Professor knows. Professor Znaev Updating basic knowledge

The weather is important not only for city residents leaving their homes; it is also used every hour by pilots and sailors. For the navigation of ships and aircraft, there are three serious problems: strong air currents, low temperatures and fog. Airports are closed for several hours and even days in case of icy runways, heavy snow or fog. In the Novorossiysk Bay, the winter wind coming down from the mountains (bora) causes icing of ships and port facilities.

The hydropower potential of the territory is also directly related to climatic conditions: the full flow of rivers, periods of freeze-up and flood - all this is directly related to climate. For example, the energy-scarce economy of Primorye does not have hydroelectric power stations, although this region has large hydropower resources. This is due to the extreme instability of the river regime in the monsoon climate, with regularly occurring typhoons.

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Conditions that a person must take into account in his economic activities and especially when developing new territories. Knowing the climate of the country and its individual regions, it is possible to plan the distribution of cultivated plants. For each climatic region, you can select crops that will give the best harvest.

However, passive submission to the climate would be a mistake.

People have learned to develop new forms of plants adapted to almost any climatic conditions. Now under Grapes grow in Moscow, although this crop is typical for warm countries of the world. Many such examples can be given.

It is of great importance to take into account climatic conditions when laying new highways and railways, construction of airfields, selection of building materials for industrial enterprises, heating of buildings, construction technology, etc.

Climates must also be studied to preserve human health, using the climatic conditions of the area for medicinal purposes. For example, mountain The climate and climate of the coastal areas in summer is very useful for tuberculosis patients.

However, the influence of climate on humans is limited. For many centuries, bourgeois scientists, contrary to the truth, have argued that the social system, the poverty of some countries and the wealth of others depend on geography and climate.

Some of them say that in the steppe climate a person can only engage in arable farming, in the deserts - sheep breeding, in the tundra - reindeer herding, and no industry is possible there. These assertions are refuted by all the experience of economic development of our and other countries.

Man has long entered into a struggle with unfavorable conditions climate.

With the help of housing and clothing, he created his own climate - a microclimate. It can be said that from the time when people first learned to use fire, a decisive victory over the climate was won and opportunities were created for the widespread settlement of people. Big cities are warmer in winter and summer than their surroundings. Leningrad and Moscow are 1° warmer than their suburbs (on average for year). It's the same as if they were moved south by about 150 km.

In the oases of Turkmenistan, created by artificial irrigation, in summer the daytime temperature is 3-4° lower, and at night 3-4° higher than in the surrounding desert.

A variety of work is being carried out in our country to improve the climate. In the near future, the use of atomic energy will open up even broader prospects for the Soviet people to remake nature and climate.

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Ministry of Higher and vocational education RF

Krasnoyarsk State Trade and Economic University

Department of Ecology

"Climate and People"

Completed:

Student gr TOP 05-12 Rudamanenko I.N.

Checked:

Teacher Efremov A.A.

Krasnoyarsk 2005

Introduction

At all stages of his development, man was closely connected with the world around him. But since the emergence of a highly industrialized society, dangerous human intervention in nature has sharply increased, the scope of this intervention has expanded, it has become more diverse and now threatens to become a global danger to humanity.

The consumption of non-renewable raw materials is increasing, more and more arable land is leaving the economy, so cities and factories are built on it. Man has to increasingly intervene in the economy of the biosphere - that part of our planet in which life exists. The Earth's biosphere is currently subject to increasing anthropogenic impact. At the same time, several of the most significant processes can be identified, any of which does not improve environmental situation on the planet.

The most widespread and significant is chemical pollution of the environment with substances of a chemical nature that are unusual for it. Among them are gaseous and aerosol pollutants of industrial and domestic origin. The accumulation of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is also progressing.

Further development of this process will strengthen the undesirable upward trend average annual temperature on the planet. Environmentalists are also concerned about the ongoing pollution of the World Ocean with oil and petroleum products, which has already reached 1/5 of its total surface.

Oil pollution of this size can cause significant disruptions in gas and water exchange between the hydrosphere and the atmosphere. There is no doubt about the importance of chemical contamination of soil with pesticides and its increased acidity, leading to the collapse of the ecosystem. In general, all the factors considered that can be attributed to the polluting effect have a noticeable impact on the processes occurring in the biosphere.

1. Chemical pollution of the biosphere

pollution anthropogenic biosphere petroleum products

I will begin my essay with a review of those factors that lead to the deterioration of the condition of one of the most important components of the biosphere - the atmosphere. Man has been polluting the atmosphere for thousands of years, but the consequences of the use of fire, which he used throughout this period, were insignificant. I had to put up with the fact that smoke interfered with breathing and that soot lay a black cover on the ceiling and walls of the home. The resulting heat was more important for a person than clean air and unfinished cave walls. This initial air pollution was not a problem, since people then lived in small groups, occupying an invariably vast, untouched natural environment. And even a significant concentration of people in a relatively small area, as was the case in classical antiquity, was not yet accompanied by serious consequences.

This was the case until the beginning of the nineteenth century. Only over the last hundred years, the development of industry has “gifted” us with such production processes, the consequences of which at first people could not yet imagine. Millionaire cities have emerged whose growth cannot be stopped. All this is the result of great inventions and conquests of man.

There are basically three main sources of air pollution: industry, domestic boilers, and transport. The contribution of each of these sources to total air pollution varies greatly from place to place. It is now generally accepted that industrial production produces the most air pollution. Sources of pollution are thermal power plants, which, along with smoke, emit sulfur dioxide and carbon dioxide; metallurgical enterprises, especially non-ferrous metallurgy, which emit nitrogen oxides, hydrogen sulfide, chlorine, fluorine, ammonia, phosphorus compounds, particles and compounds of mercury and arsenic into the air; chemical and cement plants. Harmful gases enter the air as a result of burning fuel for industrial needs, heating homes, transport, burning and processing household and industrial waste. Atmospheric pollutants are divided into primary, which enter directly into the atmosphere, and secondary, which are the result of the transformation of the latter. Thus, sulfur dioxide gas entering the atmosphere is oxidized to sulfuric anhydride, which reacts with water vapor and forms droplets of sulfuric acid. When sulfuric anhydride reacts with ammonia, ammonium sulfate crystals are formed. Similarly, as a result of chemical, photochemical, physicochemical reactions between pollutants and atmospheric components, other secondary characteristics are formed. The main source of pyrogenic pollution on the planet is thermal power plants, metallurgical and chemical enterprises, boiler plants, consuming more than 70% of the annually mined solid and liquid fuel. The main harmful impurities of pyrogenic origin are the following:

a) Carbon monoxide. It is produced by incomplete combustion of carbonaceous substances. It enters the air as a result of the combustion of solid waste, exhaust gases and emissions from industrial enterprises. Every year at least 250 million tons of this gas enter the atmosphere. Carbon monoxide is a compound that actively reacts with components of the atmosphere and contributes to an increase in temperature on the planet and the creation of a greenhouse effect.

b) Sulfur dioxide. Released during the combustion of sulfur-containing fuel or processing of sulfur ores (up to 70 million tons per year). Some sulfur compounds are released during the combustion of organic residues in mining dumps. In the United States alone, the total amount of sulfur dioxide released into the atmosphere amounted to 65 percent of global emissions.

c) Sulfuric anhydride. Formed by the oxidation of sulfur dioxide. The final product of the reaction is an aerosol or solution of sulfuric acid in rainwater, which acidifies the soil and aggravates diseases of the human respiratory tract. The fallout of sulfuric acid aerosol from smoke flares of chemical plants is observed under low clouds and high air humidity. Leaf blades of plants growing at a distance of less than 1 km. from such enterprises are usually densely dotted with small necrotic spots formed in places where drops of sulfuric acid settled. Pyrometallurgical enterprises of non-ferrous and ferrous metallurgy, as well as thermal power plants, annually emit tens of millions of tons of sulfuric anhydride into the atmosphere.

d) Hydrogen sulfide and carbon disulfide. They enter the atmosphere separately or together with other sulfur compounds. The main sources of emissions are enterprises producing artificial fiber, sugar, coke plants, oil refineries, and oil fields. In the atmosphere, when interacting with other pollutants, they undergo slow oxidation to sulfuric anhydride.

e) Nitrogen oxides. The main sources of emissions are enterprises producing nitrogen fertilizers, nitric acid and nitrates, aniline dyes, nitro compounds, viscose silk, celluloid. The amount of nitrogen oxides entering the atmosphere is 20 million tons. per year.

f) Fluorine compounds. Sources of pollution are enterprises producing aluminum, enamels, glass, ceramics, steel, and phosphate fertilizers. Fluorine-containing substances enter the atmosphere in the form of gaseous compounds - hydrogen fluoride or sodium and calcium fluoride dust. The compounds are characterized by a toxic effect. Fluorine derivatives are strong insecticides.

g) Chlorine compounds. They come into the atmosphere from chemical plants producing hydrochloric acid, chlorine-containing pesticides, organic dyes, hydrolytic alcohol, bleach, and soda. In the atmosphere they are found as impurities of chlorine molecules and hydrochloric acid vapors. The toxicity of chlorine is determined by the type of compounds and their concentration. In the metallurgical industry, when smelting cast iron and processing it into steel, various heavy metals and toxic gases are released into the atmosphere. So, per 1 ton of pig iron, more than 2.7 kg are released. sulfur dioxide and 4.5 kg. dust particles that determine the amount of compounds of arsenic, phosphorus, antimony, lead, mercury vapor and rare metals, resin substances and hydrogen cyanide.

