From Peter I to Nicholas II. Rulers of Russia, princes, tsars and presidents of Russia in chronological order, biographies of rulers and dates of reign

The first Russian emperor Peter the Great

“People of all generations agreed on one thing in their assessments of Peter’s personality and activities: he was considered a force. Peter was the most prominent and influential figure of his time, the leader of the entire people. No one considered him an insignificant person who unconsciously used power or blindly walked along a random path.” (S. F. Platonov “Personality and Activity”).

Peter I was the first Russian emperor. He accepted this title in 1721 after his victory in the Great Northern War(1700-1721), which resulted in the expansion of Russian territory in the Baltic region. According to the Treaty of Nystadt (August 30, 1721), Russia received access to the Baltic Sea and annexed the territory of Ingria, part of Karelia, Estland and Livonia. Thus, the country became a great European power, and Peter was proclaimed emperor by decision of the Senate. Russian Empire, while he was given the titles “Great” (“Peter the Great”) and “Father of the Fatherland”).

It is known that from the time of his activity to the present day there have been diametrically opposed assessments of both the personality of Peter I and his role in the history of Russia. Let's try to understand them and compose own opinion about him, although the obvious fact is that Peter I is one of the most outstanding statesmen who determined the direction of Russia's development for many subsequent years.

short biography

Young Peter

He was proclaimed king at the age of 10 (in 1682), and began to rule independently in 1689. From a young age, he showed interest in science and foreign lifestyles; among his youth friends there were many foreigners, especially Germans who lived in Moscow in German settlement. Peter was the first of the Russian tsars to make a long journey to the countries Western Europe(1697-1698), where he not only became acquainted with the way of life and culture of these countries, but also learned a lot, delving into many crafts and sciences, as well as self-education. After returning to Russia, he launched large-scale reforms Russian state and social order. He had tireless energy and curiosity, knew 14 crafts, but main reason The ambiguous attitude towards him was that he demanded the same from others - complete dedication to the cause without compromise. He firmly believed in the correctness and necessity of his actions, therefore, to achieve his goals, he did not take anything into account.

You can read about the reform activities of Peter I on our website:,.

In this article we will pay more attention to the personality of Peter I and the assessment of his activities.

Personality of PeterI

Appearance and character

Peter was very tall(204 cm), but not of a heroic build: he had a small foot (size 38), a slender build, small hands, and a swift gait.

The beauty and liveliness of his face are distinguished, disturbed only by periodic strong convulsive twitches, especially in moments of excitement or emotional stress. It is believed that this was due to a childhood shock during the Streltsy riots - the time of the seizure of power by his sister Sofia Alekseevna.

K.K. Steuben "Peter the Great as a child, saved by his mother from the fury of the archers"

Those around him were often frightened by these facial twitches, which distorted his appearance. This is how the Duke of Saint-Simon, who met with Peter during his stay in Paris, recalls this: “ He was very tall, well-built, rather thin, with a round face, high forehead, and beautiful eyebrows; his nose is quite short, but not too short, and somewhat thick towards the end; the lips are quite large, the complexion is reddish and dark, beautiful black eyes, large, lively, penetrating, beautiful shape; the look is majestic and welcoming when he watches himself and restrains himself, otherwise he is stern and wild, with convulsions on the face that are not repeated often, but distort both the eyes and the whole face, frightening everyone present. The spasm usually lasted one moment, and then his gaze became strange, as if confused, then everything immediately took on a normal look. His whole appearance showed intelligence, reflection and greatness and was not without charm" But this was not the only thing that sometimes frightened the sophisticated foreign aristocrats: Peter had a simple disposition and rude manners.

He was a lively, cheerful person, savvy and natural in all his manifestations: both joy and anger. But his anger was terrible and was often combined with cruelty. In anger, he could hit and even beat his associates. His cruel jokes are known, especially often they were directed at noble and old boyars, who did not approve of his innovations and slowed down the implementation of reforms, and were supporters of the original Russian moral and religious foundations. In general, he treated opponents of reforms with particular cruelty and disdain. Just look at the All-Joking, All-Drunken and Extraordinary Council that he created, which was engaged in mockery of everything that was revered in society as primordially Russian. This was one of the undertakings established by him for the purpose of entertainment, drinking amusements, a kind of clownish “order organization” that united royal like-minded people.

Y. Pantsyrev "Peter and Menshikov"

The main feature of the “Council” was the parody of the rituals of Catholic and Orthodox churches. Some historians even believe that the “Cathedral” was created with the aim of discrediting the church and, along with shaving beards, is included in the general series of destruction of stereotypes of the Old Russian Everyday life; At the “Cathedral” they drank a lot and swore a lot. It existed for about 30 years - until the mid-1720s. Perhaps this is why Peter I is still perceived by some as the Antichrist (the opposite and antipode of Christ).

In this anti-behavior, Peter was similar to Ivan the Terrible. Peter also sometimes personally performed the duties of executioner.

