research independently, sets his own goals, and develops a methodology. The student does this work much less independently. His research is guided by a teacher, focusing on educational goals.

Experimentation as a teaching method is of great importance in the educational process. Along with other practical methods, it provides an empirical level of cognition, but, unlike other methods, it causes more active mental activity. It develops students' research skills, their creativity, independence, self-control, determination, etc. The negative aspects of this method are that its implementation often involves the use of additional equipment, compliance with certain norms and rules, the process of obtaining new knowledge is slowed down to a much greater extent than with other methods.

In the educational process in natural science subjects, the method is widely used modeling. Its name comes from

the word “model”, the definition of which is ambiguous. Thus, cyberneticist N. M. Amosov defines a model as a system in which the relationships between elements reflect another system. Philosopher V. A. Shtoff understands a model as a mentally imagined or materially realized system that, by displaying or reproducing an object of study, is capable of replacing it in such a way that its study gives us new information about this object.

Models can be material (material) and ideal (speculative, mentally constructed). Material models include a globe, a model of a thermometer, a flower, a heart, etc. Among the ideal models, figurative and symbolic models are distinguished. These models are created mentally based on an analysis of reality. In order to preserve them and make them available to others, they are transferred to paper, a board, a computer, etc. in the form of signs, drawings, diagrams, tables, diagrams, etc. An example of iconic models are symbols for indicating weather, environmental signs, conventional signs of the plan and map, etc. Figurative models are built from sensory-visual elements. These are, for example, diagrams of the water cycle in nature, the development of a plant from a seed, chains of connections between individual components of nature, various kinds of instructional drawings (rules for caring for indoor plants, making a filter, etc.).

However, one should not confuse a model as a visual aid and modeling as a teaching method. If a ready-made model, a pre-drawn diagram is brought to the lesson, then here we are dealing with the model as a visual aid. Modeling performs the function of a method when a child, based on an image created in his head, creates a model himself and in the process of activity receives information about the modeled object or phenomenon. Thus, in the practice of teaching primary science, children can model during practical work using sand, clay, plasticine and other materials using paints of surface shapes, various types of reservoirs, fragments of communities; In notebooks, students themselves create (draw) models of the directions of the sides of the horizon, models of terrain or paths of movement in the form of a plan, a diagram of the development of a plant from a seed, the water cycle in nature, the formation of a spring, etc.

What is the importance of modeling in the educational process? Why, instead of the object or phenomenon itself, should we take its model? Some of the objects being studied, and even more so natural phenomena, cannot be brought into the classroom for study. This is easy to verify if you analyze the models listed above. A model gives a more complete picture of an object or phenomenon than a table. In the very

In fact, the table gives a planar image, while most models give a three-dimensional image. When modeling, an object is created in which the studied aspects of the original can be studied much more easily than with direct observation. Modeling shortens the process of studying some long-term processes. Thus, it is not at all necessary to observe the entire process of development of a plant from a seed, which can last throughout the entire growing season. It is enough to select its individual stages and, having created a model diagram, obtain the corresponding knowledge. The same can be said about the water cycle in nature. The next significant positive side of modeling is that this method, like other practical methods, excludes the formal transfer of knowledge to students; the study of an object or phenomenon occurs during the active practical and mental activity of the child. After all, every model represents a unity of the sensual, visual and logical, concrete and abstract. It is obvious that the use of the modeling method develops the child’s thinking and creativity. It is also important that during the cognitive process, different analyzers work with the help of modeling, which contributes to the development of the sensory sphere of children.