Aerosol air pollution Aerosols are solid or liquid particles suspended in the air. In some cases, solid components of aerosols are especially dangerous for organisms and cause specific diseases in people. In the atmosphere, aerosol pollution is perceived as smoke, fog, haze or haze. A significant portion of aerosols are formed in the atmosphere through the interaction of solid and liquid particles with each other or with water vapor. The average size of aerosol particles is 1-5 microns. About 1 cubic km enters the Earth's atmosphere annually. dust particles of artificial origin. A large number of dust particles are also formed during human production activities. Information about some sources of industrial dust is given below:

PRODUCTION PROCESS DUST EMISSION, MILLION TONS/YEAR

1. Burning coal 93.60 2. Iron smelting 20.21 3. Copper smelting (without purification) 6.23 4. Zinc smelting 0.18 5. Tin smelting (without purification) 0.004 6. Lead smelting 0.13 7. Cement production 53, 37

The main sources of artificial aerosol air pollution are thermal power plants that consume high-ash coal, processing plants , metallurgical, cement, magnesite and carbon black factories. Aerosol particles from these sources have a wide variety of chemical compositions. Most often, compounds of silicon, calcium and carbon are found in their composition, less often - metal oxides: iron, magnesium, manganese, zinc, copper, nickel, lead, antimony, bismuth, selenium, arsenic, beryllium, cadmium, chromium, cobalt, molybdenum, as well as asbestos. An even greater variety is characteristic of organic dust, including aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons and acid salts. It is formed during the combustion of residual petroleum products, during the pyrolysis process at oil refineries, petrochemical and other similar enterprises. Constant sources of aerosol pollution are industrial dumps - artificial embankments of redeposited material, mainly overburden rocks formed during mining or from waste from processing industry enterprises, thermal power plants. Massive blasting operations serve as a source of dust and toxic gases. Thus, as a result of one average-mass explosion (250-300 tons of explosives), about 2 thousand cubic meters are released into the atmosphere. conventional carbon monoxide and more than 150 tons of dust. The production of cement and other building materials is also a source of dust pollution. The main technological processes of these industries - grinding and chemical processing of charges, semi-finished products and resulting products in streams of hot gases - are always accompanied by emissions of dust and other harmful substances into the atmosphere. Atmospheric pollutants include hydrocarbons - saturated and unsaturated, containing from 1 to 13 carbon atoms. They undergo various transformations, oxidation, polymerization, interacting with other atmospheric pollutants after excitation by solar radiation. As a result of these reactions, peroxide compounds, free radicals, and hydrocarbon compounds with nitrogen and sulfur oxides are formed, often in the form of aerosol particles. Under certain weather conditions, particularly large accumulations of harmful gaseous and aerosol impurities may form in the ground layer of air. This usually occurs in cases where there is an inversion in the air layer directly above the sources of gas and dust emission - the location of a layer of colder air under warmer air, which prevents air masses and delays the upward transfer of impurities. As a result, harmful emissions are concentrated under the inversion layer, their content near the ground increases sharply, which becomes one of the reasons for the formation of photochemical fog, previously unknown in nature.

Photochemical fog (smog) Photochemical fog is a multicomponent mixture of gases and aerosol particles of primary and secondary origin. The main components of smog include ozone, nitrogen and sulfur oxides, and numerous organic compounds of peroxide nature, collectively called photooxidants. Photochemical smog occurs as a result of photochemical reactions under certain conditions: the presence in the atmosphere of a high concentration of nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons and other pollutants, intense solar radiation and calmness, or very weak air exchange in the surface layer with a powerful and increased inversion for at least a day. Stable, calm weather, usually accompanied by inversions, is necessary to create high concentrations of reactants. Such conditions are created more often in June-September and less often in winter. In prolonged clear weather solar radiation causes the breakdown of nitrogen dioxide molecules to form nitrogen oxide and atomic oxygen. Atomic oxygen and molecular oxygen give ozone. It would seem that the latter, oxidizing nitric oxide, should again turn into molecular oxygen, and nitric oxide into dioxide. But this doesn't happen. Nitrogen oxide reacts with olefins in exhaust gases, which split at the double bond and form fragments of molecules and excess ozone. As a result of ongoing dissociation, new masses of nitrogen dioxide are broken down and produce additional amounts of ozone. A cyclic reaction occurs, as a result of which ozone gradually accumulates in the atmosphere. This process stops at night. In turn, ozone reacts with olefins. Various peroxides are concentrated in the atmosphere, which together form the oxidants characteristic of photochemical fog. The latter are a source of so-called free radicals, which are particularly reactivity. Such smogs are a common occurrence over London, Paris, Los Angeles, New York and other cities in Europe and America. Due to their physiological effects on the human body, they are extremely dangerous for the respiratory and circulatory systems and often cause premature death in urban residents with poor health.

The problem of controlling the release of pollutants into the atmosphere by industrial enterprises (MPC)

The priority in the development of maximum permissible concentrations in the air belongs to the USSR. MPC - such concentrations that directly or indirectly affect a person and his offspring and do not impair their performance, well-being, as well as the sanitary and living conditions of people. The generalization of all information on maximum permissible concentrations received by all departments is carried out at the Main Geophysical Observatory. In order to determine air values ​​based on the results of observations, the measured concentration values ​​are compared with the maximum one-time maximum permissible concentration and the number of cases when the MPC was exceeded is determined, as well as how many times the highest value was higher than the MPC. The average concentration value for a month or a year is compared with the long-term MPC - the average sustainable MPC. The state of air pollution by several substances observed in the city's atmosphere is assessed using a complex indicator - the air pollution index (API). For this purpose, normalized to the corresponding MPC values ​​and average concentrations various substances Using simple calculations, they lead to the concentration of sulfur dioxide and then sum it up. The maximum one-time concentrations of the main pollutants were the highest in Norilsk (nitrogen and sulfur oxides), Frunze (dust), and Omsk (carbon monoxide). The degree of air pollution by major pollutants is directly dependent on the industrial development of the city. The highest maximum concentrations are typical for cities with a population of more than 500 thousand inhabitants. Air pollution with specific substances depends on the type of industry developed in the city. If enterprises of several industries are located in a large city, a very high level of air pollution is created, but the problem of reducing emissions of many specific substances still remains unresolved.

2. Chemical pollution natural waters

Every body of water or water source is connected with its surrounding external environment. It is influenced by the conditions of formation of surface or underground water flow, various natural phenomena, industry, industrial and municipal construction, transport, economic and domestic human activities. The consequence of these influences is the introduction of new, unusual substances into the aquatic environment - pollutants that worsen the quality of water. Pollutants entering the aquatic environment are classified differently, depending on approaches, criteria and objectives. Thus, chemical, physical and biological contaminants are usually isolated. Chemical pollution is a change in natural chemical properties water due to an increase in the content of harmful impurities in it, both inorganic (mineral salts, acids, alkalis, clay particles) and organic (oil and oil products, organic residues, surfactants, pesticides).