Family

Peter married for the first time at the age of 17 at the insistence of his mother in 1689. His wife was Evdokia Lopukhina. Their son, Tsarevich Alexei, was raised mainly by his mother; he was alien to Peter’s reform activities. The remaining children of Peter and Evdokia died in infancy. Subsequently, Evdokia Lopukhina became involved in the Streltsy riot and was exiled to a monastery.

Alexei Petrovich, the official heir to the Russian throne, condemned his father's reforms and fled to Vienna under the protection of his wife's relative (Charlotte of Brunswick), Emperor Charles VI. There he hoped to find support for his idea of ​​​​overthrowing Peter I. In 1717, he was persuaded to return home, where he was immediately taken into custody. In 1718 Supreme Court sentenced him to death, finding him guilty of treason.

But Tsarevich Alexei did not wait for the sentence to be carried out and died in the Peter and Paul Fortress. The real reason his death has not yet been established.

The prince had two children: Peter Alekseevich, who became Emperor Peter II in 1727 (read about him on our website:), and daughter Natalya.

In 1703, Peter I met 19-year-old Katerina, whose maiden name was Marta Samuilovna Skavronskaya, captured by Russian troops as booty during the capture of the Swedish fortress of Marienburg. Peter took a former maid from the Baltic peasants from Alexander Menshikov and made her his mistress. They had 6 daughters (including Elizabeth, the future empress, and three sons who died in infancy). The official wedding of Peter I and Ekaterina Alekseevna took place in 1712, shortly after returning from the Prut campaign. In 1724, Peter crowned Catherine as empress and co-ruler. After the death of Peter in January 1725, Ekaterina Alekseevna, with the support of the serving nobility and guards regiments, became the first ruling Russian Empress Catherine I (read about her on our website:), but she did not rule for long and died in 1727, leaving the throne to Tsarevich Peter Alekseevich.

According to some sources, Peter I had 14 officially registered children. Many of them died in infancy.

Death of PeterI

Peter I died on February 8, 2725 in the Winter Palace. The cause of his death was kidney stones, complicated by uremia, but a sharp exacerbation of the disease began after Peter, while inspecting the Ladoga Canal in October, entered waist-deep water to save a boat with soldiers that had run aground. It turns out that he could not only execute and be angry, but also sacrifice his health and, as it turned out, his life for the sake of others. After this, his health condition deteriorated sharply and death occurred.

I. Nikitin "Peter on his deathbed"

Contemporaries and historians about the activities of Peter the Great

Here are just a few of the many characteristics of this person, who cannot be characterized unambiguously. They say a man should be judged by his deeds. Peter's deeds are enormous, but when realizing this, another problem always arises: at what cost?

Let's listen to different opinions about Peter I.

Mikhail Lomonosov always spoke enthusiastically about Peter: “Who can I compare the Great Sovereign with? I see in ancient times and in modern times Possessors called great. Indeed, they are great in front of others. However, they are small before Peter. ...Who will I liken our Hero to? I have often wondered what He is like who rules heaven, earth and sea with an omnipotent wave: His spirit breathes and waters flow, touches the mountains and they rise.” .

L. Bernshtam. Monument to Peter I "Tsar the Carpenter"

Swedish writer and playwright Johan August Strindberg characterized it this way: “The barbarian who civilized his Russia; he, who built cities, but did not want to live in them; he, who punished his wife with a whip and gave the woman wide freedom - his life was great, rich and useful in socially, in private terms, the way it turned out.”

Historian S.M. Solovyov gave a high assessment of Peter’s activities, and considered the polarity of assessments of such a broad personality as Peter inevitable: “The difference in views stemmed from the enormity of the deed accomplished by Peter, the duration of the influence of this deed. The more significant a phenomenon is, the more contradictory views and opinions it gives rise to, and the longer they talk about it, the longer they feel its influence.”

P. N. Milyukov believes that the reforms were carried out by Peter spontaneously, from case to case, under the pressure of specific circumstances, without any logic or plan, they were “reforms without a reformer.” He also mentions that only “at the cost of ruining the country, Russia was elevated to the rank of a European power.” According to Miliukov, during the reign of Peter, the population of Russia within the borders of 1695 decreased due to incessant wars.

N. M. Karamzin agreed with the characterization of Peter as “The Great”, but criticized him for his excessive passion for foreign things, his desire to make Russia the Netherlands. According to the historian, a sharp change in the “old” way of life and national traditions, undertaken by the emperor is not always justified. As a result, the Russians educated people“became citizens of the world, but ceased to be, in some cases, citizens of Russia.” But “A great man proves his greatness by his very mistakes.”

Some historians believe that Peter did not change the most important thing in the country: serfdom. Temporary improvements in the present doomed Russia to a crisis in the future.

Thinker and publicist Ivan Solonevich gives an extremely negative description of the activities of Peter I. In his opinion, the result of Peter’s activities was a gap between the ruling elite and the people, the denationalization of the former. He accused Peter of cruelty, incompetence, tyranny and cowardice.

