Military reform of Peter 1 briefly. Administrative reforms of Peter I the Great

The goals of the reforms of Peter I (1682-1725) are the maximum strengthening of the power of the tsar, the growth military power countries, territorial expansion of the power and access to the sea. The most prominent associates of Peter I are A. D. Menshikov, G. I. Golovkin, F. M. Apraksin, P. I. Yaguzhinsky.

Military reform. A regular army was created with the help conscription, new regulations were introduced, a fleet was built, equipment was equipped in a Western manner.

Public administration reform. The Boyar Duma was replaced by the Senate (1711), orders - by collegiums. The “Table of Ranks” was introduced. The decree on succession to the throne allows the king to appoint anyone as heir. The capital was moved to St. Petersburg in 1712. In 1721 Peter accepted the imperial title.

Church reform. The patriarchate was abolished, the church began to be governed by the Holy Synod. The priests were transferred to government salaries.

Changes in the economy. A capitation tax was introduced. Up to 180 manufactories were created. State monopolies were introduced on various goods. Canals and roads are being built.

Social reforms. The Decree on Single Inheritance (1714) equated estates to estates and prohibited their splitting during inheritance. Passports are being introduced for peasants. Serfs and slaves are actually equated.

Reforms in the field of culture. Navigation, Engineering, Medical and other schools, the first public theater, the first Vedomosti newspaper, a museum (Kunstkamera), and the Academy of Sciences were created. Nobles are sent to study abroad. Western dress for nobles, beard shaving, smoking, and assemblies are introduced.

Results. Absolutism is finally taking shape. Russia's military power is growing. The antagonism between the top and bottom is intensifying. Serfdom begins to take on slave forms. The upper class merged into one noble class.

In 1698, the archers, dissatisfied with the worsening conditions of service, rebelled; in 1705-1706. There was an uprising in Astrakhan, on the Don and in the Volga region in 1707-1709. - uprising of K. A. Bulavin, in 1705-1711. - in Bashkiria.

The time of Peter the Great is the most important milestone in Russian history. There is an opinion that the reform program matured long before his reign, but if this is so, then Peter went much further than his predecessors. True, he began the reforms not when he formally became king (1682) and not when he displaced his sister, Queen Sophia, but much later. In 1698, returning from Europe, he began to introduce new rules: from now on everyone had to shave their beards or pay a tax. Was introduced new clothes(according to the European model). Education was reformed - mathematics schools were opened (foreigners taught in them). In Russia, scientific books began to be printed in a new printing house. The army underwent reform, the Streletsky Regiment was disbanded, and the Streltsy were partially expelled to different cities, some of them were transferred to soldiers. Local government bodies were created - the Town Hall in Moscow and Zemsky huts in other cities - then they were transformed into magistrates (they collected taxes and duties). The king decided important matters himself (received ambassadors, issued decrees). The orders continued to exist, as before, their unification continued (in 1711 they were replaced by collegiums). Peter tried to simplify and centralize power as much as possible. The church was reformed, its property went to the monastery order, the income went to the treasury. In 1700, the Northern War began for access to the Baltic. It went with varying degrees of success, it was possible to recapture the lands along the Neva River, the fortress of St. Petersburg, the future capital, was founded here, and another fortress, Krondstadt, was built to protect it in the north. The construction of a fleet in the Baltic was founded - at the mouth of the Neva, and the Admiralty Shipyard was founded. Production was reformed: artisans united into workshops and manufactories were created. Ore mining developed in the Urals. The nobility occupied a special position in society - it owned land and peasants; under Peter its composition changed; it included people from other classes. According to the new rank division - "Table of Ranks", a person who received the 8th rank became a nobleman (14 ranks in total), service was divided into military and civilian. The Boyar Duma was replaced by the Senate (judicial, administrative, managerial and judicial power). Since 1711, a fiscal service appeared (they exercised control over all administrations). A Synod was approved to manage church affairs. Peter divided the country into 8 provinces (power was exercised by the Governor) and 50 provinces. 10/22/1720 - at a meeting of the Senate, Peter I was officially named Emperor, and Russia - an empire. IN last years In his life, Peter changed the rule of inheritance of power, from now on the ruler could himself appoint an heir. Peter died on January 28, 1725 from a long illness.

Peter I and his transformations in the first quarter of the 18th century.

Peter I ascended the throne in 1682 and began to rule independently in 1694. Historians, arguing about the significance of what Peter accomplished, are unanimous in the opinion that his reign was an era in Russian history. His activities cannot be explained only by his passion for European orders and hostility to the old Russian way of life. Of course, the tsar’s personal qualities were reflected in the transformations of the early 18th century: impulsiveness, cruelty, firmness, purposefulness, energy, openness, characteristic of his nature, are also characteristic of his activities. But the reforms had their own objective prerequisites, which by the end of the 17th century. were clearly determined.

Reforms were made possible by processes that gained momentum during the reign of Peter I’s father, Alexei Mikhailovich. In the socio-economic sphere: the beginning of the formation of a single Russian market, the success of foreign trade, the emergence of the first manufactories, elements of protectionism (protecting domestic production from foreign competition). In the sphere of government: the triumph of absolutist tendencies, the cessation of the activities of Zemsky Sobors, the improvement of the system of central authorities and management. In the military sphere: regiments of the “new system”, attempts to change the army recruitment system. In the field foreign policy: military and diplomatic activity in the Black Sea and Baltic directions. In the spiritual sphere: the secularization of culture, the strengthening of European influences, including as a result of Nikon’s church reforms. The noted changes, significant in themselves, nevertheless did not eliminate the main thing - Russia’s lag behind the Western European powers did not decrease. The intolerance of the situation began to be realized, and understanding of the need for reforms became increasingly broader. “We were getting ready to go on the road, but were waiting for someone, waiting for the leader, the leader appeared” (S. M. Solovyov).

The transformations covered all areas of public life - the economy, social relations, the system of power and management, the military sphere, the church, culture and everyday life. Until the mid-1710s. they were carried out without a clear plan, under the pressure of circumstances, mainly military ones. Then the reforms became more holistic.