Inorganic pollution The main inorganic (mineral) pollutants of fresh and sea waters are a variety of chemical compounds, toxic to the inhabitants of the aquatic environment. These are compounds of arsenic, lead, cadmium, mercury, chromium, copper, fluorine. Most of them end up in water as a result of human activity. Heavy metals are absorbed by phytoplankton and then transferred along the food chain to higher organisms. The toxic effect of some of the most common hydrosphere pollutants is presented in the table:

SUBSTANCE PLANKTON CRUSTACEANS FISH

Dangerous pollutants of the aquatic environment include inorganic acids and bases, which cause a wide pH range of industrial wastewater (1.0 - 11.0) and can change the pH of the aquatic environment to values ​​of 5.0 or above 8.0, while fish in fresh and sea ​​water can only exist in the pH range 5.0 - 8.5. Among the main sources of hydrosphere pollution with minerals and nutrients, enterprises should be mentioned food industry and agriculture. About 6 million tons are washed away from irrigated lands annually. salts By 2000, their mass may increase to 12 million tons/year. Waste containing mercury, lead, and copper is localized in certain areas near the coast, but some of it is carried far beyond the territorial waters. Mercury pollution significantly reduces the primary production of marine ecosystems, suppressing the development of phytoplankton. Waste containing mercury typically accumulates in the sediments of bays or river estuaries. Its further migration is accompanied by the accumulation of methyl mercury and its inclusion in the trophic chains of aquatic organisms. Thus, Minamata disease, first discovered by Japanese scientists in people who ate fish caught in Minamata Bay, into which industrial wastewater containing technogenic mercury was uncontrolled, became notorious.

Organic pollution. Among the soluble substances introduced into the ocean from land, not only mineral and biogenic elements, but also organic residues are of great importance for the inhabitants of the aquatic environment. The removal of organic matter into the ocean is estimated at 300 - 380 million tons/year. Wastewater containing suspensions of organic origin or dissolved organic matter has a detrimental effect on the condition of water bodies. As they settle, the suspensions flood the bottom and delay the development or completely stop the vital activity of these microorganisms involved in the process of self-purification of water. When these sediments rot, harmful compounds and toxic substances, such as hydrogen sulfide, can be formed, which lead to the contamination of all water in the river. The presence of suspensions also makes it difficult for light to penetrate deep into the water and slows down the processes of photosynthesis. One of the main sanitary requirements for water quality is the content of the required amount of oxygen in it. All contaminants that, in one way or another, contribute to a decrease in the oxygen content in water have a harmful effect. Surfactants - fats, oils, lubricants- form a film on the surface of the water that prevents gas exchange between water and the atmosphere, which reduces the degree of oxygen saturation of the water. A significant volume of organic substances, most of which are not characteristic of natural waters, is discharged into rivers along with industrial and domestic wastewater. Increasing pollution of water bodies and drains is observed in all industrial countries. Information on the content of certain organic substances in industrial waste water ah provided below:

POLLUTANTS QUANTITY IN GLOBAL RUNOFF MILLION TON/YEAR

1. Petroleum products 26.563 2. Phenols 0.460 3. Waste from synthetic fiber production 5.500 4. Plant organic residues 0.170 5. Total 33.273

Due to the rapid pace of urbanization and the somewhat slow construction of treatment facilities or their unsatisfactory operation, water basins and soil are polluted by household waste. Pollution is especially noticeable in slow-flowing or non-flowing water bodies (reservoirs, lakes). By decomposing in the aquatic environment, organic waste can become a breeding ground for pathogenic organisms. Water contaminated with organic waste becomes practically unsuitable for drinking and other needs. Household waste is dangerous not only because it is a source of certain human diseases (typhoid fever, dysentery, cholera), but also because it requires a lot of oxygen to decompose. If household wastewater enters a reservoir at very large quantities, then the content of dissolved oxygen may drop below the level necessary for the life of marine and freshwater organisms.

3. The problem of pollution of the World Ocean (using the example of a number of organic compounds)

Oil and petroleum products

Oil is a viscous oily liquid that is dark brown in color and weakly fluorescent. Oil consists primarily of saturated aliphatic and hydroaromatic hydrocarbons. The main components of oil - hydrocarbons (up to 98%) - are divided into 4 classes:

a) Paraffins (alkenes) - (up to 90% of the total composition) - stable substances whose molecules are expressed by a straight and branched chain of carbon atoms. Light paraffins have maximum volatility and solubility in water.

b) Cycloparaffins. - (30 - 60% of the total composition) saturated cyclic compounds with 5-6 carbon atoms in the ring. In addition to cyclopentane and cyclohexane, bicyclic and polycyclic compounds of this group are found in oil. These compounds are very stable and poorly biodegradable.

c) Aromatic hydrocarbons. - (20 - 40% of the total composition) - unsaturated cyclic compounds of the benzene series, containing 6 less carbon atoms in the ring than cycloparaffins. Oil contains volatile compounds with a molecule in the form of a single ring (benzene, toluene, xylene), then bicyclic (naphthalene), polycyclic (pyrene).

d) Olefins (alkenes). - (up to 10% of the total composition) - unsaturated non-cyclic compounds with one or two hydrogen atoms at each carbon atom in a molecule having a straight or branched chain.

Oil and petroleum products are the most common pollutants in the World Ocean. By the beginning of the 80s, about 6 million tons entered the ocean annually. oil, which accounted for 0.23% of world production. The greatest oil losses are associated with its transportation from production areas. Emergency situations involving tankers draining washing and ballast water overboard - all this causes the presence of permanent fields of pollution along sea routes. In the period 1962-79, as a result of accidents, about 2 million tons of oil entered the marine environment. Over the past 30 years, since 1964, about 2,000 wells have been drilled in the World Ocean, of which 1,000 and 350 industrial wells have been equipped in the North Sea alone. Due to minor leaks, 0.1 million tons are lost annually. oil. Large masses of oil enter the seas through rivers, domestic wastewater and storm drains. The volume of pollution from this source is 2.0 million tons/year. 0.5 million tons enter annually with industrial waste. oil. Once in the marine environment, oil first spreads in the form of a film, forming layers of varying thickness. You can determine its thickness by the color of the film:

APPEARANCE THICKNESS, µm QUANTITY OF OIL, L./SQ.KM.

1. Barely noticeable 0.038 44 2. Silvery sheen 0.076 88 3. Traces of color 0.152 176 4. Brightly colored stains 0.305 352 5. Dullly colored 1.016 1170 6. Darkly colored 2.032 2310

The oil film changes the composition of the spectrum and the intensity of light penetration into water. The light transmittance of thin films of crude oil is 1-10% (280 nm), 60-70% (400 nm). A film 30-40 microns thick completely absorbs infrared radiation. When mixed with water, oil forms two types of emulsion: direct “oil in water” and reverse “water in oil”. Direct emulsions, composed of oil droplets with a diameter of up to 0.5 microns, are less stable and are characteristic of oil containing surfactants. When volatile fractions are removed, oil forms viscous inverse emulsions that can remain on the surface, be transported by currents, washed ashore and settle to the bottom.

Pesticides constitute a group of artificially created substances used to control plant pests and diseases. Pesticides are divided into the following groups: insecticides - to combat harmful insects, fungicides and bactericides - to combat bacterial plant diseases, herbicides - against weeds. It has been established that pesticides, while destroying pests, harm many beneficial organisms and undermine the health of biocenoses. In agriculture, there has long been a problem of transition from chemical (polluting) to biological (environmentally friendly) methods of pest control. Currently more than 5 million tons. pesticides enter the world market. About 1.5 million tons. These substances have already become part of terrestrial and marine ecosystems through ash and water. Industrial production of pesticides is accompanied by the emergence of a large number of by-products that pollute wastewater. Representatives of insecticides, fungicides and herbicides are most often found in the aquatic environment. Synthesized insecticides are divided into three main groups: organochlorine, organophosphorus and carbonates. Organochlorine insecticides are produced by chlorination of aromatic and heterocyclic liquid hydrocarbons. These include DDT and its derivatives, in the molecules of which the stability of aliphatic and aromatic groups in the joint presence increases, and all kinds of chlorinated derivatives of chlorodiene (Eldrin). These substances have a half-life of up to several decades and are very resistant to biodegradation. In the aquatic environment, polychlorinated biphenyls are often found - derivatives of DDT without an aliphatic part, numbering 210 homologues and isomers. Over the past 40 years, more than 1.2 million tons have been used. polychlorinated biphenyls in the production of plastics, dyes, transformers, capacitors. Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) enter the environment as a result of industrial wastewater discharges and combustion, and solid waste in landfills. The latter source supplies PBC to the atmosphere, from where it is precipitation fall in all regions of the globe. Thus, in snow samples taken in Antarctica, the PBC content was 0.03 - 1.2 kg/l.