IN. Klyuchevsky understands Peter’s reforms not as transformations carried out according to a pre-conceived plan, but as a response and reaction to the dictates of the time: “The reform came of itself from urgent needs state and people, instinctively
felt by a powerful person with a sensitive mind and strong character" “The reform was his personal matter, an unparalleledly violent matter, and yet involuntary and necessary.” And further the historian notes that “The reform gradually turned into a stubborn internal struggle, stirring up all the stagnant mold of the Russian
life, excited all classes of society...".

Conclusion

Peter I, the first Russian Emperor, influenced Russian history so significantly that interest in his activities is unlikely to ever fade, no matter how his reforms are assessed.

History of the Russian Monarchy

The creation of the summer residence of the Russian emperors, Tsarskoe Selo, largely depended on personal tastes, and sometimes simply on the whims of its changing august owners. Since 1834, Tsarskoe Selo has become a “sovereign” estate belonging to the reigning monarch. From that time on, it could not be bequeathed, was not subject to division or any form of alienation, but was transferred to the new king upon his accession to the throne. Here, in a cozy corner, near the capital St. Petersburg, the imperial family was not only an august family whose life was elevated to the rank public policy, but also numerous friendly family, with all the interests and joys inherent in the human race.

EMPEROR PETER I

Peter I Alekseevich (1672-1725) - Tsar since 1682, Emperor since 1721. Son of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich (1629-1676) from his second marriage to Natalya Kirillovna Naryshkina (1651-1694). Statesman, commander, diplomat, founder of the city of St. Petersburg. Peter I was married twice: with his first marriage - to Evdokia Fedorovna Lopukhina (1669-1731), from whom he had son - prince Alexei (1690-1718), executed in 1718; two sons who died in infancy; second marriage - to Ekaterina Alekseevna Skavronskaya (1683-1727; later Empress Catherine I), from whom he had 9 children, most of whom, with the exception of Anna (1708-1728) and Elizabeth (1709-1761; later Empress Elizaveta Petrovna), died minors. During the Northern War (1700-1721), Peter I annexed to Russia the lands along the Neva River, Karelia and the Baltic States, previously conquered by Sweden, including the territory with the manor - Saris hoff, Saaris Moisio, on which a ceremonial summer residence was later created Russian emperors - Tsarskoe Selo. In 1710, Peter I gave the manor to his wife Ekaterina Alekseevna, and the manor was named “Sarskaya” or “Sarskoye Selo”.

EMPRESS CATHERINE I

Catherine I Alekseevna (1684-1727) - Empress since 1725. She ascended the throne after the death of her husband, Emperor Peter I (1672-1725). She was declared queen in 1711, empress in 1721, and crowned in 1724. She was united in church marriage with Emperor Peter I in 1712. The daughter of the Lithuanian peasant Samuil Skavronsky bore the name Marta before accepting Orthodoxy. The first royal owner of Sarskoye Selo, the future Tsarskoye Selo, after whom the Great Tsarskoye Selo Palace was later named Catherine's Palace. Under her rule, the first stone structures were erected here in 1717-1723, which formed the basis of the Catherine Palace, and part of the regular park was laid out.

EMPEROR PETER II

Peter II Alekseevich (1715 - 1730) - Emperor since 1727. Son of Tsarevich Alexei Petrovich (1690-1718) and Princess Charlotte-Christina-Sophia of Brunswick - Wolfenbüttel (died 1715); grandson of Peter I (1672-1725) and Evdokia Lopukhina (1669-1731). He ascended the throne after the death of Empress Catherine I in 1727, according to her will. After the death of Catherine I, the Sarskoe village was inherited by her daughter Tsarevna Elizaveta (1709-1761; future Empress Elizaveta Petrovna). At this time, the wings of the Great (Catherine) Palace were erected here and received further development park and improvement of reservoirs.

EMPRESS ANNA IOANOVNA

Anna Ioanovna (1693-1740) - Empress since 1730. Daughter of Tsar Ivan V Alekseevich (1666-1696) and Tsarina Praskovya Feodorovna, née Saltykova (1664-1723). She ascended the throne after the death of her cousin, Emperor Peter II (1715-1730), and was crowned in 1730. During this period, Sarskoe Selo (future Tsarskoe Selo) belonged to Princess Elizabeth (1709-1761; later Empress Elizaveta Petrovna) and was used as a country residence and hunting castle.

EMPEROR IVAN VI

John VI Antonovich (1740-1764) - Emperor from 1740 to 1741. Son of the niece of Empress Anna Ioanovna (1693-1740), Princess Anna Leopoldovna of Mecklenburg and Prince Anton-Ulrich of Brunswick-Lüneburg. He was elevated to the throne after the death of his great-aunt, Empress Anna Ioanovna, according to her will. On November 9, 1740, his mother Anna Leopoldovna carried out a palace coup and declared herself the ruler of Russia. In 1741, as a result palace coup The ruler Anna Leopoldovna and the young Emperor John Antonovich were overthrown from the throne by Crown Princess Elizabeth (1709-1761), daughter of Peter I (1672-1725). During this time, no significant changes occurred in Sarskoye Selo (the future Tsarskoye Selo).