At the same time, models are built on the principle of effective simplifications. At the same time, the model reflects the object or phenomenon in a generalized form, omitting some details and details and, on the contrary, enhancing the essential aspects. Therefore, they may have some differences from the original. Thus, the student does not seem to receive any additional information. However, most often this information does not have a significant negative impact on knowledge about a given object or phenomenon. For example, knowledge that the development of a plant from seed to seed is a sequential process will not be of less quality if the student traces the individual stages and does not record the appearance of, for example, each new leaf. But this is the great value of the model, since it allows one to provide knowledge by excluding numerous elements that are similar to each other. Disadvantages include the need to have materials, certain equipment, and to know and follow hygiene rules. Younger schoolchildren still have weak practical skills, which can affect the quality of the created model and its aesthetics.

Combination of teaching methods. In teaching practice, different methods are rarely used in their pure form. As a rule, they are used in various combinations. It is difficult to imagine using visual and practical methods without words. On the other side,

Purely verbal teaching can form predominantly formal knowledge and modeled actions, which negatively affects the development of the child’s personality. Another important point about the need to combine methods is that they are able to neutralize the negative aspects of each other and enhance the positive ones. In fact, the weak clarity of verbal methods is compensated by the use of visual and practical methods. The slow process of acquiring knowledge, which takes place when using visual and, especially, practical methods, can be accelerated by verbal methods.

Of the four groups of methods we have identified, we will characterize organizational methods in most detail, since their methodological significance in the overall system of research is completely unsatisfactorily presented in modern psychological literature.

The most established and empirically tested organizational method is comparative, modified in various psychological disciplines.

In evolutionary biopsychology, which is also called comparative, research is organized by comparing (simultaneous or sequential) different stages of evolution or different levels of development according to certain parameters. Designing and implementing such a study over a long period of time and using different techniques (especially observation and experimentation) is very complex. Initially, the comparative method was used to study the phylogenesis of behavior and mental activity, but then it was specifically applied to study ontogenetic evolution, for example, in primates (Ladygina-Kots, 1935; Tikh, 1966).

The comparative method as a general method of organizing research, guiding its course and regulating the interaction of all methods, is currently widely used in general psychology (comparison of various populations of subjects, or “samples”), in social psychology (comparison of various types of small groups, demographic, professional , ethnographic and other contingents), in pathopsychology and psychodefectology (comparison of patients with healthy people, people with defects - sensory, motor, intellectual - with normally seeing, hearing, etc.).

In child psychology and psychogerontology, the comparative method appeared in a special form of the method of “age-related” or “cross-sectional” sections. The vast majority of research in this area was carried out using this particular method, although they differ in experimental methods and techniques, problems and theoretical constructs. Comparative age studies may cover different phases of one or two adjacent periods (for example, childhood and adolescence), but in relation to the entire complex of phenomena being studied (for example, perception or thinking). These are the major works of J. Piaget (Flavell, 1967), including one of the most significant in the field of the genesis of thinking (Piaget, Inelder, 1963).

Another modification of the comparative age method is a selective comparison of individual periods, carried out with the aim of identifying the evolutionary-involutional characteristics of the dynamics of the mental process being studied. One of the most interesting and instructive studies of this kind is a series of studies by A. A. Smirnov and his colleagues on the problem of memory, where the features of some mnemonic processes in preschoolers, schoolchildren and adults were compared (Smirnov, 1967).

The full cycle of age comparisons is presented in our collective work devoted to ontogenetic changes in perceptual constants (Ananyev, Dvoryashina, Kudryavtseva, 1968). The main periods of human life (from early childhood to old age) were compared according to the parameter of visual perception - constancy. Using the method of age, or cross-sections, the value of this parameter as an indicator of individual development was revealed.

In another series of our studies, the method of age sections was used to determine the ontogenetic transformations of a complex of visual-spatial functions (visual field, visual acuity, linear eye). Using this method, both the characteristics of maturation and aging of each of these functions, as well as the types of interfunctional correlations in different periods of life have been identified (Ananyev, Rybalko, 1964; Aleksandrova, 1965; Rybalko, 1969).