Synthetic surfactants. Detergents (surfactants) belong to a large group of substances that reduce the surface tension of water. They are part of synthetic detergents (SDCs), widely used in everyday life and industry. Together with wastewater, surfactants enter continental waters and the marine environment. SMS contain sodium polyphosphates in which detergents are dissolved, as well as a number of additional ingredients that are toxic to aquatic organisms: fragrances, bleaching reagents (persulfates, perborates), soda ash, carboxymethylcellulose, sodium silicates. Depending on the nature and structure of the hydrophilic part, surfactant molecules are divided into anionic, cationic, amphoteric and nonionic. The latter do not form ions in water. The most common surfactants are anionic substances. They account for more than 50% of all surfactants produced in the world. The presence of surfactants in industrial wastewater is associated with their use in processes such as flotation concentration of ores, separation of chemical technology products, production of polymers, improving conditions for drilling oil and gas wells, and combating equipment corrosion. In agriculture, surfactants are used as part of pesticides.

Compounds with carcinogenic properties. Carcinogenic substances are chemically homogeneous compounds that exhibit transforming activity and the ability to cause carcinogenic, teratogenic (disruption of embryonic development processes) or mutagenic changes in organisms. Depending on the conditions of exposure, they can lead to growth inhibition, accelerated aging, disruption of individual development and changes in the gene pool of organisms. Substances with carcinogenic properties include chlorinated aliphatic hydrocarbons, vinyl chloride, and especially polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). The maximum amount of PAHs in modern sediments of the World Ocean (more than 100 μg/km of dry matter mass) was found in tectonically active zones subject to deep thermal effects. The main anthropogenic sources of PAHs in the environment are the pyrolysis of organic substances during combustion various materials, wood and fuel.

Heavy metals. Heavy metals (mercury, lead, cadmium, zinc, copper, arsenic) are common and highly toxic pollutants. They are widely used in various industrial processes, therefore, despite treatment measures, the content of heavy metal compounds in industrial wastewater is quite high. Large masses of these compounds enter the ocean through the atmosphere. For marine biocenoses, the most dangerous are mercury, lead and cadmium. Mercury is transported to the ocean by continental runoff and through the atmosphere. During the weathering of sedimentary and igneous rocks, 3.5 thousand tons are released annually. mercury Atmospheric dust contains about 12 thousand tons. mercury, and a significant part is of anthropogenic origin. About half of the annual industrial production of this metal (910 thousand tons/year) ends up in the ocean in various ways. In areas polluted by industrial waters, the concentration of mercury in solution and suspended matter increases greatly. At the same time, some bacteria convert chlorides into highly toxic methyl mercury. Contamination of seafood has repeatedly led to mercury poisoning of coastal populations. By 1977, there were 2,800 victims of Minomata disease, which was caused by waste from vinyl chloride and acetaldehyde production plants that used mercuric chloride as a catalyst. Insufficiently treated wastewater from factories flowed into Minamata Bay. Pigs are a typical trace element contained in all components of the environment: in rocks ah, soils, natural waters, atmosphere, living organisms. Finally, pigs are actively dispersed into the environment during human economic activities. These are emissions from industrial and domestic wastewater, from smoke and dust from industrial enterprises, from engine exhaust gases internal combustion. The migration flow of lead from the continent to the ocean occurs not only with river runoff, but also through the atmosphere. With continental dust, the ocean receives (20-30)*10^3 tons of lead per year.

Dumping of waste into the sea for the purpose of disposal (dumping).

Many landlocked countries undertake marine disposal of various materials and substances, in particular dredging soil, drilling slag, industrial waste, construction waste, solid waste, explosives and chemicals, radioactive waste.

The volume of burials amounted to about 10% of the total mass of pollutants entering the World Ocean. The basis for dumping at sea is the possibility marine environment to the processing of large quantities of organic and inorganic substances without much damage to water. However, this ability is not unlimited. Therefore, dumping is considered as a forced measure, a temporary tribute from society to the imperfection of technology. Industrial slag contains a variety of organic substances and heavy metal compounds. Household waste on average contains (by dry matter weight) 32-40% organic matter; 0.56% nitrogen; 0.44% phosphorus; 0.155% zinc; 0.085% lead; 0.001% mercury; 0.001% cadmium. During the discharge, when the material passes through a column of water, some of the pollutants go into solution, changing the quality of the water, while others are sorbed by suspended particles and pass into bottom sediments. At the same time, the turbidity of the water increases. The presence of organic substances often leads to the rapid consumption of oxygen in water and not least to its complete disappearance, dissolution of suspended matter, accumulation of metals in dissolved form, and the appearance of hydrogen sulfide. The presence of a large amount of organic substances creates a stable reducing environment in the soil, in which a special type of silt water appears, containing hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, and metal ions. Benthos organisms and others are exposed to varying degrees to the effects of discharged materials. In the case of the formation of surface films containing petroleum hydrocarbons and surfactants, gas exchange at the air-water interface is disrupted. Pollutants entering the solution can accumulate in the tissues and organs of aquatic organisms and have a toxic effect on them. The discharge of dumping materials to the bottom and prolonged increased turbidity of the added water leads to the death of sedentary benthos from suffocation. In surviving fish, mollusks and crustaceans, their growth rate is reduced due to deteriorating feeding and breathing conditions. The species composition of a given community often changes. When organizing a control system for waste discharges into the sea, identifying dumping areas and determining the dynamics of pollution of sea water and bottom sediments is of decisive importance. To identify possible volumes of discharge into the sea, it is necessary to carry out calculations of all pollutants in the material discharge.

Thermal pollution. Thermal pollution of the surface of reservoirs and coastal marine areas occurs as a result of the discharge of heated wastewater by power plants and some industrial production. The discharge of heated water in many cases causes an increase in water temperature in reservoirs by 6-8 degrees Celsius. The area of ​​heated water spots in coastal areas can reach 30 sq. km. More stable temperature stratification prevents water exchange between the surface and bottom layers. The solubility of oxygen decreases, and its consumption increases, since with increasing temperature the activity of aerobic bacteria decomposing organic matter increases. The species diversity of phytoplankton and the entire algal flora is increasing.

Based on the generalization of the material, we can conclude that the effects of anthropogenic impact on the aquatic environment manifest themselves at the individual and population-biocenotic levels, and the long-term effect of pollutants leads to a simplification of the ecosystem.

4. Soil pollution

The Earth's soil cover is the most important component of the Earth's biosphere. It is the soil shell that determines many of the processes occurring in the biosphere.

The most important importance of soils is the accumulation of organic matter, various chemical elements, as well as energy. Soil cover functions as a biological absorber, destroyer and neutralizer of various pollutants. If this link of the biosphere is destroyed, then the existing functioning of the biosphere will be irreversibly disrupted. That is why it is extremely important to study the global biochemical significance of the soil cover, its current state and changes under the influence of anthropogenic activities. One type of anthropogenic impact is pesticide pollution.

Pesticides as a pollutant. The discovery of pesticides - chemical means of protecting plants and animals from various pests and diseases - is one of the most important achievements of modern science. Today in the world per 1 hectare. 300 kg applied. chemicals. However, as a result of long-term use of pesticides in agriculture and medicine (control of disease vectors), there is almost universally a decrease in effectiveness due to the development of resistant races of pests and the spread of “new” pests, the natural enemies and competitors of which were destroyed by pesticides. At the same time, the effects of pesticides began to manifest themselves on a global scale. Of the huge number of insects, only 0.3% or 5 thousand species are harmful. Pesticide resistance was found in 250 species. This is aggravated by the phenomenon of cross-resistance, which consists in the fact that increased resistance to the action of one drug is accompanied by resistance to compounds of other classes. From a general biological point of view, resistance can be considered as a change in populations as a result of a transition from a sensitive strain to a resistant strain of the same species due to selection caused by pesticides. This phenomenon is associated with genetic, physiological and biochemical changes in organisms. Excessive use of pesticides (herbicides, insecticides, defoliants) negatively affects soil quality. In this regard, the fate of pesticides in soils and the possibilities and capabilities of their neutralization by chemical and biological methods are being intensively studied. It is very important to create and use only drugs with a short lifespan, measured in weeks or months. Some success has already been achieved in this matter and drugs with a high rate of destruction are being introduced, but the problem as a whole has not yet been solved.