EMPRESS ELIZAVETA PETROVNA

Elizaveta Petrovna (1709-1761) - empress since 1741, ascended the throne, overthrowing Emperor John VI Antonovich (1740-1764). Daughter of Emperor Peter I (1672-1725) and Empress Catherine I (1684-1727). She owned Sarskoye Selo (the future Tsarskoye Selo) since 1727, which was bequeathed to her by Catherine I. After her accession to the throne, Elizabeth Petrovna ordered a significant reconstruction and expansion of the Grand Palace (later the Catherine Palace), the creation of a New Garden and expansion of the old park, and the construction of Hermitage park pavilions , Grotto and others in Sarskoye Selo (later Tsarskoye Selo).

EMPEROR PETER III

Peter III Fedorovich (1728-1762) - Emperor from 1761 to 1762. Son of Duke Karl Friedrich of Holstein-Gottorp and Tsarevna Anna Petrovna (1708-1728), grandson of Emperor Peter I (1672-1725). Before accepting Orthodoxy, he bore the name Karl-Peter-Ulrich. The ancestor of the Holstein-Gottorp line of the House of Romanov on the Russian throne, which ruled until 1917. He was married to Princess Sophia-Frederike-August of Anhalt-Zerbst (1729-1796), who after accepting Orthodoxy received the name Ekaterina Alekseevna (later Empress Catherine II). From his marriage to Ekaterina Alekseevna he had two children: a son, Paul (1754-1801; future Emperor Paul I) and a daughter, who died in infancy. He was overthrown from the throne in 1762 as a result of a palace coup by his wife Ekaterina Alekseevna and killed. During the short reign of Peter III, there were no significant changes in the appearance of Tsarskoye Selo.

EMPRESS CATHERINE II

Catherine II Alekseevna (1729-1796) - Empress since 1762. She ascended the throne after overthrowing her husband, Emperor Peter. III Fedorovich(1728-1762). German Princess Sophia Friederike Augusta of Anhalt-Zerbst. After accepting Orthodoxy, she received the name Ekaterina Alekseevna. In 1745, she married the heir to the Russian throne, Peter Fedorovich, later Emperor Peter III. From this marriage she had two children: son Pavel (1754-1801; future emperor Paul I) and a daughter who died in infancy. The reign of Catherine II significantly influenced the appearance of Tsarskoye Selo; it was under her that the former Sarskoye village began to be called that way. Tsarskoe Selo was the favorite summer residence of Catherine II. On her orders, the Great Palace was reconstructed (at the end of the reign of Catherine II it began to be called the Catherine Palace), new interiors were designed in it, the landscape part of the Catherine Park was created, park structures were erected: the Cameron Gallery, the Cold Bath, the Agate Rooms and others, and the Alexander Palace was built. palace

EMPEROR PAUL I

Pavel I Petrovich (1754-1801) - Emperor since 1796. Son of Emperor Peter III (1728-1762) and Empress Catherine II (1729-1796). He was married twice: with his first marriage (1773) to the German princess Wilhelmine-Louise of Hesse-Darmstadt (1755-1776), after accepting Orthodoxy, named Natalya Alekseevna, who died of childbirth in 1776; second marriage (1776) - to the German princess Sophia-Dorothea-Augustus-Louise of Württemberg (1759-1828; in Orthodoxy Maria Feodorovna), from whom he had 10 children - 4 sons, including the future emperors Alexander I (1777-1825 ) and Nicholas I (1796-1855), and 6 daughters. He was killed during a palace coup in 1801. Paul I did not like Tsarskoe Selo and preferred Gatchina and Pavlovsk to him. At this time, in Tsarskoe Selo, interiors in the Alexander Palace were being decorated for Grand Duke Alexander Pavlovich (later Emperor Alexander I), the eldest son of Emperor Paul I.

EMPEROR ALEXANDER I

Alexander I Pavlovich (1777-1825) - Emperor since 1801. The eldest son of Emperor Paul I (1754-1801) and his second wife Empress Maria Feodorovna (1759-1828). He ascended the throne after the assassination of his father, Emperor Paul I, as a result of a palace conspiracy. He was married to the German princess Louise-Maria-August of Baden-Baden (1779-1826), who adopted the name Elizaveta Alekseevna upon conversion to Orthodoxy, from whose marriage he had two daughters who died in infancy. During his reign, Tsarskoye Selo again acquired the importance of the main suburban imperial residence. New interiors were decorated in the Catherine Palace, and various structures were built in the Catherine and Alexander Parks.