In parallel with the comparative method, a longitudinal method (the “longshot” method) was developed in developmental and genetic psychology, but it was used on an incomparably smaller scale. One of the symposia of the XVIII International Psychological Congress (“Study of the course of a child’s mental development” - organized by R. Zazzo) was devoted to a special discussion of the principles of constructing this method. Generalization of some experience of its application allowed R. Zazzo to evaluate the effectiveness of the longitudinal method in comparison with the method of age or cross-sections. It has been shown that the longitudinal method is more sensitive in determining the possibilities of mental development. Its advantage over the method of age sections is reflected in solving two problems: 1) predicting the further course of mental evolution, scientific substantiation of mental prognosis, and 2) determining genetic connections between the phases of mental development.

The longitudinal method involves repeated examinations of the same individuals over a fairly long period of their life path, sometimes measured in tens of years. It eliminates such a serious drawback of the cross-sectional (age-comparative) method as the equation of all individuals of a given age and a given population. These individuals may not actually end up at the same point in ontogenetic evolution, since they undergo their development at different speeds and in different ways. Compared to the cross-sectional method, the longitudinal method is a more complex and individualized method of organizing research in the field of developmental, genetic and differential psychology.

The path of continuous monitoring of the progress of mental development is predetermined by a program designed for a number of years. It should be noted that the shorter the observation period, the less effective the use of the longitudinal method. Long-term observation and constant reproduction of certain functional samples (tests), comparable according to certain criteria of experimental tasks, with the simultaneous use of other methods (biographical, analysis of activity products, etc.) - all this characterizes the multi-operational composition of the longitudinal method as a way of organizing a long-term research cycle. The immediate result of its application is an individual monograph or a certain set of such monographs devoted to the course of mental development, covering several phases of periods of human life. A comparison of a number of such individual monographs allows us to fairly fully present the range of fluctuations in age norms and the moments of transition from one phase of development to another.

However, constructing a series of functional tests and experimental methods, periodically repeated when studying the same person, is an extremely difficult matter, since the adaptation of the subject to the experimental conditions, special training, etc. can influence the picture of development. In addition, the narrow basis of such a study, limited to a small number of objects, does not provide grounds for constructing age-related syndromes, which is successfully carried out through the comparative method of “cross-sections”. It was this circumstance that R. Zazzo took into account when he recommended combining both methods in genetic psychology (Zazzo, 1966).

A similar combination of longitudinal and comparative methods is also advisable in other areas of psychology, especially in differential psychology, where the reliability of an individual psychological diagnosis is of paramount importance. In clinical psychology (pathopsychology), casuistic analysis based on longitudinal data is usually superimposed on pathopsychological syndromes obtained by the comparative method (when studying patients with various neuropsychiatric diseases or comparing them with healthy people). In sports psychology, longitudinal methods of organizing research are of particular importance in combination with data from mass examinations of athletes of different specialties, qualifications, experience, etc.

Both comparative and longitudinal methods can be used in the study of individual psychophysiological functions, mental processes, states, and personality traits. The scale of organization of the entire cycle of work, the composition of methods and the equipment used depend on the subject of research. It must be taken into account, however, that in modern conditions psychological research is increasingly being included in complex integrated systems, in which many other sciences are involved, necessary for solving actual practical problems (for example, the scientific organization of labor). The exceptional importance of human factors in various types of social practice (from the organization of production to mass services to the population) determines the importance of such complex, i.e., interdisciplinary research.

Like the comparative or longitudinal method, which do not represent any theory in themselves, but are ways of organizing a research cycle, the complex method in itself is not yet a concept of the integrity of the phenomena being studied, but, undoubtedly, is aimed at building a research cycle that ensures I would like to justify the secret concept in the future.

The program of complex interdisciplinary research is united by the commonality of the object being studied and the division of functions between individual disciplines, periodic comparison of data and their generalization, mainly concerning connections and dependencies between phenomena of various kinds (for example, physical and mental development, the social status of the individual and his characterological properties, economic indicators labor productivity and individual style of work, etc.). Sociological-psychological, economic-ergonomic, anthropological-psychophysiological and other complex studies make special demands on the construction of optimal research modes for the operational management of a heterogeneous set of methods with the help of which large amounts of material are obtained and processed (especially statistically). The results of such studies provide the basis for corresponding conclusions about the improvement of certain areas of practice.