Acidic atmospheric deposition on land. One of the most pressing global problems of our time and the foreseeable future is the problem of increasing acidity of atmospheric precipitation and soil cover. Areas of acidic soils do not experience droughts, but their natural fertility is reduced and unstable; They are quickly depleted and their yields are low. Acid rain not only causes acidification of surface waters and upper soil horizons. Downdraft acidity spreads throughout the entire soil profile and causes significant acidification groundwater. Acid rain occurs as a result of human economic activity, accompanied by the emission of colossal amounts of oxides of sulfur, nitrogen, and carbon. These oxides, entering the atmosphere, are transported over long distances, interact with water and are converted into solutions of a mixture of sulphurous, sulfuric, nitrous, nitric and carbonic acids, which fall in the form of “acid rain” on land, interacting with plants, soils, and waters. The main sources in the atmosphere are the combustion of shale, oil, coal, and gas in industry, agriculture, and everyday life. Human economic activity has almost doubled the release of oxides of sulfur, nitrogen, hydrogen sulfide and carbon monoxide into the atmosphere. Naturally, this affected the increase in acidity of atmospheric precipitation, ground and groundwater. To solve this problem, it is necessary to increase the volume of systematic representative measurements of compounds of air pollutants over large areas.

Conclusion

Nature conservation is the task of our century, a problem that has become social. Time and again we hear about the dangers threatening the environment, but many of us still consider them an unpleasant, but inevitable product of civilization and believe that we will still have time to cope with all the difficulties that have arisen. However, human impact on the environment has reached alarming proportions. To fundamentally improve the situation, targeted and thoughtful actions will be needed. A responsible and effective policy towards the environment will be possible only if we accumulate reliable data on the current state of the environment, reasonable knowledge about the interaction of important environmental factors, if we develop new methods for reducing and preventing harm caused to Nature by Man.

Literature

1. Gorshkov S.P. Exodynamic processes of developed territories. - M.: Nedra, 1982.

2. Grigoriev A.A. Cities and the Environment. Space research. - M.: Mysl, 1982.

3. Nikitin D.P., Novikov Yu.V. Environment and people. - M.: 1986.

4. Odum Yu. Fundamentals of ecology. - M.: Mir, 1975.

5. Radzevich N.N., Pashkang K.V. Protection and transformation of nature. - M.: Education, 1986.

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The main element of any geographical environment is climate, that is, the properties and phenomena of the ocean of air at the bottom of which man lives. All living things depend on the composition of the air, its temperature, humidity, pressure and movement, including manifestations of not only physical, but also mental activity of a person. The main reason for this influence is energy sunlight and warmth. Great poet and the profound naturalist Goethe said long ago that all earthly organisms are a product of the sun, and from the earth they take only those substances that remain after their combustion in the form of ash. The earth's climates are varied, since solar heat is distributed unequally on the earth, depending on the inclination of the earth's axis to the plane of the earth's orbit. Imagine that it is perpendicular to the orbital plane, that light and heat are always distributed on the earth in the same way as at the moments of the spring and autumn equinoxes, that day is always and everywhere equal to night. In this case, the entire picture of organic life, including humanity, on the globe would have a completely different appearance and different content. The existing difference in climate determines the unequal nature of rock weathering, the distribution of plants and animals, and, finally, the forms of life and human activity.

Let us first consider the direct effect of climate elements, mainly temperature and humidity, on the human body.

Air consists of oxygen and nitrogen. The ability of blood to absorb oxygen from the air is the reason for the formation of heat in our body. A healthy person everywhere has a constant body temperature of + 37°C, at which all organic processes proceed normally. A person maintains this temperature, depending on the environment, either consciously (warm or light clothing, heating, increased muscle movement, etc.), or unconsciously, physiologically. So, as the temperature rises, sweat appears on the body, carrying away excess heat. While the body can sweat, it adjusts its temperature to become very hot. A person can withstand dry heat of +1000 or even more for several minutes; The steam-saturated air at this temperature would immediately scald the skin. When it is cold, the blood vessels of the skin narrow, and the blood flows inward, enhancing internal heat-forming processes. The drainage of blood from the surface of the skin causes us to feel cold. Coldness of the skin, as we have already said, depends a lot on lifestyle and training. Pescheres sat for hours in the Berlin Zoological Garden at a temperature of about 0°, but the naked parts of their bodies remained warm. The relative warmth of the skin of the natives of the polar countries was observed by all travelers. A freezing person weakens, falls asleep and dies, probably when the body temperature drops to +20°, judging by experiments with animals that are not subject to hibernation. Death from heat is preceded by weakness, drowsiness and loss of consciousness.

By voluntarily or involuntarily maintaining a normal body temperature, a person can endure the most severe frosts (in Verkhoyansk up to - 70° and below) and heat (up to + 50°) that can only be found on earth if the air is dry enough. In the dry air of steppes and deserts, heat is well tolerated even at + 50° C. in the shade, if the skin and head are protected from the sun's rays. The effect of dry climate on the human body and, in particular, on the nervous system is confirmed by observations. Dry air, compressing body tissues and making the blood poorer in water, accelerates its circulation, and this, together with sharp temperature fluctuations, has a stimulating effect on the nervous system, enhancing a person’s energy and mobility. This energy and mobility of the natives of dry deserts was one of the reasons for their dominance over the inhabitants of humid agricultural countries. Dry climate of the North-Am. Conn. States, quickly replaced by increased humidity, is probably one of the reasons for the great nervousness and mobility of the Anglo-Americans compared to their European relatives. The extreme dryness of the climate is, of course, unfavorable for humans; Even steppe dwellers suffer from it, and completely waterless areas remain uninhabited. Man cannot moisten a dry climate and only to an insignificant degree weakens its effect by installing artificial irrigation and planting trees.

High air temperatures and high humidity have a depressing effect on the human body and can even be dangerous. In the hot, damp, quiet air, a person is often struck by sunstroke, the amount of water evaporating through the skin and lungs decreases, as a result of which the blood becomes waterier, and anemia occurs, the harbinger of which is an unhealthy complexion. The human body quickly gets used to damp heat; Therefore, residents of tropical countries are very sensitive to the slightest drop in temperature. They already suffer from the cold when the thermometer shows +20° C., and at night they sleep near the fire at temperatures above +20°, i.e., such that in our country would seem unbearable. Danger colds in the evenings, when the temperature drops by 6 degrees, as well as during rains in the tropics, it is very high not only for Europeans, but also for the natives.

For people of the white race, especially for blondes, a hot, damp climate is certainly harmful. Individual people of good health sometimes manage to hold out for a while if special precautions are taken, but in general the white race turns out to be unviable under the tropics, and the third generation probably perishes from a climate that is lethal for whites. In European homes, to protect against heat, artificial air movement through ventilation and fans is as necessary as our stoves. Europeans can live in the tropics only in relatively high areas, where not only the temperature but also the atmospheric pressure are lower, which makes it easier for water to evaporate from the body.

Thus, it cannot be expected that the vast and sparsely populated areas of tropical countries can be colonized by European immigrants and become a new homeland for them.

This determines the great importance for these naturally rich countries of the peoples of the black race, who can live in a tropical climate. But the properties and monotony of this climate cannot but affect not only the European, but also the Negro. An inhabitant of the tropics knows that tomorrow the weather will be the same as today, and therefore is in no hurry to finish the work begun, especially since the tropical nature makes maintaining life relatively easy: there is no need for durable housing, heating and expensive clothing. Temperatures above +25°, with significant relative humidity, have a relaxing effect on the human body, so a person’s spontaneous need for work decreases. Workers for hard work, such as cutting down trees, uprooting trees, etc., are difficult to obtain there even at a high price, and sometimes even impossible to obtain at all. It is not surprising that the productivity of the West Indian islands fell sharply after the emancipation of the blacks and mulattoes there from slavery. Therefore, even now in tropical countries, forced labor, in other words, slavery, persists in a disguised and sometimes undisguised form. Work in factory premises under the tropics is naturally harder than here; but it is possible that the use of artificial cooling of work buildings will facilitate labor and increase its productivity.

So, the tropical climate does not contribute to the development in man of labor energy, foresight and frugality, which is one of the reasons for the cultural backwardness of tropical peoples and their enslavement by the peoples of the northern temperate zone.

The cold climate of countries with an average annual temperature below 0° is not in itself harmful to humans. The feeling of cold and its consequences for a person depend not only on low temperature, but also on the degree of humidity, since water vapor is a good conductor of the heat generated by our body. Due to the dryness of the air, low temperatures are tolerated well not only by natives, but also by natives of warm countries, even blacks. The Dalmagian sailors of Poyer's Austrian expedition on the land of Franz Joseph spent two years in the polar climate. Piri's servant, a black man, reached the North Pole with him. Contagious diseases are rare in cold climates. By taking proper precautions regarding food, clothing and shelter, man can live in polar climates.

