Educational and methodological material on the topic: the formation of the territory of the Russian Empire in the 16th - 19th centuries.

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Historically, Russia has developed as a huge multinational state. By the beginning of the 20th century. 165 peoples lived on its territory. The population numbered 174 million 100 thousand people. Orthodox Christians made up 69.9% of people, Muslims - 10.8%, Catholics - 8.9%, Protestants - 4.8%, Jews - 4%. The pagans were not counted, but they were there.
The territory was formed Russian state through the annexation of new lands both peacefully and armed. From the 14th to the 19th centuries, or more precisely out of 525 years, Russia spent 305 years in wars. Either she was attacked or she was attacked. In the process of formation of the territory of Russia, three stages can be distinguished.
FIRST STAGE (XV - first half of the XVI centuries). During this period, a territory was formed that became the “cradle” of the Russian people. The Moscow kingdom began to take shape under Ivan III - from the middle of the 15th century. Its initial territory - the Moscow Principality - was small. Ivan III increased the territory of the principality five times. He is actually the founder of the Moscow state. The population of the Russian principalities did not provide Ivan III serious resistance, since nothing was lost with the transition to the power of Moscow. The boyars willingly switched to Moscow service, and the princes either went to serve the Moscow prince or fled to Lithuania. Thus, in 1463, Ivan III annexed the Yaroslavl principality to Moscow. His princes moved to official positions. In 1472 an extensive Perm region. The Rostov princes sold the second half of the principality to Moscow, the first was bought by Vasily the Dark. In 1478, Veliky Novgorod was conquered, which the Muscovites withstood by siege. The lands of the Novgorod boyars were confiscated, they themselves were resettled to Moscow lands, and rich merchants were sent to live in Moscow. Later Tver (1485) and Vyatka (1489) were taken.
In foreign policy during the period under study, researchers usually identify three main directions. The first is the struggle to overthrow the yoke of the Golden Horde and the khanates that emerged from it. The second is the struggle with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and then with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth for Ukrainian, Belarusian and Russian lands. Third - the struggle with the Livonian Order for access to Baltic Sea.
Ivan III, who had brilliant diplomatic talent, right moment concentrated all his forces on any one direction. At the end of the 15th century. The princes Vyazemsky, Belsky, Vorotynsky and others, dissatisfied with the Lithuanian rule, recognized the power of Moscow over themselves, which conquered Chernigov, Bryansk, and a total of 19 cities and 70 volosts from Lithuania. The statement of Ivan III that the entire territory of Kievan Rus was his “fatherland” led to the centuries-long struggle between Russia and Poland for the Western Russian lands of Kievan Rus.
At the beginning of the 16th century. The population of the Moscow kingdom was 9 million people. The formation of the Russian people was underway. The Chud, Meshchera, Vyatichi and other tribes were assimilated.
SECOND STAGE (mid-16th – end of 17th centuries). During the time of Ivan IV, there was an urgent need to protect the country's borders in the East. The Kazan and Crimean khanates made frequent raids on Russian lands. When they declared themselves vassals of Turkey, they gave Moscow a reason to seize them. In 1552 Kazan was taken. In 1556, the Astrakhan Khanate recognized its dependence on Moscow without resistance. The Mordovians, Chuvashs, and Bashkirs voluntarily joined the Russian state. Thus, the entire Volga was included in Russia. A stream of Russian colonization rushed to these lands. In the 80s XVI century the cities of Samara, Saratov, Tsaritsyn, Ufa, Penza, Tambov and others were founded here. Many Tatar khans and nobles were baptized and became part of the elite of the Moscow state.
The annexation of the Tatar khanates opened the way to Siberia. A detachment of Cossacks led by Ermak conquered the Siberian Khanate. In 1589 the cities of Tyumen and Tobolsk were founded here. The advance of the Russian people towards the Yenisei, Lena, and the Sea of Okhotsk began.
In the West Moscow State sought access to the Baltic Sea. During the 16th century. Russia fought about ten wars on its western borders, lasting a total of 50 years. Ivan the Terrible lost the Livonian War and lost the only access to the sea that Novgorod owned. Under Tsar Fyodor Ioannovich, Boris Godunov returned this territory to Russia through diplomatic means.
On the southern and southeastern borders in the 16th–17th centuries. There was a grueling struggle with the Crimean Khanate. In 1571, Khan Davlet Giray burned and plundered Moscow. To protect the state from the South, the Moscow government from the middle of the 16th century. began a systematic advance south from the river. Oki to the Wild Field area. The entire territory from Moscow to Crimea was free. Detachments of Tatars rushed along it, attacking Russian settlements. The Tula defensive line was built. These are cities and villages, with forts between them, i.e. a continuous chain of fortifications. Between Moscow and Tula the land is populated by peasants. Then a new defensive line is built - Belgorodskaya. These are the cities of Orel, Kursk, Voronezh, Yelets, Belgorod. And finally, the third line, represented by the cities of Simbirsk, Tambov, Penza, Syzran. As a result, Moscow was protected and new territories were developed.
In 1654, according to the Pereyaslav Rada, Ukraine united with Russia. As a result of this voluntary act and subsequent wars with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Left Bank Ukraine and Kiev became part of a single country.
In 1656, in response to the proposal of the ambassadors of Moldova, Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich sent the Moldavian ruler George Stefan a letter of consent to accept the conditions for the transition of Moldova to Russian citizenship. In 1657 representatives for Caucasian peoples- Tushins, Khevsurs and Pshavs - sent a letter to Alexei Mikhailovich with a request to accept them into Russian citizenship.
Thus, at the second stage, Russia expanded its territory according to the eastern type, including the adjacent lands. Russia was closed to Europe by the Iron Curtain and loyal to the East.
THIRD STAGE (XVIII–XIX centuries). During this period, Russia became an empire (1721) and its foreign policy was determined by the tasks of modernization. External expansion solved the following problems: access to global communications; finding sources of raw materials and markets; implementation of other geopolitical interests. Western features can be traced in territorial acquisitions. Russia is included in European politics and European wars.
For more than 100 years, Russia fought for the Baltic states in order to gain a foothold in sea shores. Sweden also claimed these lands. After the victorious end of the Northern War, Peter I annexed the Baltic states and Karelia to Russia.
In 1724, the Armenian patriarchs Isaiah and Nerses sent a message to Peter the Great with a request to accept the Armenian people under the protection of Russia. By the good will of the peoples living here, the Nogai (from Orenburg to Yuryev) and Kyrgyz lands were annexed to Russia.
The resounding victories of Russian troops under Catherine the Great brought great glory to Russia. In 1774, the Kyuchuk-Kainardzhi Peace Treaty was concluded with the Turks, according to which Crimea was declared free, and in 1783 it became Russian. As a result of three partitions of Poland (1772, 1793, 1795), Russia included the lands of central and western Belarus, Right Bank Ukraine without Lvov, most of Lithuania and Courland. During the war with Sweden (1808–1809), Finland was annexed. In 1814–1815 The Congress of Vienna transferred the Duchy of Warsaw (Kingdom of Poland) to Russia.
The struggle for the Caucasus was started by Peter I. He conquered Derbent and Baku. After the death of Peter the Great, the advance into the Caucasus slowed down. In 1799, Georgia, which was being ravaged by Persia, voluntarily became part of Russia. In the 19th century Russian troops moved to Transcaucasia, and by 1810 most of it was included in Russia. This caused resistance from the Caucasian peoples. The war with them lasted 50 years (1917–1864).
In the XVIII–XIX centuries. The lands of Kazakhstan, inhabited by nomadic tribes, were annexed to Russia. Here the Russians began to build cities - Orenburg, Troitsk, etc. With the end of the Caucasian War, advancement into Central Asia began. The Bukhara Emirate, Kokand and Khiva khanates were conquered. Russian troops stopped at the borders of Afghanistan.
As already mentioned, Russia’s external expansion was caused by the needs of the Western way of life, but the type of conquest remained Eastern. Russia did not become a metropolis, but the annexed territories became colonies. The conquered lands were included in single state. Hence the indifference to overseas territories. In 1867, Russian America was sold to the United States for a symbolic price of $7.2 million. Since the costs of its maintenance were much higher, by selling Alaska they received savings. The same thing happened when the question arose about the voluntary annexation of the Hawaiian Islands to Russia. Alexander II refused him.
The problem of forming the territory of Russia was solved throughout the 20th century. In general, throughout the entire development of the country, one can trace, firstly, the tendency to become part of the state various peoples and leaving it with their lands. Secondly, many peoples who inhabited the Russian empire joined it voluntarily, which protected them from physical destruction by their warlike neighbors. Thirdly, Russia’s borders have practically never been in an unchanged state. The “movement” of territories depended on both external and internal factors. The most important internal issue was the question of centralization and decentralization of power. The territory of the country ultimately depended on this.