The methodology and technology of complex research is just beginning to be developed (Man and Society. Issue I-XIII, 1966-1973). However, given the growing importance of psychology in the system of sciences and the interaction between them, special attention should be paid to the issues of building an organization of complex research in the field of production, mass services, healthcare and, of course, education and upbringing, which are of paramount importance. Complex associations of psychologists, teachers and pediatricians, physiologists and anthropologists, methodologists of various profiles can be especially useful for ensuring the unity of pedagogical influences and optimal relationships between upbringing, training and development (Primary education..., 1968; Ananyev, 1974).

Among the empirical methods of psychology with the help of which research facts are obtained, objective observation (continuous or selective) is of primary importance, the methodology of which has recently undergone a significant transformation due to the use of various recording and other technical means both for observation and for processing the data obtained.

There are diametrically opposed opinions of opponents and apologists of this method about introspection as a specific method of psychology and as the main weapon of idealistic introspectionism. For us, self-observation is not a methodological problem, but a methodological problem that still awaits systematic study and technical improvements.

There is no doubt that the very possibility of introspection, i.e., the level of introspection, is an indicator of a person’s mental development, reflecting the peculiarities of the formation of his self-awareness. However, one should not equate self-observation with a special study of self-awareness. Like all phenomena of mental activity, self-awareness is objectified in activity, in the real positions of the individual and his actions, in the level of claims and the dynamics of relationships with others, in various types of communication. On the other hand, self-observation acts as a component of many other methods in the study of mental reactions, acts of behavior, and forms of activity in the form of a verbal report.

Nevertheless, it is obvious that introspection as an observational method has a special meaning when studying the dynamics of consciousness, which is both a subjective reflection of objective reality and an internal method of human self-understanding; self-awareness as a subjective program of the individual and its self-regulation.

In this regard, the techniques and data of mediated introspection (diaries, autobiographical materials, correspondence, etc.) are of particular value. Various areas of psychology use self-observation data in accordance with the subject and general organization of the study. In medical practice, subjective history material is always used, compared with data from clinical and laboratory studies (objective history).

In all types of applied psychology - from labor psychology to cosmic psychology - self-observation is used in various modifications and in connection with other, objective methods. Of particular importance is the description of well-being in certain states of activity, the dynamics of ideas and experiences, and motives of behavior (Lange, 1893).

Experimental methods in psychology are so diverse that none of the manuals on experimental psychology can provide a complete description of all experimental methods, since these are complex systems of special operations and procedures carried out in specially equipped chambers and cabins using complex instruments, devices and other technical devices . The first form of experimental method in psychology is the so-called laboratory experiment. This designation, of course, is purely formal and makes sense only in comparison with other types of experiment - “natural” and psychological-pedagogical.

Classic forms of laboratory experiment - the method of mental reactions, which exists in many variants (simple, sensory and motor reactions, choice reactions, reactions to a moving object, etc.), psychophysical methods (determination of thresholds and dynamics of sensitivity - absolute and differential - of various modalities ). These methods have received exceptional development not only in psychology, but also in many related sciences. In psychology itself, the progress of theory and experimental technology has led to the further improvement of these methods.

Following these methods, experimental psychology began to be replenished with various psychometric methods for studying mnemonic, perceptual, apperception and attentional processes. Each of them has special equipment and a specific experimental technique. Somewhat later, opportunities opened up for the experimental study of thinking processes and speech functions. Thanks to the successful development of this study, the experimental foundations of semiotics and modern heuristics were created, for which the experimental psychology of thinking is no less important than mathematical logic.