Radical changes have taken place in industry. The state in every possible way contributed to the growth of manufactories in metallurgy, shipbuilding, textiles, leather, rope, and glass production. The centers of the metallurgical industry were the Urals, Lipetsk, Karelia, shipbuilding - St. Petersburg and Voronezh, textile production - Moscow. For the first time in the history of the country, the state took on the role of an active and active participant economic processes. Large manufacturing enterprises were founded and maintained using treasury funds. Many of them were transferred to private owners on preferential terms. The problem of providing enterprises labor force, extremely acute under the conditions of the dominance of serfdom and the absence of a market for civilian labor, the Petrine state solved it by applying a recipe traditional for the serf economy. It assigned peasants or convicts, tramps, and beggars to manufactories and assigned them to them. A bizarre combination of the new (manufacturing) with the old (serf labor) - characteristic feature Peter's reforms in general. Another instrument of the state’s influence on economic development were measures consistent with the principles of mercantilism (the doctrine according to which money imported into the country should be more money exported from it): establishing high customs duties on goods produced in Russia, encouraging exports, and providing benefits to owners of factories.

Peter I completely changed the system of public administration. The place of the Boyar Duma, which had not played a significant role since 1700, was taken in 1711 by the Governing Senate, which had legislative, administrative and judicial powers. Initially, the Senate consisted of nine people, and later the position of prosecutor general was established. In 1717-1718 orders were liquidated and collegiums were created (at first 10, then their number increased) - Foreign Affairs, Admiralty, Military, Chamber Collegium, Justice Collegium, Manufactory Collegium, etc. Their activities were determined by the General Regulations (1720). Unlike orders, collegiums were built on the principles of collegiality, delimitation of powers, and strict regulation of activities. Bureaucratic mechanisms were introduced into the public administration system (hierarchy, strict subordination, following instructions, reducing the personality of the manager to the level of the function he performs), which took precedence over the ancient principles of localism and gentility. With the adoption of the Table of Ranks (1722), which divided all civil servants - military, civilian and courtiers - into 14 classes and opened up brilliant prospects for people from the lower social classes to advance to the nobility (an official who received the VIII class in civilian service became a hereditary nobleman), bureaucratic the car was completely destroyed. The introduction of nobles to public service was to be facilitated by the “Decree on Single Inheritance” (1714), according to which all lands were inherited by only one of the sons. Reforms of the central government were combined with the introduction of a new territorial division of the country into eight provinces, headed by governors who were subordinate to the monarch and had full powers over the population entrusted to them. Later, the provincial division was supplemented by the division into 50 provinces headed by governors. The spirit and logic of the changes corresponded to the transformation of the church into an element of the state apparatus. In 1721, Peter created the Holy Synod, headed by a secular chief prosecutor, to manage church affairs.

The most important element of the transformation was the introduction of a recruiting system for the army. The recruit was sent for lifelong military service from a certain number of peasants and other tax-paying classes. In 1699-1725 53 recruitments were carried out into the army and navy, which was created by Peter - in total more than 200 thousand people. The regular army was subject to uniform military regulations and instructions.

Maintaining an army, building factories, and an active foreign policy required huge amounts of money. Until 1724, more and more new taxes were introduced: on beards, smoke, baths, honey, stamp paper, etc. In 1724, after the census, the male population of the tax-paying classes was subject to a shower tax. Its size was determined simply: the amount of expenses for maintaining the army and navy was divided by the number of adult men and the required figure was derived.

The transformations are not limited to the above (on culture and life, see ticket No. 10, on foreign policy - ticket No. 11). Their main goals are clear: Peter sought to Europeanize Russia, overcome the lag, create a regular, effective state, and make the country a great power. These goals have been largely achieved. The proclamation of Russia as an empire (1721) can be considered a symbol of success. But behind the brilliant imperial façade, serious contradictions were hidden: reforms were carried out by force, relying on the punitive power of the state apparatus, at the expense of the cruelest exploitation of the population. Absolutism took hold, and its main support was the expanded bureaucratic apparatus. The lack of freedom of all classes has increased - the nobility, subject to the strict tutelage of the state, including. The cultural split of Russian society into a Europeanized elite and a mass of population alien to new values ​​has become a reality. Violence was recognized as the main engine of the country's historical development.

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    In Russia, industry was poorly developed, trade left much to be desired, and the public administration system was outdated. There was no higher education, and only in 1687 the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy opened in Moscow. There was no printing, theaters, painting, many of the boyars and people of the upper class did not know how to read and write.

    Peter 1 conducted social reforms, which greatly changed the situation of nobles, peasants and urban residents. After the transformations, people for military service were recruited not by nobles as militia, but now to serve in regular regiments. The nobles began to begin their service with the same lower military ranks as ordinary people, their privileges were simplified. People who came from the common people had the opportunity to rise to senior officials. Military service was no longer determined by the position of the family, but by a document issued in 1722 “Table of ranks”. He established 14 ranks of military and civilian service.

    All nobles and those serving in the service had to learn literacy, numbers and geometry. Those nobles who refused or were unable to receive this primary education were deprived of the opportunity to marry and receive officer ranks.

    Still, despite the strict reforms, landowners had an important official advantage over ordinary people. Nobles, upon entering the service, were classified as elite guardsmen, and not as ordinary soldiers.

    The previous regime of taxation of peasants has changed, from the past “household” to the new “per capita” where taxes were taken not from the peasant yard, but from each person.

    Peter 1 wanted to make cities like European ones. In 1699 Peter 1 gave cities the opportunity to self-govern. The townspeople elected mayors in their city, who were included in the town hall. Now city residents were divided into permanent and temporary. People who had various occupations began to join guilds and workshops.

    The main goal pursued by Peter 1 during the implementation of social reforms:

    • Improving the economic situation in the country.
    • Declining status of boyars in society.
    • Transformation of the entire social structure of the country as a whole. And bringing society to the European image of culture.

    Table of important social reforms carried out by Peter 1, which influenced the social structure of the state.​

    Before Peter 1, regular regiments already existed in large numbers in Russia. But they were recruited for the duration of the war, and after its end the regiment was disbanded. Before the reforms of Peter 1, the military personnel of these regiments combined service with crafts, trade and work. The soldiers lived with their families.

    As a result of the reforms, the role of the regiments increased, and the noble militias completely disappeared. A standing army appeared, which did not disband after the end of the war. The lower ranks of soldiers were not recruited as into the militia, they were recruited from the people. The soldiers stopped doing anything other than military service. Before the reforms, the Cossacks were a free ally of the state and served under a contract. But after the Bulavinsky rebellion, the Cossacks were obliged to organize a clearly defined number of troops.

    An important achievement of Peter 1 was the creation of a strong fleet, which consisted of 48 ships, 800 galleys. The total crew of the fleet was 28 thousand people.