3.1 Territory and borders as a factor in the formation of the Russian state

Russia.Geographical location and borders of Russia.

3.1.1. Historical stages of territory formationRussia

One of the most important conditions for the development of modern Russia is its historical past, in particular the historical and geographical features of the formation of the country. Over the long period of the country's existence, the name, ethnic composition, occupied territory, main geopolitical vectors of development and government structure have repeatedly changed. As a result, we can distinguish several periods of the historical and geographical formation of Russia.

First period–formation and development of the ancient Russian state Kievan Rus (IX– XIIcenturies). This state developed along the trade route “from the Varangians to the Greeks,” which was the easternmost “link” between the states of Baltic, or Northern, Europe (Sweden, etc.) and Mediterranean, or Southern, Europe (Byzantium, etc.). Accordingly, it had two main centers: Kyiv, through which the main trade with Byzantium took place, and Novgorod, which was the main center for connections with Northern European countries. Naturally, the main ties (not only economic, but also cultural, political, etc.) of Kievan Rus were directed towards Europe, of which it was an integral part. But the territorial development of the state took place in the northern and eastern directions, since here were territories inhabited by small and peace-loving Finno-Ugric peoples (Muroma, Merya, Chud, etc.). In the West at that time there were already relatively densely populated territories of European states (Poland, Hungary, etc.), and in the southeast there were steppe territories inhabited by warlike nomadic peoples (Pechenegs, Cumans, etc.), against whom defensive lines had to be built on the border of steppes and forest-steppe.

The ethnic basis of Kievan Rus was made up of the East Slavic tribes of the Polans, Severians, Radimichi, Ilmen Slovenes, etc. Already from the end of the 9th century. Eastern Slavs began to actively develop the Volga-Oka interfluve. The Krivichi from the north-west (from the side of Novgorod) and the Vyatichi from the south-west (from the side of Kyiv) moved here to the lands of the Finno-Ugric tribes. Local peoples were assimilated by the Eastern Slavs, but at the same time they became an important component of the emerging Great Russian ethnic group. In the 12th century. It was to the northeast of Kievan Rus that the main economic center of the state moved (the cities of Suzdal Ryazan, Yaroslavl, Rostov, Vladimir, etc.), tied to a new important trade route between the countries of Europe and Asia, laid along the Volga with its tributaries and further along the Caspian Sea. In 1147, the city of Moscow was mentioned for the first time in chronicles on this territory. By the end of the period, the territory of the state amounted to about 2.5 million km 2.

Second period–the collapse of Kievan Rus into separate principalities and the Mongol-Tatar conquest (XIII– XVcenturies). Already in the 12th century. Kievan Rus began to disintegrate into separate appanage principalities that were at war with each other. The main (capital) of them was initially considered Kiev, then Vladimir-Suzdal, but this was only a formal supremacy. In practice, appanage princes, as a rule, did not submit to the main (great) princes, but, if possible, tried to capture the capitals (Kyiv or Vladimir) and declare themselves on this basis the great princes of all Rus'. A special situation arose in Novgorod and nearby Pskov, where not principalities were formed, but “veche republics”, where all important issues were resolved by the wealthiest merchants, but with the formal consent of the majority of citizens, expressed at a general meeting (veche).