EMPEROR NICHOLAS I

Nicholas I Pavlovich (1796-1855) - Emperor since 1825. Third son of Emperor Paul I (1754-1801) and Empress Maria Feodorovna (1759-1828). He ascended the throne after the death of his elder brother Emperor Alexander I (1777-1825) and in connection with the abdication of the throne by the second eldest son of Emperor Paul I, Grand Duke Constantine (1779-1831). He was married (1817) to the Prussian princess Frederica-Louise-Charlotte-Wilhelmina (1798-1860), who adopted the name Alexandra Feodorovna upon conversion to Orthodoxy. They had 7 children, including the future Emperor Alexander II (1818-1881). During this period, in Tsarskoe Selo, new interiors were being designed in the Catherine and Alexander Palaces, and the number of park buildings in the Catherine and Alexander Parks was expanding.

EMPEROR ALEXANDER II

Alexander II Nikolaevich (1818-1881) - Emperor since 1855. The eldest son of Emperor Nicholas I (1796-1855) and Empress Alexandra Feodorovna (1798-1860). Statesman, reformer, diplomat. He was married to the German princess Maximilian Wilhelmina Augusta Sophia Maria of Hesse-Darmstadt (1824-1880), who after accepting Orthodoxy received the name Maria Alexandrovna. There were 8 children from this marriage, including the future Emperor Alexander III (1845-1894). After the death of his wife Maria Alexandrovna, in 1880 he entered into a morganatic marriage with Princess Ekaterina Mikhailovna Dolgorukova (1849-1922), who after her marriage to the emperor received the title of His Serene Highness Princess Yuryevskaya. From E.M. Dolgorukova, Alexander II had three children who inherited their mother’s surname and title. In 1881, Emperor Alexander II died from a bomb thrown at him by revolutionary terrorist I. I. Grinevitsky. During his reign, there were no significant changes in the appearance of the Tsarskoye Selo imperial residence. New interiors were created in the Catherine Palace and part of the Catherine Park was redeveloped.

EMPEROR ALEXANDER III

Alexander III Alexandrovich (1845-1894) - Emperor since 1881. Second son of Emperor Alexander II (1818-1881) and Empress Maria Alexandrovna (1824-1880). He ascended the throne after the assassination of his father, Emperor Alexander II, by a revolutionary terrorist in 1881. He was married (1866) to the Danish princess Maria Sophia Frederike Dagmar (1847-1928), who adopted the name Maria Feodorovna upon converting to Orthodoxy. From this marriage 6 children were born, including the future Emperor Nicholas II (1868-1918). At this time, there were no significant changes in the architectural appearance of Tsarskoye Selo; changes affected only the decoration of some interiors of the Catherine Palace.

EMPEROR NICHOLAS II

Nicholas II Alexandrovich (1868-1918) - the last Russian emperor - reigned from 1894 to 1917. Emperor's eldest son Alexandra III(1845-1894) and Empress Maria Feodorovna (1847-1928). He was married (1894) to the German princess Alice Victoria Helena Louise Beatrice of Hesse-Darmstadt (1872-1918), who after accepting Orthodoxy received the name Alexandra Feodorovna. From this marriage there were 5 children: daughters - Olga (1895-1918), Tatyana (1897-1918), Maria (1899-1918) and Anastasia (1901-1918); son - Tsarevich, heir to the throne Alexey (1904-1918). As a result of the revolution that took place in Russia on March 2, 1917, Emperor Nicholas II abdicated the throne. After the abdication, Nicholas II and his family were arrested and detained in the Alexander Palace in Tsarskoye Selo, from where on August 14, 1917, Nikolai Romanov and his family were sent to Tobolsk. On July 17, 1918, former Emperor Nicholas II, his wife Alexandra Feodorovna and five children were shot by order of the revolutionary government. During the reign of Nicholas II in Tsarskoe Selo, new interiors were being designed in the Alexander Palace, the construction of the Fedorovsky town in Tsarskoe Selo - an architectural ensemble designed in the forms of ancient Russian architecture.

The wife of Peter III, who became empress after dethroning her husband. Being a German princess who converted to Orthodoxy, having no relationship with the Romanov dynasty, nor any rights to the Russian throne, she nevertheless held the reins of power in her hands for more than 30 years. And this time in Russia is usually called the “golden age”.

Catherine pursued her policy in three main directions:

Expanding the territory of the state, strengthening its authority in the world;

Liberalization of methods of governing the country;

Administrative reforms involving the involvement of nobles in the management of local authorities.

During her reign, the country was divided into 50 provinces. The principle of division was a certain number of inhabitants.

The reign of this empress was the era of the heyday of the noble class. The provinces were completely under the rule of their nobles. At the same time, the nobleman was exempt from taxes and corporal punishment. Only a court of equals could deprive him of his title, property or life.

In the foreign policy arena, the main directions of Russia were:

Strengthening its influence in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Catherine carefully ensured that only Russian proteges sat on the Polish throne;

Relations with Turkey. In this direction, the struggle was for Russia's access to the Black Sea. As a result, two long military campaigns were carried out, ending in the victory of the Russian troops;

The fight against revolutionary France. Despite the fact that Catherine was a fan of the French enlighteners, she gradually became disillusioned with their ideas and methods, and perceived the revolution in this country rather hostilely. To fight France, it was decided to join forces with Prussia, England and Austria. However, death prevented Catherine from fulfilling her plans.