Many functional and procedural experimental psychological studies use a variety of physiological (especially conditioned reflex and electrophysiological) and physical and chemical methods, and in the study of speech and mental processes - linguistic and logical research methods.

The complication of methods of psychological measurements led to the creation of a special field of experimental psychology - the engineering and economic foundations of experimental psychology - which is responsible for the design of laboratory facilities, the selection of insulating materials and devices, the design of new equipment (equipment), etc.

The increasingly widespread introduction of radio electronics and automation into experimental psychological technology has ensured the creation of software signaling and stimulation devices with any complex of signals and with any gradations of their intensity. Thanks to the proliferation of electrophysiological devices, recording equipment is becoming more diverse and complex. In some cases, this equipment includes counting operations, the results of which are given in the form of quantitative indicators of stimuli and reactions. The development of signaling and recording equipment is not yet sufficiently interconnected, and therefore there are still frequent cases when, from a complex set of signals, the device provides registration of only chronometric indicators of motor or speech reactions. In the future, we should expect greater coordination and integration of both types of equipment.

One of the most pressing problems of modern experimental psychology, according to P. Fress (Fress, Piaget, 1966, pp. 93-95), is the transition from studying the psyche in laboratory conditions to studying it in real life. In recent decades, thanks to electronics, it has become possible to take experimental psychological technology beyond the laboratory into certain conditions of real life. This type of experimental psychological method can be called a field experimental method, which uses more portable equipment and shortened cycles of experimental procedures.

Currently, field experiments are widely practiced in the psychophysiology of work, aviation and space psychology, and especially in the psychology of sports and military psychology. Very interesting prospects for the development of laboratory and field experiments are opened by the socio-psychological study of interpersonal relationships in small groups, group and collective experiments using homeostats of various types, television installations with feedback, the “dummy group” technique, etc.

Natural and psychological-pedagogical experiments were very thoroughly developed in Soviet psychology and described in detail in psychological and pedagogical studies (N. A. Menchinskaya, G. S. Kostyuk, A. A. Lyublinskaya, M. N. Shardakova, etc.).

In modern conditions, conversation is a complementary technique to experimental methods or, as is typical for genetic and pathological psychology, a variant of a natural experiment that reproduces a certain situation of communication and mutual information. In social psychology, conversation acts as an independent interview method with its own special technique for collecting information, principles for grading answers and a rating scale. Based on interviews, as well as questionnaires of various types and questionnaires, states are recognized (public opinion, public sentiment, social expectations, role behavior) and decisions are made. In other words, interviews, questionnaires and questionnaires (for example, Eysenck questionnaires, based on the analysis of which extraversion-introversion, a measure of neuroticism, etc. are determined) are psychodiagnostic tools and should be classified in this group of empirical methods.

Psychodiagnostic methods also include sociometric ones, through which the status of an individual in groups (small and large), indicators of emotional expansion, etc. are determined. An extensive and ever-increasing number of methodological techniques are represented by tests, or mass psychological tests. Criticism of this method in Soviet scientific literature was directed mainly at the tendency of the bourgeois interpretation of data obtained using one of the most important types of tests that claim to determine intellectual abilities or mental giftedness. The use of these tests for the purpose of social selection is reactionary in nature and is directed against the democratization of education and culture.

Attention was drawn to the excessive formalization of assessments and focus on the results of solving problems, which ignores the originality of the process of intellectual activity. A serious drawback of many intelligence tests is their arbitrary nature: the construction and introduction into mass practice of tests and subtests that have not gone through the normal research cycle in special laboratories.

The most effective modifications of experimental methods, especially field ones, suitable for rapid mass application, should be transferred to diagnostic methods. Some psychodiagnostic test systems (for example, the D. Wechsler system and scale) satisfy these requirements, since most of the subtests are taken from experimental practice.