However, the climate and nature of the polar countries are so harsh that Antarctica has been and will remain uninhabited, and in the north polar there is barely a glimmer of human life. Short summer, long winter with severe frosts and continuous winter night oppress the physical and spiritual strength of a person and do not allow him to rise to the highest levels of culture. Here nature enslaves man, concentrating all his thoughts on not freezing and not dying of hunger, and man can exist only if he fully adapts to its requirements. The difficult struggle for existence here develops in a person extraordinary endurance and undemandingness, but at the same time suppresses his activity and self-confidence, giving him the constant feeling that he is not a king, but a slave of nature.

The temperate climate covers an area with an average annual temperature from 0° to + 20; consequently, in temperature terms it presents a great variety, from almost tropical to polar; The air humidity in different parts of this region also differs in the same variety. Therefore, here we encounter deserts, steppes, and forests with an unequal composition of fauna and vegetation. A common feature that distinguishes a temperate climate from a tropical one is the change of seasons and temperature fluctuations around the freezing point, and a drop in temperature below 0° is accompanied by the appearance of snow and ice, placing the inhabitants of countries with a temperate climate in completely different conditions compared to the inhabitants of the tropics. Hippocrates also said that temperature fluctuations have a beneficial effect on the body and soul of people, “favoring metabolism and sharpening the mind.” The correctness of this view is confirmed by observations of the inhabitants of areas where there are no temperature fluctuations. The high (2000 m or more) plateaus of the tropical parts of America, for example, Mexico, have such a uniform climate. There the sky is always clear, the air is moderately warm and dry, protecting residents from infectious and colds. However, the local population, according to the observations of travelers, is distinguished by amazing apathy, aversion to any prolonged muscular or other effort, a kind of relaxed and sad expression on their faces; Even the children here do not notice any fun or movement. The main reason for this is the exceptional monotony of the climate, the absence of climatic fluctuations, which have a stimulating and beneficial effect on the nervous system. Another reason, according to the authoritative French scientist, P. Vidal de la Blache, is the weakness of atmospheric pressure at such an altitude, as a result of which the combination of air oxygen with blood occurs more slowly in the lungs.

The temperate climate is not as monotonous as the tropical one, and not as mercilessly harsh as the polar one. Nature here does not give a person anything for free: it forces him to work, strain and develop his mind, will and initiative, but it rewards his efforts well. Therefore, the inhabitants of temperate countries always turned out to be stronger, more enterprising and energetic than the inhabitants of the hot zone and, culturally, achieved great success. This seems to be contradicted by the hot climate of India, Egypt and Mesopotamia, which were the most ancient centers of human culture. But, firstly, northern India, Egypt and Mesopotamia lie in the temperate zone; temperature fluctuations and climatic contrasts in general exist there, and, most importantly, the nature of these countries requires intense struggle and foresight from a person.

The vast expanses of the northern temperate zone, depending on the duration of winter and summer and the amount of precipitation, present great differences, and this places the inhabitants of this zone in unequal working conditions and cultural development. IN warm parts in this belt, agricultural work does not stop all year or stops for short time, and this instills in a person the habit of constant, regular work. In other places there is a very short summer and a long harsh winter with prolonged spring and autumn colds, they either make human work unusually intense, or condemn a person to long idleness, as we see here, not accustoming him to regular work and reducing his productivity. Cool air hardens the body, encouraging it to move and work, but cold below 20° produces almost the same soporific effect on the body as tropical heat, and is an obstacle to movement, prompting a person to wrap up or clog up in their homes.

Compared to air temperature and humidity, other climate elements have less influence on the human body, but still turn out to be far from indifferent to it.

Atmospheric pressure at sea level raises the mercury column in the barometer by 760 mm, equal to approximately 10 tons per square meter. meter of the earth's surface. With distance from the earth's surface, atmospheric pressure drops by 1 mm for every 10.5 meters of rise in the lower layers; at an altitude of 2 tm the atmospheric pressure is 593 mm, at 4 tm - 462 mm, at 7 tm - only 319 mm. Atmospheric pressure is subject to minor periodic, daily and annual, and non-periodic fluctuations, rarely exceeding 20 mm. Birds, whose body is permeated with cavities communicating with the lungs and the external environment, apparently do not experience harm even with great and rapid changes. In 5-10 minutes, the condor flies to enormous heights above the snowy peaks of the Andes and just as quickly descends to the bottom of deep valleys. As for other animals, they turn out to be very sensitive not only to rarefied air, but also to fluctuations in atmospheric pressure that are imperceptible to humans. The sensitivity of animals to changes in atmospheric pressure is known, and it is used to predict the weather. With the exception of the yak and llama, animals suffer more from thin air than humans. Hunting dogs at high altitudes they quickly tire and become unsuitable for hunting. The camels of Przhevalsky's expedition died on the high passes of Tibet; dogs and cats cannot live in the rarefied atmosphere of human settlements at an altitude of 4000 m.

A person turns out to be comparatively much more resilient to changes in atmospheric pressure. During caisson work, a pressure of five atmospheres is allowed, with due precautions being taken when entering and exiting the caisson; With air treatment, patients are subjected to much greater pressure without harm. A person can tolerate very rarefied air relatively easily, at least for a short time. At high altitudes, where the mercury column of the barometer is half as low as at sea level, a person feels unwell and suffers from altitude sickness; it is expressed in quickly onset fatigue, shortness of breath, headache, vomiting and bleeding from the nose and ears. The main cause of this disease is the lack of oxygen necessary for the body. The feeling of fatigue and exhaustion is due to the fact that the tubular bones of the skeleton are held in their sockets partly by the force of atmospheric pressure, and when this decreases, a person unconsciously has to strain his muscles more, expending more energy to maintain the body in balance. For the same reason, when the barometer drops quickly, foreshadowing bad weather, nervous people feel some kind of malaise, and children are often capricious.

The slightly rarefied, dry and clean air of moderate altitudes, due to bright sunlight, has a beneficial effect on the human body, especially since at such altitudes many diseases characteristic of deep valleys and wet lowlands are unknown. Therefore, mountaineers prefer to build their homes not in valleys, but on terraces and mountain ledges, well lit by the sun.

The uneven distribution of atmospheric pressure on the earth's surface is the cause of wind. Winds determine the weather, complicate or facilitate communication between people, in the form of storms and hurricanes they cause great destruction and wrest many casualties among people and livestock, and finally, they serve as a driving force for humans, inflating sails and turning the wings of windmills. In addition, they have a direct effect on the human body, enhancing the effect of low temperature and weakening the effect of solar heat. Dry and cool trade winds, constantly blowing in the tropical zone, refresh and strengthen not only people, but also animals and even plants. The replacement of the southern monsoon by the northern one on the shores of the Gulf of Mexico, where yellow fever is rampant, weakens the strength and spread of this disease. Sandy and dust storms deserts, especially the African simoom, are dangerous not only because they can cover people with sand, but mainly because they make it difficult to breathe, raising clouds of fine hot dust, which, due to the friction of particles, electrifies the air and causes severe illness in people and animals caught in a hurricane. painful sensations. Italian sirocco is known to have a severe effect on vegetation and people. In the dry west of the United States, many suffer from migraines if the cold north wind suddenly changes to the south; A similar effect is produced by the north wind “sondo” blowing in Argentina. The number of examples of such influence of local winds on the body could be significantly increased.

Sunlight and cloudiness have an impact on a person’s well-being, mood and psyche, and this influence has long been reflected in poetry and art different nations. The Venetian school of painting reflects life under the clear skies of Italy, while the Dutch school reflects life under a sky thickly covered with hanging clouds, through which a ray of sunlight occasionally breaks through. A monotonous gray sky tires a person just as much as a monotonous blue sky. A person feels best when it is partly cloudy and the sky changes rapidly. The long polar night has a depressing effect on a person and leads to a state of physical and spiritual exhaustion. He waits - he can't wait for the first rays of the rising sun to shine on the horizon. Only exceptionally strong, seasoned people can withstand the polar night, and people of ordinary health, especially children, become very weak. The continuous polar day also tires the nervous system, and sleeping indoors does not provide the same rest as on an ordinary night.

The influence of climate on the external environment and way of life of people, on their economy, on economic and political relations is enormous and is confirmed by an endless variety of everyday phenomena and the history of peoples.