    All military reforms for the most part were aimed at increasing the military power of the state, for this it was necessary:

    • Create a full-fledged army institute.
    • Deprive the boyars of the right to form a militia.
    • To bring about a change in the army system, where senior officer ranks were given for faithful and long service, and not for pedigree.

    Table of important military reforms carried out by Peter 1:

    1683 1685 A recruitment of soldiers was carried out, from which the first guards regiment was later created.
    1694 Engineering campaigns of Russian troops, organized by Peter, were carried out. It was an exercise whose purpose was to show the advantages of the new army system.
    1697 A decree was issued on the construction of 50 ships for the Azov campaign. The birth of the navy.
    1698 The order was given to destroy the archers of the third riot.
    1699 Recruiting divisions were created.
    1703 In the Baltic Sea, by order, 6 frigates were created. It is rightfully considered the first squadron.
    1708 After the suppression of the uprising, a new order of service was introduced for the Cossacks. During which they were obliged to obey Russian legislation.
    1712 In the provinces, a list was made of the maintenance of the regiments.
    1715 A standard was established for the conscription of new recruits.

    Government reforms

    During the reforms of Peter 1, the boyar duma lost its status as an influential authority. Peter discussed all matters with a narrow circle of people. An important reform of government was carried out in 1711, creation of the highest government body - the government Senate. Representatives of the Senate were appointed personally by the sovereign, but were not given the right to power because of their noble bloodlines. At first, the Senate had the status of a regulatory institution that did not work on creating laws. The work of the Senate was supervised by the prosecutor, who was appointed by the tsar.

    All old orders were replaced during the reform of 1718 according to the Swedish model. It consisted of 12 boards that conducted affairs in the maritime, military, foreign fields, accounting for expenses and income, financial control, trade and industry.

    Another reform of Peter 1 was the division of Russia into provinces, which were divided into provinces, and then into counties. The governor was appointed at the head of the province, and the governor became the head of the provinces.

    An important reform of government, Peter 1 carried out on the succession to the throne in 1722. The old order of succession to the throne of the state was abolished. Now the sovereign himself chose the heir to the throne.

    Table of reforms of Peter 1 in the field of government:

    1699 A reform was carried out during which cities received self-government headed by the city mayor.
    1703 The city of St. Petersburg was founded.
    1708 Russia, by decree of Peter, was divided into provinces.
    1711 Creation of the Senate, a new administrative body.
    1713 The creation of noble councils, which were represented by city governors.
    1714 The decision to move the capital to St. Petersburg was approved
    1718 Creation of 12 boards
    1719 According to the reform, from this year, the provinces began to include provinces and counties.
    1720 A number of reforms have been carried out to improve the apparatus of state self-government.
    1722 The old order of succession to the throne has been abolished. Now the sovereign himself appointed his successor.

    Economic reforms in brief

    Peter 1 at one time carried out great economic reforms. By his decree, a large number of factories were built with state money. He tried to develop industry, the state in every possible way encouraged private entrepreneurs who built plants and factories with large benefits. By the end of Peter's reign, there were more than 230 factories in Russia.

    Peter's policy was aimed at introducing high duties on the import of foreign goods, which created competitiveness for domestic producers. The economy was regulated by establishing trade routes, canals and new roads were built. Exploration of new mineral deposits was carried out in every possible way. The strongest economic boost was the development of minerals in the Urals.

    The Northern War prompted Peter to introduce numerous taxes: a tax on baths, taxes on beards, a tax on oak coffins. At that time, lighter coins were minted. Thanks to these introductions, a large infusion of funds into the country's treasury was achieved.

    By the end of Peter's reign, serious development had been achieved tax system. The household tax system was replaced with a per capita tax system. Which subsequently led to strong social and economic changes in the country.

    Economic reform table:

    Reforms of Peter 1 in the field of science and culture briefly

    Peter 1 wanted to create in Russia the European style of culture of that time. Returning from a trip abroad, Peter began to introduce Western-style clothing into the boyars’ use, forcibly forced the boyars to shave their beards, there were cases when, in a fit of rage, Peter himself chopped off the beards of people of the upper class. Peter 1 tried to spread useful technical knowledge in Russia to a greater extent than the humanities. Peter's cultural reforms were aimed at creating schools where foreign languages, mathematics, and engineering were taught. Western literature was translated into Russian and made available in schools.

    Great importance the education of the population was influenced by the reform of replacing the alphabet from a church to a secular model. The first newspaper was published, which was called Moskovskie Vedomosti.

    Peter 1 tried to introduce European customs into Russia. Public celebrations were held with a European twist.

    Table of Peter's reforms in the field of science and culture:

    Church reforms briefly

    Under Peter 1, the church, having previously been independent, became dependent on the state. In 1700, Patriarch Adrian died, and the state prohibited the election of a new one until 1917. Instead of the patriarch, the service of guardian of the throne of the patriarch was appointed, which became Metropolitan Stefan.

    Before 1721 there was no concrete solutions on the issue of the church. But already in 1721, a reform of church governance was carried out, during which it was certain that the position of the patriarch in the church was abolished and was replaced by a new assembly called the Holy Synod. The members of the Synod were not elected by anyone, but were personally appointed by the tsar. Now, at the legislative level, the church has become completely dependent on the state.

    The main direction in the church reforms carried out by Peter 1 was:

    • Relaxation of the power of the clergy for the population.
    • Create control by the state over the church.

    Table of church reforms:

    Before Peter I, the clergy was free from basic state taxes and military duties. Already with Azov campaigns 1695–1696 Peter's clergy were involved in the construction of the fleet. To replenish the state treasury, valuables began to be confiscated from the monastery storehouses. Peter, trying to attract the entire population to the service of the state, significantly increased fees from the clergy: they not only paid taxes on all real estate (lands, baths, mills, etc.), but began to pay special “dragoon money” (for the maintenance of horse-drawn dragoon regiments ); A tax was introduced on the maintenance of the army clergy. The clergy began to be involved in various construction work, guard duty, and were entrusted with providing quarters for military units. The re-establishment of the Monastic Prikaz on January 24, 1701, to which the bishops' and monastic estates were transferred for management, especially undermined the economic well-being of the church.

    Since Peter I, the clergy began to be used by the state to replenish the army of bureaucrats. The practice included “debriefings” of the clergy, as a result of which “placeless priests” fit for military service, were handed over as soldiers. Graduates of theological schools and seminaries, due to the lack of places for them as priests and clergy, supplied a significant contingent of officials for the civil service.