Due to disagreements between individual ancient Russian principalities in the middle of the 13th century. They all relatively easily fell under the rule of the Mongol Tatar conquerors who came from the east. And then (in the 14th century) the western and southern principalities (Polotsk, Kiev, etc.) became part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. At the same time, Mongol-Tatar domination turned out to be less dangerous than Lithuanian (later Polish-Lithuanian) in terms of preserving culture (but much worse, preserving material values), since the Mongol-Tatars, after their raids and collecting tribute, like all nomads, went back in the steppe without interfering in the internal life of the Russian principalities. To some extent, they even supported the existing political and religious structure, since it made it easier to collect tribute. While the most important thing for the conquerors coming from the West under religious (Catholic) banners was to subjugate new people and territory forever to their ideas. Therefore, they largely preserved material values, but tried to change culture and religion. However, cultural and political ties with the eastern nomadic peoples slowed down the socio-economic development of Russia for a long time.

The development of new territories during this period was possible only in a northern direction. This is where the Russian settlers moved, quickly reaching the shores of Bely, and then Barents seas. The people who moved to the coast of these seas over time became the basis for the formation of a special Russian subethnic group - the Pomors. The territory of all Russian lands by the end of the period was about 2 million km 2.

Third period–formation and development of the Russian centralized state (XVI– XVIIcenturies) Already from the 14th century. The Moscow principality began to play a special role among other Russian lands. Thanks to its geographical position (in the center of the most populated Volga-Oka interfluve) and outstanding rulers (Ivan Kalita and others), it was this principality that gradually became the main one in economic, political and religious relations among others subordinate to the state of the Golden Horde created by the Mongol-Tatars. In particular, it was the Moscow princes who received the title of Grand Dukes and the right to collect tribute from all Russian lands to transfer it to the Golden Horde. In 1380, the united troops of the Russian principalities under the leadership of the Grand Duke of Moscow Dmitry Ivanovich, later called Donskoy, defeated the Mongol-Tatar army for the first time in an open battle on the Kulikovo Field. After this, the rapid territorial expansion of the Moscow Principality began in all directions: to the north (it was annexed Veliky Ustyug), east (Nizhny Novgorod), south (Tula), west (Rzhev). As a result, 100 years later (in 1480), Russian troops under the leadership of the Grand Duke of Moscow Ivan III on the Ugra River repelled an attack on Russian lands by the united troops of the Mongol-Tatar khanates, into which the Golden Horde disintegrated. This was an event that formally liberated the Russian principalities (Moscow Rus') from Mongol-Tatar dependence, and the beginning of the territorial expansion of Russian lands to the east and southeast.

By the middle of the 16th century. The Grand Duke of Moscow Ivan IV (the Terrible), who subsequently took the title of Tsar of All Rus', united under his rule all the Russian principalities that had previously been subordinate to the Mongol-Tatars, and began a further offensive against the remnants of the Golden Horde. In 1552, after a long war, he annexed the Kazan Khanate to the Moscow state, and in 1556 - the Astrakhan Khanate. This led to the inclusion into the Russian state of territories inhabited by representatives of other ethnic groups and religions (Tatars, Mari, Bashkirs, etc.), which dramatically changed the ethnic and religious composition of the population of the previously mono-ethnic and Orthodox country. Although individual Tatar princes, together with their subjects, went over to the service of the Moscow principality before that (Yusupov, Karamzin, etc.).

After this, Ivan IV tried to expand the territory of the state to the west, attacking the weak German religious knightly orders in the Baltic states (Livonsky and others). But as a result of the outbreak of the Livonian War, the lands of the orders went to Sweden and the Polish-Lithuanian state of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, and the country lost access to the Finnish Sea in the Baltic Gulf. main reason defeats is that during the long Mongol-Tatar rule Russian state lost cultural ties with Europe. Therefore, the Russian army turned out to be weakly armed from a technical point of view, while it was the perfection of technology that decided the outcome of wars in Europe already at that time.

The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth launched a new attack on the Russian state at the beginning of the 17th century. (period of the Time of Troubles), first supporting the claims to the Moscow throne of False Dmitry I and II, and then starting direct military intervention. Almost all of Central Russia, including Moscow, was captured by the Poles and Lithuanians. It was possible to defend the country's independence only thanks to popular resistance to the invaders.

After defeats in the west, the vector of development of the Russian state headed east and south. In 1586, the cities of Tyumen (the first Russian city in Siberia), Voronezh (the largest Russian city in the Black Earth Region), Samara (the first Russian city in the Volga region), Ufa (the first Russian city in the Volga region) were founded Southern Urals). Advancement to the south into the steppe regions was carried out with the help of notched lines (lines of forts connected by rows of fallen trees), under the protection of which from the raids of nomads the agricultural development of the most fertile black soil territories took place. In the east, already by 1639, Russian settlers (Cossacks) reached the coast of the Pacific Ocean (Sea of Okhotsk), having built the fort of Okhotsk in 1646. The Cossacks moved along the rivers of the taiga zone, building forts in the most advantageous places for control over the surrounding territories (Krasnoyarsk, Yakutsk, Turukhansk, etc.). The main incentive for their movement was the procurement of furs - the main product of Russian export to Europe at that time. Fur was harvested both by the settlers themselves and by local residents, who gave it to the Cossacks in the form of tribute (yasak). Moreover, in general (with the exception of some cases), the annexation of Siberia occurred peacefully. By the end of the period, the area of the state reached 7 million km 2.

The fourth period–formation of the Russian Empire (XVIII– StartXIXV.). Already from the middle of the 17th century. the vector of Russian geopolitics again began to unfold in a western direction. In 1654, by decision of the Pereyaslav Rada, Left Bank Ukraine (the territory along the Dnieper and east of it) was united with Russia, which, as a result of military actions, Zaporozhye Cossacks left the subordination of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.

But Peter I made especially great efforts to recognize Russia as a European state. At the beginning of the 18th century. As a result of the many years of the Northern War with Sweden, Russia gained access to the Baltic Sea, taking possession of the mouth of the Neva and the territories of modern Estonia and Latvia. In 1712, St. Petersburg, founded on the shores of the Gulf of Finland of the Baltic Sea, became the capital of Russia, which greatly facilitated Russia’s ties with European countries. In 1721, Russia declared itself an empire. In the second half of the 18th century, after three divisions of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the lands of Lithuania, Belarus and Right-Bank Ukraine became part of Russia. During the same period, as a result of victories over the Ottoman Empire, the coasts of the Black and Azov Seas (Novorossiya) became part of the state. At the beginning of the 19th century. Finland, part of Poland and the territory between the Dniester and Prut rivers (Bessarabia) joined the Russian Empire. By the end of the period, the area of the Russian Empire exceeded 16 million km 2.