Such illustrious names as G. Potemkin, A. Suvorov, F. Ushakov, P. Rumyantsev are closely associated with the name of Catherine the Great and the conquests of her period.

The ruler paid great attention to the development of education, main goal which I saw not just an increase in the level of education, but the education of a new generation of people, true citizens of their state.

It was she who became the founder of women's school education in Russia, establishing institutions for the “education of noble maidens.”

However, for all her desire for liberalism, Catherine zealously persecuted dissent and cruelly punished those who disagreed with her state policy. Thus, A. Radishchev was sentenced to death and then “pardoned” by exile to Siberia for his famous “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow”, public activist, writer and publisher N. Novikov was persecuted, some foreign publications were banned, etc. .

In Catherine's era, culture and science actively developed. A thorough study of Russia, its history, geography, ethnography, etc. was carried out. Thanks to the high imperial support, the Academy of Sciences gave the world such people as I. Kulibin, I. Polzunov. The names of D. Fonvizin, G. Derzhavin and others became known in the literature. The empress herself made a valuable contribution to literature by writing memoirs.

Art also developed during this period: painting, sculpture, architecture.

Along with achievements in many areas of life, the reign of Catherine the Great was marked by one of the most famous and major uprisings in Russia - the Pugachev uprising. The reason for this uprising under the leadership of the Cossack E. Pugachev was the further enslavement of the peasants. By posing as Peter III, who miraculously managed to escape death, Emelyan Pugachev managed to unite workers, peasants, representatives of national minorities, and Cossacks. The uprising grew into a real bloody war. Pugachev's army, growing as it advanced, won victories one after another, taking advantage of the fact that most Russian troops was absent from the country (went Russian-Turkish war). The months-long struggle ended with the betrayal of Pugachev by his own comrades. After he was handed over to government troops, Catherine ordered his public execution on Bolotnaya Square.

After the death of the leader, the uprising was suppressed, and all those responsible were severely punished.

In addition, civil unrest periodically broke out in many parts of the country, but they were not of such proportions.

Thus, the “golden age” was significantly overshadowed, especially in relation to the ordinary population of Russia.

Almost half of Catherine's reign was occupied by wars and riots. Bribery and theft flourished.

However, with all this, during her reign the population of Russia almost doubled, the territory of the state expanded significantly, the army strengthened and the fleet increased (instead of 21 half-rotten battleships, by the end of her reign there were 67 well-equipped ships and 40 frigates). The number of factories and factories increased to 2 thousand (instead of 500), and state income increased 4 times.

EMPERORS

Emperor (from Latin imperator - ruler) is the title of the monarch, head of state (empire).

There were emperors in Russia from 1721 to 1917. The title All-Russian Emperor (Emperor All-Russian) was adopted for the first time after the victory in the Northern War by Peter I the Great on October 22, 1721 at the request of the Senate “as usual from the Roman Senate for the noble deeds of emperors, such titles were publicly presented to them as a gift and on statutes for memory in eternal birth is signed.” The last Emperor Nicholas II was overthrown during February Revolution 1917.

The Emperor had supreme autocratic power(since 1906 - the legislative branch together with State Duma and the State Council), he was officially titled “His Imperial Majesty” (in abbreviated form - “Sovereign” or “E.I.V.”).

Article 1 of the Basic Laws of the Russian Empire indicated that “The All-Russian Emperor is an autocratic and unlimited Monarch. God himself commands to obey his supreme authority not only out of fear, but also out of conscience.” The terms “autocratic” and “unlimited”, coinciding in their meaning, indicate that all functions state power on legal formation, expedient activities within the law (administrative-executive) and the administration of justice are carried out undividedly and without the obligatory participation of other institutions by the head of state, who delegates the implementation of some of them to certain bodies acting on his behalf and with his authority (Article 81).

Russia under the emperors was constitutional state with a monarchical-unlimited form of government.

Full title of the emperor at the beginning of the 20th century. was like this (Article 37 of the Basic Laws of the Russian Empire):
By God's hastening mercy, We, ΝΝ, Emperor and Autocrat of All Russia, Moscow, Kiev, Vladimir, Novgorod; Tsar of Kazan, Tsar of Astrakhan, Tsar of Poland, Tsar of Siberia, Tsar of Tauride Chersonis, Tsar of Georgia; Sovereign of Pskov and Grand Duke Smolensk, Lithuanian, Volyn, Podolsk and Finland; Prince of Estland, Livonia, Courland and Semigal, Samogit, Bialystok, Korel, Tver, Yugorsk, Perm, Vyatka, Bulgarian and others; Sovereign and Grand Duke of Novagorod of the Nizovsky lands, Chernigov, Ryazan, Polotsk, Rostov, Yaroslavl, Belozersky, Udora, Obdorsky, Kondiysky, Vitebsk, Mstislavsky and all northern countries Sovereign; and Sovereign of Iversk, Kartalinsky and Kasardinsky lands and regions of Armenia; Cherkasy and Mountain Princes and other Hereditary Sovereign and Possessor; Sovereign of Turkestan; Heir of Norway, Duke of Schleswig-Holstin, Stormarn, Ditmarsen and Oldenburg, and so on, and so on, and so on.