    Since 1701, the functions and prerogatives of the church court were significantly limited. Previously, they were very broad, when in civil and criminal cases (“except for robbery, Tatin and bloody cases”) the church court had jurisdiction over everything: the clergy, the church clergy and people dependent on the clergy. This jurisdiction of the Church over a very wide range of matters extended to the entire population of the state. The so-called “spiritual cases” included not only cases of crimes against the Church, but also entire areas of civil and partly criminal law: cases of marriage and family, inheritance, etc. .

    The question of limiting the powers of the church court was raised by the secular authorities in 1700. Patriarch Adrian was still alive then. At his command, the “Articles on Hierarchical Courts” were compiled, containing the canonical justification for the judicial privileges of the Russian Church. This was the last attempt to defend the integrity of the church court. After the death of Adrian on October 16, 1701, a number of cases were removed from the jurisdiction of the church court: marriage, divorce, forced marriages, rights of legal birth, adultery, violence against women, etc. Blasphemy, heresy, schism, etc. remained under the jurisdiction of the church court. magic and superstition, but in fact the church authorities conducted only a preliminary investigation into these cases (“exposed”, i.e. established the guilt of the criminal), and final decision came under the jurisdiction of the secular court. In connection with the restoration of the Monastic Prikaz in 1701, the trial of peasants who belonged to the Church came under its jurisdiction, along with the management of church property.

    At the same time, Peter I obliged the clergy to perform some administrative and, to a certain extent, political functions. The parish clergy was entrusted with the responsibility of announcing all government laws to parishioners during Sunday services. The parish clergy was obliged to keep registers of baptisms, weddings, and burials of the population of their parish, and during population censuses (audits) to report those who evaded entry into the audit “lists,” to identify schismatics and monitor them.

    It was considered a political crime for parish priests to miss at least one of the “time services” - divine services on the namesake days of the Tsar and all members royal family, coronations and royal victories. An oath of allegiance to the emperor was introduced by the clergy. Before this, the priest swore an oath to follow only church statutes and “not to interfere” (not to interfere) in worldly affairs. The decree of April 22, 1722 required that everyone, upon entering into a spiritual position, take an oath “to be a faithful, kind and obedient slave and subject of the emperor and his legitimate heirs,” to defend the prerogatives and dignity of imperial power, “without sparing the stomach if necessary.” one’s own”, report any damage, harm and loss to the interests of the emperor, “about theft, treason and rebellion against the sovereign discovered in confession or other evil intentions against the honor and health of the sovereign and the surname of His Majesty. In other words, the secular authorities demanded that the Orthodox priest violate the basic canonical rule - maintaining the secrecy of confession. The same decree stipulated that all secret matters that the priest would be entrusted with from the authorities should be “kept in complete secret and not announced to anyone.”

    In the “Addition” to the “Spiritual Regulations,” this was again recalled, with reference to Holy Scripture: “With this announcement (reporting to the authorities about what was said in confession. - V.F.) confession is not discredited, and the confessor does not violate rules of the Gospel, but also fulfills the teaching of Christ: “Rebuke your brother, if he does not listen, command the church.” When the Lord already commands about a brotherly sin, then how much more about the malicious intent against the sovereign” (see Appendix 3.2).

    Peter I issued decrees regulating religious activities, which should be qualified as an invasion of secular power into the canonical sphere of activity of the church. The law prescribes mandatory annual confession for parishioners (decree of 1718), which must be recorded in the “confessional books.” The priests had to strictly take into account the “non-existents” (those who had not been to confession) and report them not only to the church, but also to the secular authorities. This measure provided for the identification of “schismatics” who evaded confession. Anyone who stubbornly did not go to confession was recognized as a “schismatic.” Those who missed confession the first time were charged a fine of 5 kopecks, the second time the fine was doubled, and the third time it was tripled. It is customary to submit reports to the civil authorities about those who have attended confession “incorrectly”, and to “carry out punishments” based on these reports. Special decrees also required priests to ensure that parishioners “go to church for Vespers and Matins,” are not distracted during the service by “extraneous matters,” listen to the service “in silence and with reverence,” and that there is no “disorderly standing in the church.” .

    The persecution of schism by church and state had its own characteristics. took a strict approach to deviations from Orthodoxy (involvement in heresy and schism), considering them the most important crimes (“more dangerous than murder, for it is not the body, but the soul that is stolen”), i.e. from the point of view of state "harm". The political aspect came to the fore here: the greatest danger was posed by those schismatics and heretics who did not recognize not only the Orthodox Church, but also the “Antichrist” state power, i.e. the reigning emperor was seen as the “Antichrist.” They were caught, subjected to cruel punishments and sent to monastery prisons “for correction” or to hard labor. Those who recognized official authority were treated more leniently. In 1716 they were subject to double capitation, were required to wear a special dress, and were prohibited from holding any administrative positions.

    According to the decree of 1702, freedom of religion was granted to all foreigners living in Russia. But freedom of religion for foreigners did not mean recognition of the equality of faiths. Propaganda of their faith by foreigners in Russia was strictly prohibited. Seduction of Orthodox Christians into another faith was punishable, but conversion to Orthodoxy was encouraged in every possible way. It was forbidden for a non-Orthodox foreigner to be buried in Orthodox cemeteries.

    The most important act in the confessional policy of Peter I was the subordination of the church in political and administrative terms, which was expressed in the abolition of the institution of the patriarchate and the establishment in its place of the highest secular collegial body for church affairs - the Holy Synod. This act marked the beginning of a new, synodal period in the history of the Russian Orthodox Church.

    During the execution of the rebellious archers in 1698, Patriarch Adrian, by virtue of his duty and custom, dared to “sorrow” the tsar for the condemned, but this attempt was angrily rejected by Peter I. After Adrian’s death on October 16, 1700, Peter I, on the advice of his close associates decided to “hold off” on the election of a new patriarch. Instead of the patriarch, Metropolitan Stefan Yavorsky of Ryazan and Kolomna was appointed “exarch, guardian and administrator of the patriarchal throne.” He held this position for about 20 years - until the establishment of the Theological College, of which he was the first and last president.

    Peter I was suspicious of the Russian clergy, seeing in them an opposing force to his reforms. He had good reasons for this. Indeed, the majority of hierarchs of the Russian Orthodox Church did not support Peter’s reforms, so Peter found supporters not among the churchmen of Russia, but in Ukraine, mainly among the students of the Kiev-Mohyla Theological Academy.