For now we will limit ourselves to only some general indications of this influence.

People's food, clothing and homes primarily depend on the climate. In polar countries, where there are almost no plants suitable for food and agriculture is impossible, people eat almost exclusively fish and the meat of animals and birds, and where the climate is milder, the basis of nutrition is plants. In cold climates people wrap themselves in furs, in temperate climates they wear more or less warm clothing covering the whole body, and in the tropics they walk naked or almost naked. As for dwellings, the method of their construction and distribution depend, first of all, on the sources of subsistence, but the dependence on the climate is undeniable. The nomadic reindeer herders and hunters of the northern forests necessarily live in portable huts, like the nomadic herders of the dry steppes, but the dwellings of the settled population are definitely dependent on the climate. Light buildings in warm countries in countries with cold winters are replaced by more solid structures that better protect against the cold; in dry and hot countries, for example in Arabia, India, southern Europe, where there is little or no wood, stone or clay buildings predominate, which protect well from the heat; in humid tropical countries, dwellings and storerooms are often built on stilts. In dry areas with a poorly developed river network and inter-river water-poor spaces, dwellings are located along the rivers, forming long, populous villages, and in humid areas, where there are many rivers and springs, small villages or scattered farmsteads predominate. Precipitation maps and population density maps, with some exceptions also explained by climate, show remarkable agreement.

The distribution of forests and steppes, cultivated and wild plants, and, consequently, all types and forms of agriculture and the way of life of people depends on the climate.

The amount of heat and moisture determines the boundaries of the distribution of agriculture and breeding of certain types of cultivated plants and domestic animals, and this distribution sometimes depends on subtle local climate features, as exemplified by various varieties of wheat and grapes. If acclimatization sometimes manages to change the temperature limits of plants and breed them in colder or warmer areas, then the limits of atmospheric precipitation, i.e., the amount of moisture necessary for plants, remain unchanged. The amount and time of precipitation, the midday height of the sun, the duration of the seasons, day and night - all this deeply affects agriculture, determining the content, size and, partly, productivity of the cultivated area, the duration of a person’s stay and work outdoors or indoors. indoors. In warm countries with constant rains, cultivation and harvesting do not stop, and in countries with periodic rains, field work is suspended during the dry season; A long winter interrupts agricultural work for a long time, providing time for other types of labor or forced idleness. Various breeds domestic animals require different climatic conditions: dry pastures suitable for sheep are not suitable for cattle, the fat-tailed sheep in the north loses its fat tail and turns into an ordinary sheep, etc. Even such activities as hunting and fishing, depend on the seasonal migration of animals.

The manufacturing industry is not as closely dependent on climate as agriculture, but it is not free from its influence, at least at its inception. In the mountainous areas of Germany and Switzerland, residents, cut off from communication with the rest of the world by deep snows in winter, have long been engaged in various household crafts (watches, wood carvings, toys, glass jewelry, etc.) and have achieved great perfection in this. The long winter was one of the main reasons for the emergence and development of handicraft rural industry in Russia.

One of the climate elements, the wind, has long served and continues to serve people as a driving force, to which great attention is now paid, since this force is free and inexhaustible. Windmills are very common in northern Germany, where fairly strong winds prevail. During the First World War, many windmills appeared in France. In our country they prevailed in the steppes, where there is little rainfall and flowing water, and where the winds are very strong. In dry countries with cloudless skies and bright sunshine, they begin to use the sun's rays to heat water in factory steam boilers.

Climate has a huge influence on the routes of communication and intercourse between people, especially when movement occurs on foot or on animals. Snowstorms that sometimes last for several days in the Russian steppes stop not only horse traffic, but also railway traffic and cause a lot of trouble. Hot winds in the deserts of Africa and Arabia, samum and khamsin, are disastrous for caravan relations. Winds at sea make navigation easier or more difficult. Not only sailing ships, but steamships also use the trade winds, monsoons and westerly winds of the tropical and temperate zones, taking into account the general distribution of atmospheric pressure and winds on the globe. The wind blowing from the sea to the mouths of rivers, raising water in them, makes it easier for ships to enter these mouths. Sea storms have buried countless human victims at the bottom of the seas and oceans since man dared to sail the sea, and the heroic struggle of man against sea storms has given many exciting pages in the history of navigation.

River navigation depends, in addition to the properties of the channel, on the amount of water in the river, fluctuations in its level and the duration of freezing, and all this is determined by the temperature of the seasons, the amount and time of precipitation and melting of snow and ice, i.e. climatic reasons.

Temperature and precipitation have to be taken into account not only when choosing different animals for riding and transporting goods, but also in railway traffic. Severe frosts stop movement, as locomotive levers freeze; in cold countries, heated carriages are built, and in hot countries, carriages with a double ceiling and special ventilation, painted in white. Snow drifts and landslides force a lot of effort and money to be spent on clearing and protecting the path. In damp tropical countries, rainstorms often wash out the path, telegraph poles quickly rot into sleepers and are worn away by insects. In deserts one has to deal with a lack of water and sand that constantly covers the railway tracks.

So, the climate has left a deep imprint on the sources of existence and on human health, on his work, psyche and habits, in general on the entire way of human life in different regions of the globe. Economic and political relations various countries, economic zoning is determined primarily by climatic similarity or difference. Climate differences often do not separate, but closely connect areas of different nature. So, we have a cold, wooded north, a moderately cold, barren, industrial center, a warm, dry, steppe, black earth south, closely connected with each other by mutual satisfaction of necessary needs. Climatic differences to one degree or another determined the cultural development and historical fate of peoples, and weather accidents were often the cause of victories or defeats with all their consequences.

Lesson topic:"Climate and People"

Objective of the lesson: show the relevance (vital importance) of the climate problem on human life and economic activity.

Lesson objectives:

• Educational:
  • To develop students’ knowledge about the diversity of climatic conditions on the territory of Russia and their impact on human life and economic activity.
  • Consider the impact of adverse weather events on people's economic activities.
  • Consider climate features important for farming.
  • Show the causes of environmental problems associated with air pollution and human health.
• Developmental:
  • Development of skills and abilities to highlight the main, essential things in characterizing the influence of climate on human life and economic activity.
  • Continue developing skills in working with the text of the textbook, additional literature, and atlas maps.
  • Continue to develop the skills to analyze cartographic data and draw conclusions based on the material being studied.
  • Development of students' written language culture, expansion of vocabulary.
• Educational:
  • Continue the formation of a scientific worldview.
  • Show connections to real life.
  • To cultivate a positive, careful, reverent attitude towards nature and the environment, through understanding the influence of the surrounding world on humans.
  • Broadening the horizons of students: familiarization with environmental problems, with measures to protect atmospheric air from pollution.
  • To develop patriotism and love for one’s small Motherland, a sense of camaraderie, and the ability to work in groups.

Lesson type: a lesson in studying and initially consolidating new knowledge.

Lesson type: reproductive type lesson with partial search method.

Basic methods used in the lesson:

• verbal (teacher's story and explanation, conversation, work with a book, educational text);
• practical (filling out the table);
• visual (working with visuals, projector);
• methods of oral control (frontal conversation and conversation on new material).

The main forms of student activity in the lesson:

• work in pairs
• frontal
• individual (geographical dictation).

Lesson equipment:

• physical and climate map Russia;
• map of “population density of Russia”;
• map “Agroclimatic resources”;
• 8th grade atlas;
• table No. 1. Adverse climatic events;
• table No. 2. The influence of climatic factors on human health and life activity;
• projector (presentation “Climate and People”).

PROGRESS OF THE LESSON

What does the weather depend on? –
From the place where you are,
Its heights, its latitudes, its longitudes,
And also - from the mood.

Yu. Ponomareva

I. Organizational moment

1. Greeting:

- Children, pay attention, the bell has rung, sit down comfortably, let's start the lesson soon.
– It’s so good that we are all together today! We are calm, kind, friendly, affectionate.
- We are all healthy. I wish you a good mood and caring attitude towards each other.

2. Determination of absentees

3. Checking students' readiness for the lesson

II. Goal setting and motivation

Goal setting and motivation during an introductory conversation with students

1. Introductory conversation in order to update students’ basic knowledge on this issue.

Interesting fact:

Since October 1981 special services Moscow provides good weather on holidays, military parades and demonstrations. How? What do you know about human intervention in atmospheric processes? (The teacher suggests remembering everything that the children know about climate and its impact on humans)

2. Setting a learning task

The teacher formulates the main problem of the lesson: does climate affect people and how? What is the feedback like? The educational task is solved through joint efforts with students.