Fifth period–development and collapse of the Russian Empire (midXIX– StartXXV.). Further territorial expansion in a western direction became increasingly difficult, as it encountered resistance from developed European states. Therefore, gradually the vector of Russian geopolitics again became southern, southeastern and eastern. In 1800, at the request of the Georgian kings, Georgia became part of the Russian Empire. Also, the territory of Armenia peacefully became part of Russia, since Christian Armenians were threatened with complete destruction from attacks from Ottoman Empire and Persia. At the beginning of the 19th century. As a result of the war with Persia (Iran), the territory of modern Azerbaijan was included in Russia. The most difficult thing in the Caucasus turned out to be annexing the lands of the North Caucasian peoples, who resisted joining the Russian Empire for more than 50 years. The mountainous regions of the North Caucasus finally became part of Russia only at the end of the 19th century.

The main vector of expansion of the state’s territorial possessions in the 19th century. became Central Asian. Since the 18th century. The process of Kazakh tribes joining Russia began, united in the Senior, Middle and Small Zhuzes, which at that time did not have a single state. First, the territory of the Younger Zhuz (Western and Northern Kazakhstan) was annexed, then the Middle Zhuz (Central Kazakhstan) and, finally, the Senior Zhuz (Southern Kazakhstan). The main Russian center on the territory of Kazakhstan was the Vernaya fortress founded in 1854 (later the city of Alma-Ata). In the presence of individual local conflicts, in general, the Kazakhs voluntarily became part of Russia.

Accession Central Asia: Bukhara, Khiva khanates and other Central Asian lands to Russia - occurred at the end of the 19th century. and already had the character of a conquest. The large local population did not want to recognize new government, resisted the aliens. The exception is the peaceful entry into Russia of the Kyrgyz. As a result, the borders of the Russian Empire in this region were expanded to the borders of Persia and Afghanistan.

The third vector of the country's expansion during this period is eastern. First, at the beginning of the 18th century. The territories of Alaska, located on the North American continent, were annexed. In the second half of the 19th century. The Russian Empire annexed the lands of the Amur and Primorye regions, taking advantage of the weakness of China, weakened by civil strife and defeats from the British and French. Before this, the Chinese Empire objected to the annexation of these territories to Russia, although it did not develop them itself. Thus, in order to avoid new exclusion in the future, these lands needed to be populated and developed. But the military, economic and demographic potential of the country was no longer enough to develop all Russian lands. And in 1867, Russia had to sell Alaska to the United States, which became the first major territorial loss of the Russian Empire. The area of the state began to shrink, reaching 24 million km 2 .

New confirmation of the state’s weakness was the defeat in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905, after which Russia lost Southern Sakhalin, Kuril Islands and was forced to stop further territorial expansion in China. The final collapse of the Russian Empire came in 1917, when the hardest external war developed with internal contradictions that led to revolutions and civil war. Independence treaties were signed with Finland and Poland. In fact, the territories occupied by German and Romanian troops were separated from the state - Ukraine, Belarus, the Baltic states, Bessarabia. In the remaining territory, centralized government administration was disrupted.

Sixth period–Soviet (1917– 1991). At the end of 1917, the formation of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR) was proclaimed over most of the territory of the Russian Empire, the capital of which moved to Moscow. Later, as a result of the military successes of the Soviet Red Army, Soviet socialist republics were proclaimed in Ukraine, Belarus and Transcaucasia. In 1922, these four republics united into a single state - the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). In the 1920s, the USSR carried out administrative reforms, as a result of which the Kazakh, Uzbek, Kyrgyz, Turkmen and Tajik republics were separated from the RSFSR, and the Transcaucasian Republic was divided into Georgian, Armenian and Azerbaijan.

During the Second World War and following its results (1939 - 1947), the USSR included first Bessarabia (on whose territory the Moldavian SSR was formed), the Baltic states (Lithuanian, Latvian and Estonian SSR), Western Ukraine and Western Belarus, as well as the southeastern part of Finland (Vyborg and the surrounding area), and then Tuva. After the war, Southern Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands became part of the USSR, the Kaliningrad region and the northeastern part of Finland (Pechenga) became part of the RSFSR, and Transcarpathia became part of the Ukrainian SSR. After this, there were only changes in the borders between individual union republics, the most significant of which was the transfer of Crimea from the RSFSR to Ukraine in 1954. At the end of the period, the area of the state was 22.4 million km 2.

Seventh period– modern development of the country (starting With 1992). At the end of 1991, the USSR collapsed into 15 new independent states, the largest of which was the Russian Federation. Moreover, the territory and borders of the country actually returned to the turn of the 17th – 18th centuries. But this confirms the fact that modern Russia is not an empire that forcibly subjugated many surrounding territories, but a historically formed multi-ethnic and multi-confessional state that has prospects for its further socio-economic and cultural development.

The area of modern Russia is about 17.1 million km2. At the same time, initially many neighboring states had territorial claims against the Russian Federation, the presence of which in itself indicates instability and the illegality of including certain territories into the country. The most serious were claims from China and Japan, which could not be resolved during the Soviet era. At the same time, disagreements with China have been completely resolved over the past 10 years. And today the entire Russian-Chinese border is confirmed by interstate treaties and delimited - for the first time in several centuries of political relations between Russia and China. Disagreements between Russia and Japan over the southern Kuril Islands remain unresolved, which hinders the development of economic, social and other ties between our countries.

The claims of the newly independent states were of a completely different nature. During the existence of the USSR, the borders between the RSFSR and other republics were purely administrative in nature. More than 85% of the borders were not demarcated. Even during documented periods of the country's development, these borders changed repeatedly in one direction or another and often without observing the necessary legal formalities. Thus, the claims of Estonia and Latvia to part of the territories of the Leningrad and Pskov regions are justified by treaties of the 20s. But before this, Estonia and Latvia never existed as independent states. And back in the 12th century. The territories of modern Estonia and Latvia were dependent on the Russian principalities. From a historical point of view, this allows Russia to lay claim to all the territories of Estonia and Latvia.