    In 1700, Peter I issued a decree calling on Little Russian clergy who took leadership positions in the Russian Church. Among them were such prominent figures of the Russian Orthodox Church of the early 18th century as professor of the Kiev-Mohyla Theological Academy Stefan Yavorsky, immediately appointed Metropolitan of Ryazan and Kolomna, Dmitry Tuptalo, appointed in 1702 Metropolitan of Rostov, Filofei Leshchinsky - Siberian Metropolitan, Theodosius Yanovsky (from 1712, Archimandrite of the Alexander Nevsky Monastery in St. Petersburg) and the famous church leader and writer, rector of the Kiev-Mohyla Theological Academy (from 1718, Bishop of Pskov) Feofan Prokopovich, who became the closest associate of Peter I, a prominent ideologist of Peter’s church reforms .

    According to the calculations of K.V. Kharlampovich, out of 127 bishops who occupied in 1700–1762. Russian bishops' sees, there were 70 Ukrainians and Belarusians. As noted by V.S. Shulgin, “the matter was not limited to the fact that Ukrainians occupied the majority of bishops’ sees. They became abbots of the most important monasteries and some cathedrals in Moscow and St. Petersburg; the staff of the court clergy was mainly formed from them; they made up the majority in the military, naval, and embassy clergy, and occupied prominent places in the diocesan administration. Finally, the entire system was in their hands spiritual education, since the teaching staff of theological schools, including the Moscow Slavic-Greco-Latin Academy, was formed mainly from “scholars of Kiev”.

    The Russian clergy was pushed into the background, which increased their hostility towards the newcomers, whom they saw as “heretics” and “Latins”. The Ukrainian clergy boasted of their learning and arrogantly treated the “ignorant” Russians. The “newcomers” did not cling to “ancient piety”, native Russian customs, they even neglected them and willingly supported Peter’s church reforms. They actively supported Peter's other political actions. However, as noted by V.S. Shulgin in the study we have already cited, the “newcomers” were so firmly entrenched that they themselves even became zealous adherents of the Old Russian church tradition, and some of them were no different in this from the Russian clergy and conservative secular figures, and even became in opposition to Peter’s reforms. The leader of this opposition was the locum tenens of the patriarchal throne, Stefan Yavorsky, who, as the church reform deepened, became more and more at odds with Peter, making sharp attacks against his actions in relation to the church. He opposed economic measures against the church, did not approve of the tsar’s divorce from his first wife and his second marriage while his wife was alive, and unequivocally declared Alexei Petrovich as the legal heir to the throne. Stefan Yavorsky saw Peter's church reform "taken from the Protestant model." In his treatise “The Stone of Faith” (1718), Stefan Yavorsky sharply spoke out against the subordination of the church to the state and pursued the theory of “two powers” ​​(“Caesar’s to Caesar, and God’s to God,” i.e. the sphere of activity of spiritual and secular authorities should be clearly defined: the king - civil affairs, the shepherd - spiritual). Peter I banned the publication of this treatise (it was published in 1728).

    In 1718, Peter I instructed Feofan Prokopovich to prepare a project for a collegial governing body of the Russian Orthodox Church, modeled on the civil colleges established at that time. In February 1720, the project was ready, corrected by Peter and submitted for discussion to the Senate, to the meeting of which 7 bishops and 6 archimandrites were invited. In the Senate, without any changes, the project was approved and signed by everyone, then its texts were sent to Moscow, Kazan and Vologda, where the rest of the bishops and abbots of the most important monasteries were supposed to arrive to sign it - for Peter it was important to obtain the written consent of all the highest clergy of the church . This procedure dragged on for almost a year. On January 25, 1721, by decree of Peter I, the Regulations were approved and in the same year published under the title “Spiritual Regulations of the Most Eminent, Most Sovereign Sovereign Peter the Great, Emperor and Autocrat of All Russia.”

    The Spiritual Regulations consists of three parts: the first defines the new structure of church government (the Spiritual Collegium), the second defines the terms of reference and functions of the Spiritual Collegium, the third lists in detail the responsibilities of bishops and parish priests, the establishment of a system of spiritual educational institutions(See Appendix 3.1).

    The Regulations prove the legality and necessity of introducing a collegial supreme governing body of the church instead of a single one (patriarchal). The following arguments are put forward: collegial management, in comparison with individual management, can resolve matters more quickly and impartially, “what one does not comprehend, another will comprehend,” moreover, the collegium “has the freest spirit in itself” and is not afraid of strong people, and as a conciliar institution has more authority.

    In addition, from collegial government one can “not fear the fatherland from rebellions and embarrassment, which arise from its own single spiritual ruler, for the common people do not know the difference between spiritual power and autocratic power; but amazed by the great honor and glory of the highest shepherd, he thinks that such a ruler is a second sovereign, equivalent to the autocrat, or greater.” As proof, the Regulations point to Byzantine history, the history of the papacy, and similar “we also have past attempts.”

    However, as the historian of the Russian Church I.K. correctly noted. Smolich, “the main meaning of the “Regulations” lies not so much in the abolition of the patriarchate, but in the revolutionary restructuring of relations between the state and the church.” And this “perestroika,” we add, was expressed in the fact that the new church administration (like itself) was placed in strict subordination to the supreme secular power - the emperor, who in the Regulations is called “the ultimate Judge of orthodoxy and the guardian of all deanery in the Holy Church.” In other words, the emperor was declared the head of the Russian Orthodox Church, and the Spiritual Collegium established by him was the instrument of his management of church affairs, being in the position of the civil colleges created at the same time. The appointment of persons to the Theological College, as well as their dismissal, was carried out by royal command. All of them, upon taking office, were required to take an oath on the cross and the Gospel in the prescribed form: “I swear again by Almighty God that I want and owe it to my natural and true king and sovereign Peter the Great, the All-Russian autocrat, and so on and so forth and so on.. . and to Her Majesty Empress Ekaterina Alekseevna to be a faithful, kind and obedient slave and subject.” The Spiritual Regulations completed the measures aimed at eliminating the independence of the Russian Orthodox Church, i.e. completely subordinated it to secular power.

    In May 1722, an “Addition” to the Spiritual Regulations was published, called “Addition on the Rules of the Church Clergy and the Monastic Order.” It defined in detail the conditions and procedure for entering the priesthood, the duties of a priest in relation to parishioners, spiritual superiors and secular authorities, the procedure for entering monasticism, and the rules of monastic life (see Appendix).