III. Updating knowledge and skills

1. Working with a terminology map.(Appendix 1 , presentation “Climate and people”)

Repetition of concepts:

• climate
• solar radiation
• total radiation
• air masses
• cyclone
• anticyclone
• atmospheric front
• atmospheric pressure
• weather
• humidification coefficient
• volatility
• amplitude
• transformation

2. Working with atlas maps

– Guys, please compare the climate map of Russia and the “Population Density of Russia” map and answer the questions:

1. Which climatic zones in Russia have the lowest population density? Why?
2.Which climatic zones in Russia have the highest population density? Why?
3. Do you think climate has an impact on human life?

3. Test work. (Written test on options, contains questions from the previous topic - 7 minutes)

Option 1

1. The predominant part of the territory of Russia is located in the climatic zone:

a) subtropical b) arctic c) temperate d) equatorial

2. The amount of moisture that can evaporate from a surface under given atmospheric conditions is called:

a) evaporation b) humidification c) humidification coefficient d) evaporation

3. Name a region of Russia with a high level of comfort:

a) the lower reaches of the Yenisei b) the city of Murmansk c) Krasnodar region d) the Komi Republic

4. A gradual change in the properties of air masses under the influence of the underlying surface is called:

a) circulation b) transformation c) weather d) atmospheric pressure

5. Select faithful (choose 3 correct answers)

a) The largest amount of solar radiation reaches the southern regions of the country.
b) The climate of our country is influenced by the air masses of all oceans.
c) When warm air masses move towards cold ones, a warm front is formed.
d) The city of Oymyakon is the coldest in the Northern Hemisphere.
e) The islands of the Arctic Ocean are characterized by a subarctic climate.

Option 2

1. Which of the listed climate-forming factors is the most important for our country?

A) geographic latitude
b) underlying surface
c) human economic activity
d) sea currents

2. A closed area of ​​low atmospheric pressure is:

a) cyclone
b) trade wind
c) anticyclone
d) monsoon

3. Name a region of Russia with unfavorable conditions for human habitation:

a) Krasnoyarsk
b) Ekaterinburg
c) Anadyr
d) Moscow

4. Determine the type of climate, if in the summer there is a lot of precipitation brought from the ocean, and the winter is dry:

a) sharply continental
b) arctic
c) monsoon
d) subarctic

5. Select faithful Statements about Russia's climate: (choose 3 correct answers)

a) In the south of the Far East, sea arctic air dominates in summer.
b) Air masses capable of transforming when moving over a certain territory.
V) Atlantic Ocean has less influence on the climate of temperate latitudes than the Pacific.
d) The Siberian anticyclone is a vast area of ​​high pressure that has a decisive influence on the severity of winter in Siberia.
e) The greater the angle of incidence of the sun's rays, the more heat a given area receives.

Checking independent work.

Correct answers and norms

Option 1. Option 2.

1 – a 1 – a
2 – a 2 – a
3 – in 3 – in
4 – b 4 – c
5 – a, c, d. 5 – b, d, e.

Correct Answers Score

5 "5"
4 "4"
3 "3"
2 "2"

IV. Learning new material

Physical education minute

To improve cerebral circulation:

Starting position – sitting on a chair. Smoothly tilt your head back, tilt your head forward without raising your shoulders.
Starting position – sitting, hands on your belt. Turn your head to the right. Starting position. Turn your head to the left. Starting position.
Starting position – sitting, hands on your belt. Swing your left arm over your right shoulder and turn your head to the left.
Starting position – sitting, hands on your belt. Repeat the same with your right hand, turning your head to the right.

Gymnastics for the eyes:

Blink quickly, close your eyes and sit quietly, slowly counting to 5.
Close your eyes tightly (count to 3), open your eyes and look into the distance (count to 5).
Extend your right arm forward. Follow with your eyes, without turning your head, the slow movements of the index finger of your outstretched hand to the left and right, up and down.
Look at the index finger of your outstretched hand, counting 1-4, then look into the distance while counting 1-6.
At an average pace, 3-4 circular movements with the eyes to the right side, the same amount to the left.

Motivating students to learn new material by posing problematic questions:

1) Does climate affect the health, living conditions and economic activities of people? How?
2) What unfavorable climatic phenomena do you know?

– To solve these problems, we need to work out several theoretical issues.

1) Please pay attention to the board on which the diagram is depicted. Working with this diagram and the presentation slides, we will now prove that climate really has a significant impact on human life and activity.

Depends especially on climate agriculture. The climate properties that allow the cultivation of various crops are called agroclimatic resources(students write down the definition in their notebooks).

The most important indicators of agroclimatic resources are:

• duration of the period with an average daily temperature above +10 C (growing season)
• sum of temperatures for this period
• humidification coefficient
• thickness and duration of snow cover

Working with the map(map “Agroclimatic resources”)

– What crops allow us to grow the agroclimatic resources of our area? (Oats, winter wheat, winter rye, flax)
– What climatic phenomena prevent the cultivation of heat-loving crops in our region? (Severe frosts and frosts)

Due to its geographical location, Russia incurs enormous material costs to support the livelihoods of the population:

• expenses for construction and heating of buildings
• production of warm clothing and food

– How does the home of the peoples of the North, who live in the subarctic climate zone, differ from people living in the temperate zone? (The peoples of the North are mainly engaged in reindeer herding and lead a nomadic lifestyle, so their home is a tent, which can be disassembled, has a round, conical shape and is made from deer skins that retain heat well, which is important in severe frosts in winter.)
People living in a temperate climate zone build wooden or brick houses, with double or in Siberia with triple glazing, which once again indicates that Russia is a northern country, with cold winters. And in hot climates, for example in the North Caucasus, summer rooms are needed: verandas and glazed terraces.

– A daily weather forecast is important not only for people leaving home, but also for people managing various types transport. There are three serious problems for the navigation of ships and aircraft: strong air currents, low temperatures and fog. Airports are closed for several hours or days in case of icy runways, heavy snow or fog.

Climate affects people's health. How?

• at low temperatures and strong winds, frostbite is possible;
• long exposure to the sun, especially in the subtropical climate zone, can lead to sunstroke and burns;
• lack of iodine in the environment leads to thyroid diseases;
• in the mountains, with a lack of oxygen and low atmospheric pressure, oxygen starvation, dizziness, and fainting are possible.

– Can humans change the climate through their economic activities? (Yes, this is climate warming due to an increase in greenhouse gases and, above all, carbon dioxide in the atmosphere)

Human economic activities affecting climate warming:

1. Combustion of hydrocarbon fuels (oil, coal) during the operation of thermal power plants and thermal power plants.
2. Deforestation.
3. Increasing the share of road transport.

2) Student reports about unfavorable climatic conditions. Among the unfavorable climatic conditions for humans and their life activities are: droughts, dust storms, frosts, hail, ice, hurricanes, heavy rains.
Students listen to their friends and enter basic information into a table. (presentation “Climate and People”)

Physical education minute

Once - get up, stretch.
Two – bend over, straighten up.
Three - three claps of hands, three nods of the head.
Four – arms wider.
Five - wave your arms.
Six - sit down quietly at your desk.

V. Consolidation of new material

Geographical dictation(Presentation “Climate and People”)

• Air temperature drops below 0 C in spring and autumn.
• Very low temperature air with low snow cover.
• Precipitation in the form of ice particles.
• A crust of ice that forms when drops of rain or fog freeze in spring or autumn.
• Accumulation of water droplets in the lower layer of the troposphere.
• Hot, dry, strong wind, lasting several days.
• Wind of great speed (more than 30 m/s), which has destructive power.
• Long period of continuous dry weather with high temperature air.
• Residents of which cities are experiencing the effects of a long and harsh winter.
• Representatives of what professions make weather forecasts.

Checking the geographical dictation: (presentation “Climate and People”)

• frost
• Severe frosts
• Ice
• Fog
• Sukhovey
• Hurricane
• Drought
• Norilsk or Murmansk
• Meteorologists, weather forecasters

VI. Summing up the lesson

Giving grades to the magazine.

VII. Reflection

1. Today at the lesson I liked...
2. I was especially surprised that...
3. Before today’s lesson, I thought (thought) that..., but now I know...

IX. Homework

Paragraph 22 of the textbook and answer the questions in writing: “What unfavorable climatic conditions are found in your area? What climate zone would you like to live in and why?”