Already from the end of the 18th century. Western and Northern Kazakhstan were part of the Russian state. And until the end of the 20s of the XX century. Kazakhstan and Central Asia were part of the RSFSR. Naturally, in such conditions, Russia has more historical grounds for annexing part of the territory Central Asia than Kazakhstan to annex part of the territory of Russia. Moreover, in the northern part of Kazakhstan, the majority of the population is Russians and other peoples close to them in culture, and not Kazakhs.

The situation is similar with borders in the Caucasus, where they often changed depending on specific historical conditions. As a result, today the population of some parts of Georgia and Azerbaijan (Abkhazia, South Ossetia, etc.) wants to join Russia, while these states, in turn, make territorial claims to the Russian Federation and support separatists on the territory of our country.

The most difficult is the establishment of the border between Russia, Ukraine and Belarus, where in many cases ties were cut not only between regions and enterprises, but also between individual families, whose representatives found themselves living on opposite sides of the new state borders. However, by the beginning of the 21st century. Most of the territorial claims against Russia at the state level were lifted. And today they are put forward only by extreme groups of citizens of neighboring states.

3.1.2. Geographical location and borders of Russia

The geographical position of any country consists of physical-geographical and economic-geographical position. The internal administrative-territorial division of the country is also important.

Physiographic location. Russia occupies 17,075 thousand km 2, or 1/8 of the land. Our country is the largest country in the world by area. The length of the territory of Russia from west to east (from Kaliningrad to Chukotka) is almost 10 thousand km, and from north to south – from 2.5 to 4 thousand km. There are 11 time zones across the country. When it is 9 o’clock in the evening in the Kaliningrad region, in the Kamchatka region, Koryak and Chukotka autonomous districts it is already 7 o’clock in the morning the next day. The vastness of the territory determines the wealth of natural resources and the diversity of natural conditions. The westernmost point of Russia is located on the Baltic Spit near Kaliningrad (19°38" east longitude), the easternmost point is on Ratmanov Island in the Bering Strait (169°02" west longitude). The extreme northern point of Russia is Cape Fligeli on Rudolf Island in the Franz Josef Land archipelago (81°51" north latitude), and on the mainland is Cape Chelyuskin on the Taimyr Peninsula (77°43" north latitude). Extreme southern point located near Mount Bazarduzu of the Caucasus Range (41°11" northern latitude). Thus, Russia occupies a high-latitude position on the Eurasian continent, most of the territory is located between the 50th parallel and the Arctic Circle.

As a result, Russia is one of the most northern states peace. About 2/3 of the country's territory belongs to the planetary zone of the North. This is where the majority are concentrated natural resources countries (more than 3/4 of energy resources, almost 70% of forest resources, over 80% of fresh water resources, etc.). But these are actually undeveloped and uninhabited territories (population density is less than 1 person per 1 km 2), natural conditions which hinder the development of almost all types of economic activity (transport, industrial, agricultural, construction, etc.). The unfavorable influence of the physical-geographical position is especially pronounced in the low agro-climatic and natural-recreational potential of most of the territory of Russia. This determines Russia’s low competitiveness in the international agricultural and recreational markets and its dependence on imports of many types of agricultural products and tourism services.

Ultimately, the negative impact of Russia's physical and geographical position is manifested in the high costs of production of all types of products and services compared to other countries. At the same time, not only harsh natural conditions have a negative impact (increasing costs for heating, lighting, growing plants, etc.), but also the sheer size of the country (transport costs increase sharply). According to its physical and geographical position, Russia! Of the independent states, it is comparable only to Canada. But there, almost all socio-economic activity is concentrated in southern parts countries similar in natural conditions to the Russian North Caucasus, Lower Volga region and the south of the Far East. In Russia, such territorial concentration is hampered by both the historical features of the country's development and the majority of modern socio-economic factors that determine the territorial organization of the population and economy.

The main part of Russia's territory is located in mainland Eurasia, and a smaller part is on the island part, which complicates the implementation of socio-economic ties. The largest islands of Russia: the Novaya Zemlya archipelago (82.6 thousand km 2), Sakhalin Island (76.4 thousand km 2), Novosibirsk archipelago (38 thousand km 2). But local residents consider the entire vast zone of the North to be an island, isolated from other territories (the mainland) by the lack of reliable transport communications and harsh natural conditions. Most of the northern and eastern borders Russia - maritime. The territory of the country is washed by the seas of the North Arctic Ocean(Barents, White, Kara, Laptev, East Siberian, Chukotka), Pacific (Bering, Okhotsk, Japanese) and Atlantic oceans (Baltic, Black, Azov). But most of these seas are cold, their water areas are covered with ice for a significant part of the year. Therefore, the country's coastal position poorly translates into convenient connections with other countries. The most beneficial for the Russian economy are sea access to ice-free areas of the Barents, Baltic, Black and Japanese seas.

The total length of Russia's borders is 58.6 thousand km, of which the length of sea borders is more than 38 thousand km (65%). Russia has maritime borders with 12 countries: the USA, Japan, Norway, Finland, Estonia, Lithuania, Poland, Ukraine, Georgia, North Korea ( North Korea) and in the Caspian Sea - with Azerbaijan and Kazakhstan. The length of Russia's land borders is 20.1 thousand km (35%). Russia has a land border with 14 countries: Kazakhstan (about 7200 km), China (4300 km), Mongolia (3005 km), Finland (1269 km), Ukraine (1270 km), Belarus (990 km), Estonia (438 km ), Azerbaijan (367 km), Lithuania (304 km), Latvia (250 km), Georgia (750 km), Poland (244 km), Norway (196 km), North Korea (17 km). The vast majority of Russia's land border falls on the CIS countries.

The land borders of Russia in the west pass through the territory of the East European Plain, and in the south - partly through flat, partly through mountainous territories. Consequently, there are no serious natural problems for the construction of communications and the development of contacts with most neighboring countries. But almost the entire border with Georgia and Azerbaijan runs along the Caucasus Mountains. Mountains that have a barrier function are also located on a significant part of Russia’s borders with Mongolia and China.

Economic-geographical location(EGP) is the relationship of an object to external data that has economic significance. Studying EGP of the country helps to find out how a country's environment influences or can influence its economic development. Therefore, the analysis of a country’s EGP consists of its assessment: is the EGP beneficial or unprofitable, i.e. favorable or not for the development of the country's economy.