    The Theological College was established on January 1, 1721 and was inaugurated on February 14 of the same year. Soon it received the name of the Holy Governing Synod. According to the Spiritual Regulations, the composition of the Synod was determined to be 12 “government persons”. But by a personal decree on January 25, 1721, instead of 12, 11 persons were appointed: one president (Stephan Yavorsky), two vice-presidents (Theodosius Yanovsky and Feofan Prokopovich), 4 advisers and 4 assessors from representatives of the monastic and white clergy. After the death of Stefan Jaworski in 1722, Peter did not appoint a new president, and this position was abolished. The main figure in the Synod was Feofan Prokopovich. Soon after the establishment of the Synod, the tsar ordered that “for the Synod, select from among the officers kind person“Who would have the courage and could know the management of the Synod’s affairs and be its chief prosecutor and give him instructions, applying to the instructions of the Prosecutor General of the Senate.”

    Colonel I.V. was appointed the first chief prosecutor. Boltin The instructions drawn up for him said: “The Chief Prosecutor is obliged to sit in the Synod and watch closely, so that the Synod maintains its position in all matters that are subject to Synod consideration and decision, truly, zealously and decently, without wasting time, according to the regulations and he ruled by decrees... that he was obliged to write everything down in his journal, and also to strictly see that in the Synod not only things were done on the table, but that the decrees were carried out by the action itself. He must also firmly see to it that the Synod, in its rank, acts righteously and unhypocritically. And if he sees the opposite of this, then at the same time he is obliged to propose to the Synod openly, with a full explanation, in what they or some of them are not doing as they should, so that they can be corrected. And if they don’t listen, then he must protest at that hour, stop this matter, and immediately report it to Us.” As can be seen from here, the power of the chief prosecutor at first was predominantly supervisory in nature. In the same instructions he is referred to as “the eye of the Sovereign and solicitor in state affairs.” Gradually his power expanded more and more: in the 19th century. he becomes in position and importance on a par with ministers (as will be discussed below).

    In 1723, the Holy Synod was approved by the Eastern Patriarchs (Constantinople, Antioch, Alexandria and Jerusalem), who recognized him with all patriarchal rights and called him their “brother in Christ.”

    Thus, as a result of the church reforms of Peter I, the Russian Orthodox Church actually found itself in complete subordination to secular authorities, and the established administration became part of the state apparatus. The clergy turned into a kind of service class in the spiritual department. The Church was no longer recognized as having any initiative even in its own affairs, which had grave consequences for it. N.M. frankly wrote about this in 1811 to Alexander I. Karamzin: “Peter declared himself the head of the church, destroying the patriarchate as dangerous for an unlimited autocracy... Since the time of the Petrovs, the clergy in Russia has fallen. Our high priests were already only saints of the kings and in the pulpit, in biblical language, they uttered words of praise to them... The main duty of the clergy is to teach the people virtue, and for these instructions to be all the more valid, it is necessary to respect it.” Karamzin emphasized that “if the church submits to worldly power and loses its sacred character, zeal for it weakens, and with it faith.”

    2. Confessional policy under the successors of Peter I (1725–1762)

    “Neither before nor after Anna did the Russian government treat the clergy with such mistrust and such senseless cruelty.” Archimandrite Dmitry Sechenov said later (in 1742) that the clergy “were so intimidated that even the very shepherds, the very preachers of the word of God, were silent and did not dare to open their lips about piety.”

    Changes were also made in the top management, pursuing the goal of even greater subordination to secular power. Instead of the abolished Supreme Privy Council, the Cabinet of Ministers was established, and the Synod was placed under its subordination, in which Feofan Prokopovich was in charge of all affairs. Historian of the Russian Church A.V. Kartashev notes: “The Synod was terrorized through him, and in the stream of cases that took on the character of a political investigation, he often ran ahead and recommended harsh measures before government bodies. The spirit of the dictatorship of the cabinet ministers made the management of the church dependent not only on state institutions, but also directly on the persons of the dictators, who were then called temporary workers.”

    The reign of Anna Ioannovna was especially difficult for monasteries and monasticism. On October 25, 1730, she issued a decree on strict adherence to the ban on monasteries acquiring land under any form (purchases, donations, bequests). The land they acquired in violation of this decree was taken away. By decree of February 11, 1731, this ban was extended to Little Russian monasteries. The census of monasteries and monastics, carried out in 1732, revealed many who were tonsured as monks, contrary to the rules established by Peter 1 (only widowed clergy and retired soldiers were allowed to tonsure). The decree of 1734 required strict implementation of these rules. A fine of 500 rubles was imposed on the diocesan bishop. The abbot of the monastery, who allowed an “illegal” tonsure, was condemned to lifelong exile, and the one who took the tonsure was “cut off the tonsure” and subjected to corporal punishment. Vigilant surveillance was established over the “inhabitants” of the monasteries. The abbots and abbess of the monasteries were often summoned to St. Petersburg to the Secret Chancellery, where they were interrogated about the behavior of the monastics. Monasticism, like the white clergy, was also subjected to devastating “analysis” carried out by the Secret Chancellery. Young monks were recruited as soldiers, able-bodied ones were sent to forced labor in the Urals and Siberia, the rest, “illegally” tonsured, were deprived of their monastic rank and expelled from monasteries. During the “debriefings,” monastery abbots were also brought to justice for “illegal” tonsure as monks.

    Under Anna Ioannovna, the fight against the “schism” intensified. However, the "schism" continued to spread. From government repressions, Old Believers took refuge in the forests and fled to Siberia, where they committed self-immolation as a sign of protest and as the surest way to “save their souls.” The most terrible “burnings” (self-immolations) took place in the Ural and Siberian forests in the 20-30s of the 18th century. Military teams were sent to catch the “schismatics.”

    The accession to the throne of Elizabeth Petrovna was greeted by the clergy with jubilation and great hopes, which were soon justified. On December 15, 1740, three weeks after ascending the throne, Elizabeth issued a decree on a broad amnesty for political and church leaders who suffered during the reign of Anna Ioannovna. Innocently injured hierarchs, abbots of monasteries and church parishes were released from prison casemates and returned from Siberian exile. Their titles and positions were returned to them. As the famous historian of the Russian Church A.V. wrote. Kartashev: “No class, no sector of the state machine has experienced liberation from the nightmare of Bironovism with such triumph and enthusiasm as the Orthodox clergy.” From church pulpits, Elizaveta Petrovna was glorified as “the savior from the yoke of foreigners,” as “the restorer of Orthodoxy.” Elizaveta Petrovna declared herself as a “defender of Orthodoxy.” While still a princess, she demonstratively showed her piety and love for the clergy, for spiritual sermons, and for the splendor of church rituals. She remained as such on the throne - she went on pilgrimages, especially to her beloved Trinity-Sergius Monastery, which in 1744, at her command, was renamed the Lavra, observed all fasts, and made rich donations to monasteries and churches.