In some cases determined by law, an abbreviated form of title was used: “By God's hastening grace, We, ΝΝ, Emperor and Autocrat of All Russia, Moscow, Kiev, Vladimir, Novgorod; Tsar of Kazan, Tsar of Astrakhan, Tsar of Poland, Tsar of Siberia, Tsar of Tauride Chersonis, Tsar of Georgia, Grand Duke of Finland and so on, and so on, and so on.”

After Peter the Great accepted the title of Emperor on October 22 (November 2), 1721 and the recognition of his title by other countries, the Russian state began to be called the Russian Empire (Russian Empire).

On February 5 (16), 1722, Peter the Great issued a Decree on Succession to the Throne, in which he abolished the ancient custom of transferring the throne to direct descendants in the male line, but allowed, at the will of the monarch, the appointment of any worthy person as heir.

On April 5 (16), 1797, Paul I established new order inheritance. From that time on, the order of succession to the Russian throne was based on the principle of primogeniture, i.e. with the accession to the throne by descendants of their ascendants in the event of death or abdication of the latter by the time of the opening of the succession. In the absence of direct heirs, the throne should pass to the lateral ones. Within each line (straight or side), males are preferred over females, and male sidelines are called before females. Accession to the throne for someone called should be limited to confession Orthodox faith. The reigning emperor (and heir) comes of age at the age of sixteen; until this age (as well as in other cases of incapacity), his power is exercised by the ruler, who can be (if there is no person specially appointed by the previously reigning emperor), the surviving father or mother of the emperor , and in their absence - the closest adult heir.

All the emperors who ruled Russia belonged to the same imperial family - the House of Romanov, the first representative of which became monarch in 1613. Since 1761, the descendants of the daughter of Peter I Anna and the Duke of Holstein-Gottorp Karl-Friedrich, who descended from the family in the male line, reigned Holstein-Gottorp (a branch of the Oldenburg dynasty), and in the genealogy these representatives of the House of Romanov, starting with Peter III, are called Romanov-Holstein-Gottorp.

By right of birth and the scope of his powers, the emperor was the supreme leader of a great world power, the first official in the state. All laws were issued on behalf of the emperor and he was appointed to positions.

All government ministers, governors and other senior officials. It was the emperor who determined the most important areas of government activity, including issues of war and peace, and had almost no control over public finances.

The organic nature of the Russian autocracy is inextricably linked with the historical conditions of development and the fate of the Russian Empire, and the peculiarities of the Russian national mentality. Supreme power had support in the minds and souls of the Russian people. The monarchical idea was popular and accepted by society.

In terms of their objective role, all the emperors of Russia were major political figures, whose activities reflected both public interests and contradictions, as well as their personal qualities.

Intelligence and education, political preferences, moral principles, life principles and the peculiarities of the psychological makeup of the monarch’s character largely determined the direction and nature of the domestic and foreign policy of the Russian state and, ultimately, were of great importance for the fate of the entire country.

In 1917, with the abdication of Nicholas II for himself and his son Tsarevich Alexei, the imperial title and the empire itself were abolished.

Peter I Alekseevich, nicknamed the Great, Reigned April 27, 1682 - January 28, 1725

(May 30, 1672 - January 28, 1725) - the last king of All Rus' (since 1682) and the first All-Russian Emperor (since 1721).

As a representative of the Romanov dynasty, Peter was proclaimed tsar at the age of 10 and began to rule independently in 1689. Peter's formal co-ruler was his brother Ivan (until his death in 1696).

From a young age, showing interest in science and foreign lifestyles, Peter was the first of the Russian tsars to make a long trip to the countries of Western Europe. Upon returning from it, in 1698, Peter launched large-scale reforms of the Russian state and social structure. One of Peter’s main achievements was the solution to the task posed in the 16th century: the expansion of Russian territories in the Baltic region after the victory in the Great Northern War, which allowed him to accept the title of Russian Emperor in 1721.

(Marta Samuilovna Skavronskaya, married to Kruse; after converting to Orthodoxy, Ekaterina Alekseevna Mikhailova; April 5, 1684 - May 6, 1727)

Russian empress from 1721 as the wife of the reigning emperor, from 1725 as the reigning empress; second wife of Peter I, mother of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna.

(October 12 (23), 1715, St. Petersburg - January 19 (30), 1730, Moscow) - Russian emperor who succeeded Catherine I on the throne.