In terms of territorial coverage, there are three levels of EGP: macro-, meso- and micro-position. The macro position of a country is the country’s position on the world map: its relationship to the continents, oceans, world trade routes, and main political and economic centers. Mesolocation – position on a continent or inside a part of the world. The micro-position of a country is its position in relation to immediate environment; neighboring states, physical-geographical objects on the border, transport routes crossing it, etc. At the same time, assessments of macro-, meso- and micro-positions can differ significantly from each other (from favorable to extremely unfavorable) and change over time.

Russia is the world's largest state. It is almost twice as large as China or Canada. It is interesting to trace how Russia became so huge.

Colonization or development?

IN Lately serious controversy has flared up around the expansion of Russia's borders throughout its entire history centuries-old history. Was this expansion colonial or land development in nature? If the first is true, then the very location of Russia, stretching across almost the entire Eurasian continent, created difficulties in determining where the metropolis ended and the colony began.

Conventionally, Russian possessions in Alaska and California could be called colonies, but there was no typical feature of colonial policy - the enslavement of indigenous peoples.

Director of the Institute of Russian History of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Yuri Petrov, notes that “the expansion of the territory of the Russian state and the annexation of other peoples” cannot be considered colonization, since this process was accompanied by “a merging of elites, unusual for classical colonial regimes.”

Western historiography takes the opposite position on this issue. In particular, in the resolution of the US Congress “On Captive Nations”, among other territories and states, “enslaved” and “deprived national independence“Russia includes Ukraine, Belarus, the Volga region, Cossacks and even North Korea.

Historian Konstantin Minyar-Beloruchev, far from idealizing Russia’s “imperial policy” (the Caucasian wars, the conquest of Central Asia, Stalin’s deportations), draws attention to much more comfortable conditions for national survival and development in the annexed lands, in contrast to the indigenous population of the United States.

Three levels of possessions

Due to the geopolitical peculiarities in which it turned out Old Russian state, special conditions were created for the development of the Eurasian space. Inhabited west, south and harsh north left broad prospects for Rus' only in the east. However, as history has shown, Russia's expansion was successful in all directions.

Minyar-Beloruchev proposed using a hierarchical approach to distinguishing the levels of possessions of the Russian Empire. According to the historian, there are three such levels: first, the core of the state - the European part of Russia, Ukraine and Belarus; the second – sparsely populated (“no man’s”) Siberia and Far East; third - traditional societies North Caucasus, Transcaucasia and Central Asia, as well as the Baltic states, Poland and Finland belonging to the “European house”.

Border security

American political scientist George Friedman connects the process of Russia's expansion with its insecurity, in which it could only rely on its inhospitable climate and harsh natural conditions. The multidirectional nature of the external threat created a precedent for building the state’s aggressive policy. “Russian history is a chronicle of the agony of survival from one aggression to another,” the political scientist notes.

Friedman identifies three phases of Russia's forced expansion.

The first phase, which began under Ivan III, was the creation of “buffer” zones in the west and east that would prevent external threats.

The second phase came into force under Ivan the Terrible and was more aggressive and risky. Having established itself on the northern spurs of the Caucasus, Russia protected itself from the countries of Asia Minor.

The third phase began with the reign of Peter I and related to the western route, along which the enemy was now invading. By strengthening its flanks in the Baltic and Black Seas, Russia, according to Friedman, could feel more secure.

Formation of the state

Historians are unanimous that the impetus for expanding the borders of Russia, first of all, should be associated with the emergence of statehood during the reign of Ivan III, who overcame the time of complex Russian-Horde relations and rivalry between appanage principalities.

The consolidation of central power by Moscow and the “gathering of lands” created the conditions for the state to enter important trade routes, and with it the opportunity to develop its foreign policy.

With the accession of Ivan the Terrible to the throne, the process of annexing lands entered its active phase and was associated with the strengthening of the state and the desire to secure, first of all, its eastern borders. One after another, the heirs of the Golden Horde - the Kazan, Astrakhan and Siberian khanates - became part of the Russian kingdom. This creates reliable outposts and the ability to move further east.

Access to the sea

Isolation from sea routes and, as a consequence, the lack of broad opportunities to develop the military and merchant fleet have become one of the the most important reasons Russia’s desire to access ice-free ports of the Baltic and Black Seas, as well as the Pacific coast of the Far East.

This policy was outlined even under Ivan the Terrible, but it was destined to be fully realized only during the reign of Catherine II.

The success of access to seaports, according to the American historian Richard Pipes, was greatly facilitated by a dense and convenient network of river routes, along which, even using primitive vessels, it was possible to get from the Baltic to the Caspian without any problems.

Echo of the Time of Troubles

Researcher Vitaly Averyanov draws an interesting parallel: the intensification of expansion on the part of Russia arose after the end of the “times of troubles.” This, according to the researcher, was the case after the Time of Troubles of 1598–1613, and this was also the case after the most difficult period of the collapse of the empire at the beginning of the 20th century.

On the other hand, Averyanov also sees increased expansion as a kind of revenge for Russia’s loss of part of its territories. The researcher notes that the rapid development of Siberia in the 17th century followed the loss of a number of western lands, in particular Smolensk, and access to the Gulf of Finland. The expeditions of Rebrov, Poyarkov, Dezhnev and Khabarov more than compensated for these losses, opening up new geographical and economic horizons for Russia.

The next “unprecedented geopolitical revenge” that Averyanov draws attention to occurred at the end of World War II, when the borders of the Baltic states, Belarus, Ukraine, and Moldova were restored, and additional territorial acquisitions were made in Eastern Europe at the expense of Finland, Prussia, Poland, Czechoslovakia, and in Asia - at the expense of South Sakhalin, the Kuril Islands and Tuva.

It is interesting to note that the latest territorial acquisitions Soviet Union, who established extreme points states in the western and eastern directions occurred almost simultaneously: we're talking about about Koenigsberg (Kaliningrad) and South Sakhalin with the Kuril Islands.

"Imperial Appetites"

A significant part of the peoples and countries that were part of the two superpowers - the Russian Empire and the Soviet Union - have difficult relationship with today's Russia.