    In 1742, a decree was issued according to which the trial of clergy was granted to the Synod in political cases. The Synod itself, previously subordinate to the Supreme Council and then to the Cabinet of Ministers, was restored to its former dignity with the title of "Governing".

    Hopes were revived for the restoration of the former influence of the church. Among church leaders there were speeches about the active role of the church in government affairs. Members of the Synod - Bishop of Novgorod Ambrose Yushkevich and Bishop of Rostov Arseny Matseevich submitted a report to the Empress (“The Most Submissive Proposal”), which proposed restoring the patriarchate or, in extreme cases, “in accordance with canonical requirements” restoring the post of president and not allowing secular persons to govern church affairs. However, Elizaveta Petrovna, who announced that she would comply with all the laws of Peter, did not agree to such changes. But she agreed to transfer the management of church estates from the jurisdiction of the College of Economy to the jurisdiction of the Synod.

    Elizaveta Petrovna special meaning gave the composition and activities of the Holy Synod, which was replenished with new faces, almost exclusively bishops (8 people in total), among them such prominent church figures as Archbishop Dmitry (Sechenov) of Novgorod, who took a leading position in the Synod, Archbishop Benjamin of St. Petersburg ( Grigorovich), Pskov Bishop Gideon (Krinovsky), who had a brilliant preaching gift, and the energetic Rostov Archbishop Arseny (Matseevich). Prince Ya.P. was appointed Chief Prosecutor of the Synod. Shakhovskoy is an enlightened man, “a strong zealot for state interest and all legality.” He selected experienced and competent officials for the Synod office and quickly put things in order in the Synod. Elizaveta Petrovna was constantly interested in the work of the Synod, demanding weekly reports from the chief prosecutor.

    At the end of the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna, the issue of managing church estates became acute. The Synodal Office of the Economic Board, where management of these estates was transferred in 1744, did not increase their profitability. To resolve the issue of church estates, Elizaveta Petrovna in 1757 established a Conference of members of the Synod and secular persons. According to the report of the Conference on September 30, 1757, on measures “to liberate monastics from worldly cares and to give them freedom from difficulties in obtaining patrimonial income,” a decree followed, which provided that bishops’ and monastic estates should be managed not by “monastic servants,” but by “retired officers"; transfer all duties of the monastery peasants to rent; so that nothing from the income is used for expenses in excess of the state and the rest is kept separately and is not spent on anything without a personal decree of Her Majesty, so that, knowing the size of the remainder, Her Majesty can distribute for the construction of monasteries.” However, on the advice of influential clergy, the Empress refused to implement this decree, and the management of the monastery estates was again transferred to the jurisdiction of the Synod.

    Researchers consider this measure of Elizaveta Petrovna as the “first step” towards the secularization of church estates.

    The first attempt to secularize church estates was made during the short reign of Peter III. The decree issued on March 21, 1762 announced the confiscation of lands and peasants from monasteries and bishops' houses and their transfer to the treasury. However, this decree had no real force. He reached the site only in the summer of 1762, when the emperor had already been overthrown from the throne.

    3. Confessional policy of Catherine II and Paul I

    On June 28, 1762, as a result of a coup d'etat, power passed to Catherine II, who declared the decree of Peter III on March 21, 1762 a “sacrilegious encroachment” on church estates, “an useless institution that was carried out without any order or consideration.” The Empress assured clergy that she had “no intention or desire to appropriate church lands for herself.” On August 12, 1762, she signed a decree returning all estates to the clergy. But it was a tactical move. In an effort to reassure the clergy, Catherine II acted cautiously and cautiously, preparing a large-scale program of secularization of church estates.

    On November 27, 1762, by decree of the Empress, the Commission on Spiritual Estates was formed, equal in importance to a collegium, chaired by the actual Privy Councilor G.N. Teplov, consisting of the Chief Prosecutor of the Holy Synod A.S. Kozlovsky, the three highest hierarchs of the Church and the three most influential nobles from clergy and secular persons. On November 29, 1762, a special instruction followed, which determined its competence and procedure; The instruction obliged the Commission to draw up an inventory of the monastic synodal, church and bishop's land property, and to record peasant duties. The commission drew up a basic bill on this matter, explaining the provisions and other regulations that formed the basis for the reform of church land ownership.

    The year 1762 was marked by an unprecedented scale of unrest among the monastery peasants. The reason for the unrest was the cancellation by Catherine II of the decree of Peter III on the confiscation of monastery lands and peasants for the treasury. Military teams were sent to quell the unrest. In August 1762 - July 1763. decrees were issued to take measures to stop the unrest of the monastery peasants. Among these measures was a slight reduction in the duties of peasants.

    The direct implementation of the secularization of church estates was entrusted to the College of Economy, recreated on May 12, 1763, acting in accordance with special instructions dated June 6, 1763. 77 chief officers were sent to the field, who compiled detailed descriptions of the monastic estates.

    On February 26, 1764, a decree was issued on the secularization of church properties - mostly in the Great Russian dioceses. All the estates of the Synod, episcopal sees and monasteries went to the treasury and were transferred to the management of the College of Economy. The number of monasteries was reduced threefold, henceforth divided into regular ones (taken for maintenance by the state) and supernumerary ones, which were to exist on their own “dependence.” By decree of April 10, 1786, the secularization of monastic estates was carried out in the Kyiv, Chernigov and Novgorod-Severskaya, and by the decree of April 26, 1788 - in the Yekaterinoslav, Kursk and Voronezh dioceses. (On the secularization of monastic estates, see Chapter 3. “Monasteries and Monasticism.”)

    The secularization of church lands deprived the church opposition of its material base. The latest outbreak of church opposition was the speech in defense of the old (pre-synodal) order (especially against the secularization of church property) by Metropolitan Arseny Matseevich of Rostov and Yaroslavl.

    Metropolitan Arseny was a bright and gifted personality in the Russian church hierarchy. He did not tolerate the intrusion of secular authorities into church affairs. Matseevich repeatedly sent “denunciations” to the Synod against the government’s policy towards the Orthodox Church. His last “report,” dated March 10, 1763, was directed against the intrusion of representatives of secular power into the economic affairs of his diocese. And back in February 1763, in the Rostov Cathedral, Matseevich performed the rite of “excommunication” against “those rebelling against the Church of God,” against their “advisers,” as well as against those who encroached on church estates (meaning their upcoming secularization).