Grandson of Peter I, son of Tsarevich Alexei Petrovich and German princess Sophia-Charlotte of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, the last representative of the Romanov family in the direct male line.

(January 28 (February 7) 1693 - October 17 (28), 1740) - Russian empress from the Romanov dynasty.

(12 (23) August 1740, St. Petersburg - 5 (16) July 1764, Shlisselburg) - Russian emperor from the Brunswick branch of the Romanov dynasty. Reigned from October 1740 to November 1741. Great-grandson of Ivan V.

Formally, he reigned for the first year of his life under the regency of first Biron, and then his own mother Anna Leopoldovna. The infant emperor was overthrown by Elizaveta Petrovna, spent almost his entire life in solitary confinement, and already during the reign of Catherine II he was killed by guards at the age of 23 while trying to free him.

(born Karl Peter Ulrich, German Karl Peter Ulrich, fully German Karl Peter Ulrich von Schleswig-Holstein-Gottorf); (10 (21) February 1728, Kiel - 6 (17) July 1762, Ropsha) - Russian emperor in 1762 , the first representative of the Holstein-Gottorp (Oldenburg) branch of the Romanovs on the Russian throne. Since 1745 - sovereign Duke of Holstein-Gottorp.

(born Sophie Auguste Friederike von Anhalt-Zerbst-Dornburg, in Orthodoxy Ekaterina Alekseevna; April 21, 1729, Stettin, Prussia - November 6, 1796, Winter Palace, St. Petersburg) - Empress of All Russia from 1762 to 1796.

The daughter of the Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst, Catherine came to power in a palace coup that overthrew her unpopular husband Peter III from the throne.

Catherine's era was marked by the maximum enslavement of the peasants and the comprehensive expansion of the privileges of the nobility.

Under Catherine the Great, the borders of the Russian Empire were significantly expanded to the west (divisions of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth) and to the south (annexation of Novorossiya, Crimea, and partly the Caucasus).

System government controlled under Catherine the Second, for the first time since the time of Peter I, it was reformed.

(December 12 (23), 1777, St. Petersburg - November 19 (December 1), 1825, Taganrog) - Emperor and Autocrat of All Russia (from March 12 (24), 1801), Protector of the Order of Malta (from 1801), Grand Duke of Finland (since 1809), Tsar of Poland (since 1815), eldest son of Emperor Paul I and Maria Feodorovna. In official pre-revolutionary historiography he was called the Blessed One.

At the beginning of his reign, he carried out moderate liberal reforms developed By secret committee and M. M. Speransky. In foreign policy maneuvered between Great Britain and France. In 1805-1807 he participated in anti-French coalitions. In 1807-1812 he temporarily became close to France. He led successful wars with Turkey (1806-1812), Persia (1804-1813) and Sweden (1808-1809). Under Alexander I, the territories of Eastern Georgia (1801), Finland (1809), Bessarabia (1812), and the former Duchy of Warsaw (1815) were annexed to Russia. After Patriotic War 1812 led the anti-French coalition of European powers in 1813-1814. He was one of the leaders of the Congress of Vienna of 1814-1815 and the organizers of the Holy Alliance.

(April 17, 1818, Moscow - March 1, 1881, St. Petersburg) - Emperor of All Russia, Tsar of Poland and Grand Duke of Finland (1855-1881) from the Romanov dynasty. The eldest son of first the grand ducal, and since 1825, the imperial couple Nikolai Pavlovich and Alexandra Feodorovna.

(February 26, 1845, Anichkov Palace, St. Petersburg - October 20, 1894, Livadia Palace, Crimea) - Emperor of All Russia, Tsar of Poland and Grand Duke of Finland from March 1, 1881. Son of Emperor Alexander II and grandson of Nicholas I; father of the latter Russian monarch Nicholas II.

During the reign of Alexander III Russia has not waged a single war. For maintaining peace, the monarch received the official nickname Tsar-Peacemaker.

(May 6, 1868, Tsarskoe Selo - July 17, 1918, Yekaterinburg) - Emperor of All Russia, Tsar of Poland and Grand Duke of Finland (October 20, 1894 - March 2, 1917). From the Imperial House of Romanov. Colonel (1892); in addition, from the British monarchs he had the ranks of admiral of the fleet (May 28 (June 10), 1908) and field marshal of the British army (December 18 (31), 1915).

The reign of Nicholas II was marked economic development Russia and at the same time the growth of socio-political contradictions in it, the revolutionary movement, which resulted in the revolution of 1905-1907 and the February Revolution of 1917; in foreign policy - expansion into Far East, the war with Japan, as well as Russia’s participation in the military blocs of European powers and the First World War.

Nicholas II abdicated the throne during the February Revolution of 1917 and was under house arrest with his family in the Tsarskoe Selo Palace. In the summer of 1917, by decision of the Provisional Government, he and his family were sent into exile in Tobolsk, and in the spring of 1918, the Bolsheviks moved him to Yekaterinburg, where in July 1918 he was shot along with his family and associates.