Recently, researchers from the Eurasian Monitor center analyzed 187 school textbooks out of 11 post-Soviet states, including Latvia, Ukraine, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan. The researchers' conclusion turned out to be predictable: in most school textbooks of the former Soviet republics, Russia is portrayed as a colonial empire that mercilessly exploited the national periphery and oppressed the inhabitants.

The idea of colonial expansion is most clearly expressed in the historiography of Central Asian countries. The authors of the textbooks emphasize that Russia used this region as a raw material base, from where silk, cotton, astrakhan fur and numerous mineral resources were exported.

However, denouncers of Russia’s “imperial appetites” do not take into account the fact that three-quarters of the economy of the union republics was subsidized. As Russian orientalist Alexei Vasiliev noted, “not a single metropolis - England, France, Portugal, Holland - has left in its colonies such a developed economy as Russia in Central Asia.”

FIRST STAGE (XV - first half of the XVI centuries). During this period, a territory was formed that became the “cradle” of the Russian people. The Moscow kingdom began to take shape under Ivan III - from the middle of the 15th century. Its initial territory - the Moscow Principality - was small. Ivan III increased the territory of the principality five times. Thus, in 1463, Ivan III annexed the Yaroslavl principality to Moscow. In 1472, the vast Perm region was annexed. In 1478, Veliky Novgorod was conquered, which the Muscovites withstood by siege. Later Tver (1485) and Vyatka (1489) were taken.
At the end of the 15th century. The princes Vyazemsky, Belsky, Vorotynsky and others, dissatisfied with the Lithuanian rule, recognized the power of Moscow over themselves, which conquered Chernigov, Bryansk, and a total of 19 cities and 70 volosts from Lithuania. The statement of Ivan III that the entire territory of Kievan Rus was his “fatherland” led to the centuries-long struggle between Russia and Poland for the Western Russian lands of Kievan Rus. At the beginning of the 16th century. The population of the Moscow kingdom was 9 million people. The formation of the Russian people was underway. The Chud, Meshchera, Vyatichi and other tribes were assimilated. SECOND STAGE (mid-16th – end of 17th centuries). During the time of Ivan IV, there was an urgent need to protect the country's borders in the East. In 1552 Kazan was taken. In 1556, the Astrakhan Khanate recognized its dependence on Moscow without resistance. The Mordovians, Chuvashs, and Bashkirs voluntarily joined the Russian state. Thus, the entire Volga was included in Russia. A stream of Russian colonization rushed to these lands. In the 80s XVI century the cities of Samara, Saratov, Tsaritsyn, Ufa, Penza, Tambov and others were founded here. Many Tatar khans and nobles were baptized and became part of the elite of the Moscow state. The annexation of the Tatar khanates opened the way to Siberia. A detachment of Cossacks led by Ermak conquered the Siberian Khanate. In 1589 the cities of Tyumen and Tobolsk were founded here. The advance of the Russian people towards the Yenisei, Lena, and the Sea of Okhotsk began. In the West, the Moscow state sought access to the Baltic Sea. During the 16th century. Russia fought about ten wars on its western borders, lasting a total of 50 years. Ivan the Terrible lost the Livonian War and lost the only access to the sea that Novgorod owned. Under Tsar Fyodor Ioannovich, Boris Godunov returned this territory to Russia through diplomatic means. To protect the state from the South, the Moscow government from the middle of the 16th century. began a systematic advance south from the river. Oki to the Wild Field area. The entire territory from Moscow to Crimea was free. Detachments of Tatars rushed along it, attacking Russian settlements. The Tula defensive line was built. These are cities and villages, with forts between them, i.e. a continuous chain of fortifications. Between Moscow and Tula the land is populated by peasants. Then a new defensive line is built - Belgorodskaya. These are the cities of Orel, Kursk, Voronezh, Yelets, Belgorod. And finally, the third line, represented by the cities of Simbirsk, Tambov, Penza, Syzran. As a result, Moscow was protected and new territories were developed. In 1654, according to the Pereyaslav Rada, Ukraine united with Russia. As a result of this voluntary act and subsequent wars with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Left Bank Ukraine and Kiev became part of a single country. In 1656, in response to the proposal of the ambassadors of Moldova, Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich sent the Moldavian ruler George Stefan a letter of consent to accept the conditions for the transition of Moldova to Russian citizenship. In 1657, representatives of the Transcaucasian peoples - Tushins, Khevsurs and Pshavs - sent a letter to Alexei Mikhailovich with a request to accept them into Russian citizenship. THIRD STAGE (XVIII–XIX centuries). During this period, Russia became an empire (1721). For more than 100 years, Russia fought for the Baltic states in order to gain a foothold on the sea shores. After the victorious end of the Northern War, Peter I annexed the Baltic states and Karelia to Russia. In 1724, the Armenian patriarchs Isaiah and Nerses sent a message to Peter the Great with a request to accept the Armenian people under the protection of Russia. By the good will of the peoples living here, the Nogai (from Orenburg to Yuryev) and Kyrgyz lands were annexed to Russia. The resounding victories of Russian troops under Catherine the Great brought great glory to Russia. In 1774, the Kyuchuk-Kainardzhi Peace Treaty was concluded with the Turks, according to which Crimea was declared free, and in 1783 it became Russian. As a result of three partitions of Poland (1772, 1793, 1795), Russia included the lands of central and western Belarus, Right Bank Ukraine without Lvov, most of Lithuania and Courland.

What territories were annexed to Rus' during the reign of Ivan IV the Terrible?