Among the tests, one should distinguish between standardized and non-standardized ones, and standardized tests have different purposes: success tests (knowledge rating scale) of blank types, widely used in the learning process; intelligence tests, among which there are not only those that pursue the goal of directly determining mental giftedness, but also many tests aimed at determining the level and structure of intelligence (verbal and nonverbal, general); tests of professional suitability or professional work ability, modified depending on professional profiles.

For the purpose of psychodiagnostics of personality properties, its characterological traits and motives of activity, projective tests are more often used (for example, “Rorschach spots”, etc.). The existing technology for processing projective test data is still very imperfect and does not exclude the possibility of subjectivist interpretations, especially in the psychoanalytic direction. However, improving projective tests and building objective systems for assessing their results is quite possible and will contribute to the development of psychodiagnostics.

Psychomotor tests (for example, tests by N. Ozeretsky or the Brazilian psychologist Mir Lopez), psychovegetative tests (especially galvanic skin reactivity, sweating, blood pressure measurements under various physical and mental stress) can be used as psychodiagnostic tools.

Thanks to the successes of the Soviet psychophysiological school of B. M. Teplov, many valuable functional tests or tests of human neurodynamic properties (strength of excitatory and inhibitory processes, mobility, dynamism, etc.) are introduced into the system of psychodiagnostic tools. Neurochronometry, developed by E. I. Boyko and his colleagues, is used for the same purposes. The creation of a unified system of modern psychodiagnostics is an urgent task of Soviet psychology, which should be solved through collective efforts in the coming years.

Among praximetric methods, well-developed methods and techniques include timing of working or sports movements, cyclographic recording of acts of behavior or labor actions, professional description of an entire production complex, artistic, literary and scientific works, inventions and rationalization proposals, school essays and educational works). For each of these types of “products” of human activity, an appropriate analysis technique must be developed (measurement of certain quantitative characteristics and assessment of quality, including the novelty and individualization of the results of theoretical and practical activity). In this regard, studies of preparatory manuscripts and finished materials of literary, artistic, technical and scientific creativity may be useful.

The biographical method - collecting and analyzing data about the life path of a person as an individual and subject of activity (analysis of human documentation, testimonies of contemporaries, products of the activity of the person himself, etc.) - is still poorly developed in psychology. Even in such areas as personality psychology, characterology, psychology of art, there is still no developed methodology and technique for compiling collections of documents and materials, criteria for assessing various components of a biography and determining types of life path. However, a comparative study of biographies, for example the biographies of scientists compiled by G. Lehman (Gehman, 1953) for the purpose of determining the optimal periods of creativity and phases of the formation of talent, can be very useful for the development of biographical research methods.

A special group of “processing” research methods consists of quantitative (statistical) methods, described in detail in the next chapter. Qualitative analysis consists of differentiating the processed material by type, species, variants, and generally categorizing the quantitatively processed material, which is necessary for preparing the generalizing phase of research. One of the processing methods of qualitative analysis is psychological casuistry - a description of cases, both the most typical for a given population or its main levels, and those that are exceptions.

Interpretative methods of a synthetic nature in psychology are currently being developed depending on two main types of interrelations of mental phenomena - “vertical” genetic connections between phases and levels of development and “horizontal” structural connections between all studied personality characteristics. (Age and individual differences..., 1967). The genetic method interprets all processed research material in the characteristics of development, highlighting phases, stages, critical moments in the process of formation of mental functions, formations or personality traits. The structural method interprets all processed research material in the characteristics of systems and types of connections between them that form a person, a social group, etc. A specific expression of this method is psychography.

In essence, at this methodological level, the method becomes, in a certain sense, a theory, determining the path for the formation of concepts and new hypotheses that determine further research cycles of psychological cognition. That is why this chapter describes in such detail the complex and longitudinal methods that organize the structure and sequence of our research. For the same reasons, considerable attention has been paid to our understanding of psychodiagnostic methods in the structure of empirical measurements, which provide a certain direction in the study of the nature of mental phenomena.