IVAN IV the Terrible, Grand Duke All Rus', the first Russian Tsar
Son of the Grand Duke Vasily III, Ivan Vasilyevich (1530 - 1584) went down in history not only as a tyrant. He was one of the most educated people of his time, had a phenomenal memory and theological erudition. On January 16, 1547, Ivan was solemnly crowned king for the first time in Russian history.
The reforms allowed Ivan IV to lead in the 1550s. and a successful foreign policy. First of all, he struck at the remnants of the Golden Horde.
http://www.kostyor.ru/history/?n=10
http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_IV
In 1550-1551, Ivan the Terrible personally took part in the Kazan campaigns. In 1552 Kazan was conquered
the link is blocked by decision of the project administration
The conquest of Kazan was of enormous importance for folk life.
The Kazan Tatar horde united under its rule a complex foreign world into one strong whole: the Mordovians, Cheremis, Chuvash, Votyaks, Bashkirs.
Before the final subjugation of the Astrakhan Khanate under Ivan IV, two campaigns were carried out:
The campaign of 1556 was associated with the fact that Khan Dervish-Ali switched sides Crimean Khanate and the Ottoman Empire.
As a result of this campaign, the Astrakhan Khanate was subordinated to Muscovite Rus'.
After the conquest of Astrakhan Russian influence began to extend to the Caucasus.
As a result, complete security of the eastern borders was ensured; the most important trade artery of the river. The Volga along its entire length became Russian; the way to Siberia opened.
Beyond the Ural Mountains, on the banks of the Irtysh and Tobol, there was a large Siberian Khanate.
In 1558, Ivan IV granted vast Russian lands beyond the Volga along the banks of the Kama and Chusovaya to wealthy merchants and industrialists the Stroganovs.
In 1574, Ivan the Terrible gave the Stroganovs a charter for lands beyond the Urals.
One day, a detachment of free people - Cossacks, led by Ataman Ermak Timofeevich, came to the Kama.
The Stroganovs suggested that Ermak make a campaign beyond the Urals and conquer the kingdom of Khan Kuchum.
In September 1581, Ermak set out on a campaign.
Under Ivan the Terrible, the Don Cossack Ermak Timofeevich, together with his detachment, managed to annex the vast and rich Siberian lands to Russia.
In October 1582, Ermak’s detachment approached the capital of the Siberian Khanate, Kashlyk.
Ermak's campaign in Siberia had great importance. The defeat of the kingdom of Kuchum opened the way for the resettlement of Russian people beyond Ural Mountains.
Cossacks, peasants, and artisans went to Siberia and built fortresses there - the cities of Tyumen and Tobolsk.
They contributed to the economic and cultural development of the region.
Despite the fact that Ataman Ermak and almost his entire detachment subsequently died in battle, the Russian advance to the east continued successfully.
The annexation of Siberia to Russia was the last joyful event in the life of Ivan the Terrible.

In January 1558, Ivan IV started the Livonian War
Kazan and Astrakhan seem to be
I took Pskov, I took Astrakhan, I didn’t take Shpak...
Formally, these are the Kazan, Astrakhan and Siberian khanates. But here they noted that these territories never even thought of separating from Russia. There have never been any claims or discrimination against the residents of these regions, and there never could have been. And you know why, because in fact there was no such powerful annexation. We can say that parts of the Golden Horde always felt like a single whole. And for example, it was deeply unimportant to them which city within this community the power came from. From Kazan, Astrakhan, Moscow or wherever else. For example, there were no wars for the annexation of Astrakhan. Kazan itself was taken mainly by local residents. The greatest resistance to Moscow's troops was not the Tatars, but the Finno-Ugrians (inhabitants of forests with a weak government structure). The entire essence of the activities of very small military groups of Turks, Slavs and Rus (that is, Normans, Vikings) was aimed at the continuous assimilation of local Finno-Ugrians, various Komi, Chud, Meshchera, Murom, Meri, Mordovians, etc. And we can say that the process is underway quite successfully. Until now, all Finno-Ugric peoples are rapidly becoming part of the Slavs and Turks. Although, for example, in genetic terms, the so-called. Russians and Tatars are 80-90% Finno-Ugric.
But Ivan the Terrible is generally a powerful man.
The Tsar doubled the territory of Russia; the lands annexed by Ivan Vasilyevich became ours forever - in contrast to the acquisitions made by the St. Petersburg empire. On the lands that Ivan the Terrible collected, then for centuries there was a lot of fast growth Russian population, which had no equal in any country of the Old World. Tolerance towards other faiths and cultures, which was " business card"Tsar Ivan IV (and what was so unusual Western Europe), has become the matrix of stability of the Russian state. Even during the Time of Troubles, the recently annexed Volga region did not try to secede from Russia and, moreover, sent fighters to liberate the entire country from invaders and “thieves.” In 1550-51, Ivan the Terrible personally participated in the Kazan campaigns. In 1552 Kazan was conquered, then the Astrakhan Khanate (1556). The victory over the Kazan Khanate was great political significance- the road to the east was open.
After this, the Astrakhan Khanate, Bashkiria, Chuvashia, Udmurtia, Adygea, Kabarda, and later, in the 80s, Western Siberia were annexed.
He took Kazan, he took Astrakhan, he took Rhubarb, he didn’t take Shpak.
With the accession of Ivan the Terrible, an active period of territorial growth of the Moscow state began. The conquest of the Kazan (1552) and Astrakhan (1556) kingdoms gave the entire Volga region into the hands of Russia and opened a direct road to Siberia. Under Ivan the Terrible, the Stroganov merchants colonized the Perm lands, receiving from their father the right to populate the banks of the Kama and Chusovaya, build cities there, have their own army, and conduct duty-free trade. For the war with the Siberian Tsar Kuchum, Semyon Stroganov and his nephews invited Ermak into their service, and from then on the conquest of Siberia began.
On the contrary, the government's efforts to open a road to the west, to the Baltic Sea, end in failure. Russia under Ivan IV in 1583 loses the Finnish coast. In the southeast, the Don, Terek and Ural Cossacks become formally dependent on Moscow; but the actual expansion of territory in this direction, just as in the east, will be achieved only through gradual colonization and subjugation of foreigners.
The reign of Ivan IV was marked not only by territorial acquisitions.
A. Druz will answer this question for us
Siberia, more precisely the northern part of the Siberian Khanate (see Ermak’s campaign). Kazan Astrakhan.. In the Livonian War, an attempt to annex Livonia failed. Despite the defeat Livonian Order. Ivan the Terrible almost sat on the Polish throne and almost married the Queen of England to whom he directly wrote “that she needs a man,” but again it didn’t happen. In the East we are lucky, in the West we are not. Also significant is the advancement of the Russian borders in the Wild Field to the south towards the Crimea, where cities (Eagle for example) and a serif line were created. Kabarda and Adygea became vassals, not conquered territories.
But the main thing is that the Kemsk volost was lost. Historians are still arguing whether this was done with the help of and. O. King Bunshi or without a house manager. 🙂