    For his speeches, Matseevich was summoned to trial at the Synod. He was defrocked and exiled to the Nikolo-Korelsky Monastery. But he continued his protests and found sympathizers among northern monasticism. In 1767, based on a denunciation, he was tried a second time. The sentence passed on Matseevich in accordance with the decree of Catherine II read: “1) Deprive of the monastic title; perform the rite of cutting the hair in the provincial (Arkhangelsk - V.F.) office itself; 2) dress him in peasant clothes and rename him Andrey Vral; 3) exile to eternal and hopeless detention in Revel under vigilant supervision; 4) do not give him paper, ink and even birch bark (!); 5) do not allow anyone to approach him under any circumstances. And, in a word, keep him in such a way that the guards, not only about his condition, but also about this vile name of his, do not know.” The guard soldiers were ordered to be taken from the local garrison, most of whom did not know the Russian language. Arseny Matseevich died in a casemate on February 28, 1772. The reprisal against him made a terrifying impression on the Russian hierarchs.

    In Siberia, an investigation was conducted against Metropolitan Pavel of Tobolsk and Siberia (Kanyushkevich), who was seen as an “enemy” of the secularization of church estates. The case was based on suspicions that were not justified. He was also subjected to severe repression and was eventually deprived of his chair and sent to “retire” to the Kiev Pechersk Lavra.

    In connection with secularization, some previous payments in favor of bishops' houses were withdrawn from parishes. According to A.V. Kartashev, Ekaterina “conducted reconnaissance about other bishops who met secularization with hostility.”

    Such were the harsh measures of the enlightened monarch towards hierarchs who opposed her will. The credo of Catherine II, expressed by her back in 1761: “Respect faith, but not allow it to influence state affairs.” Upon her accession to the throne, in a speech to the Synod, she directly and bluntly stated that bishops are not only altar servers and spiritual mentors, but first of all “state officials,” her “most faithful subjects,” for whom “the power of the monarch is higher than the laws of the Gospel.”

    Measures were taken to improve the position of the parish clergy. Decrees of 1764–1765 All “salary fees” that the parish clergy were obliged to pay to the bishop were cancelled, and burdensome taxes for supply and transfers from office were canceled or fixed with rigid tariffs. From now on, the episcopate transferred to state support from the income of secularized church estates; the “bishop's tax” was a thing of the past. Bishops were prohibited from defrocking clergy without the permission of the Synod and from using corporal punishment (decrees of 1765–1766). The nature of the bishop's court also changed: instead of frightening and public punishment, violence that humiliated the dignity of a clergyman, correctional, “cell-based” punishments came into practice for reasons of supporting the authority of clergy. But “the traditional spirit of power still reigned in the bishop’s houses.” Along with this, in 1784, a new “review” of the clergy followed: again it was ordered (as in the previous “reviews”) that “placeless” clergy and clergy were assigned to the tax-paying estates, and those “fit” (for military service) were to be recruited .

    A decree issued in 1773 proclaimed to the Synod the principle of religious tolerance. “As the Almighty tolerates all faiths on earth,” the decree said, “Her Majesty, from the same rules, similar to His holy will, deigns to act in this, wanting only that love and harmony always reign among her subjects.” Muslims received the freedom to build mosques and their own theological schools, and the mullahs were even assigned maintenance from the treasury, as well as Buddhist lamas. (Edicts of 1788 and 1794)

    At the beginning of his reign, Paul I introduced a number of benefits for the clergy. Upon his accession to the throne on December 6, 1796, Paul 1, at the request of the Holy Synod, by his first decree exempted clergy from corporal punishment for criminal offenses in civil courts until the moment of defrocking, since the punishment “inflicted in view of those very parishioners, who received saving secrets from them, disposes them to despise the sacred dignity.” On the same day, Paul I issued a decree on the swearing of allegiance to the emperor and serfs, which had never happened before. Many peasants perceived it as a law freeing them from serfdom. At the end of 1796 - beginning of 1797. Mass peasant unrest swept across 32 provinces. A number of parish priests also joined the rebellious peasants. On January 29, 1797, Paul I issued a Manifesto, which stated: “The clergy, especially parish priests, have the duty to warn their parishioners against false and harmful disclosures and to affirm good behavior and obedience to their masters, remembering that their neglect of the verbal flock, entrusted to them, as in this world they will be exacted by their superiors, so in the next century they will have to give an answer before the terrible judgment of God.”

    On May 1, 1797, an “Appeal” was published to the bishops, so that they “would strictly monitor the behavior of clergy and clergy, trying in every possible way to prevent and avert popular disturbances.” It was indicated that those shepherds who bring the crowd into obedience should be “celebrated with decent honors or transferred to the most advantageous places.” If, on the contrary, “even just a suspicion of inclination of the peasants to indignation is noticed, then immediately take him to the consistory and entrust the parish to another, and send a most reliable priest to exhort the peasants.” The decrees of Catherine II were confirmed, prohibiting priests from writing petitions for peasants. It is characteristic that the decree of 1798 on the abolition of the right of parishioners to choose parish priests was also motivated by the following circumstance: “Due to the disobedience of peasants against their landowners that occurred in some provinces, misnies from priests and clergymen, instead of instructing them for a long time, according to church rules and spiritual regulations prescribed His parishioners, through their good behavior and obedience to the authorities placed over them, themselves gave reasons for the opposite.” In 1800, corporal punishment for the parish clergy was again introduced, abolished by decree on December 6, 1796.

    However, other benefits and relief for the rural clergy were preserved and new ones were established. Land plots for rural parishes were increased, salaries from the treasury for parish priests were increased by 112%, measures were taken to care for and provide for widows and orphans of priests. In 1797, the entire clergy was exempt from taxes for the maintenance of the police. The royal favors also extended to the diocesan clergy. Treasury expenses for the maintenance of the diocese increased from 463 thousand to 982 thousand rubles. In 1797, the size of the land plots of the bishop's houses was doubled, and mills, fishing grounds and other lands were additionally allocated.

    In 1800, Paul I introduced the awarding of civil orders to clergy for special merits. The first to be awarded was Metropolitan Platon (Levshin) of Moscow. They say that he begged Paul not to bestow this honor on him and to give him the opportunity to “die as a bishop, and not as a gentleman,” but ultimately, in order not to “anger” the monarch, he accepted this award. But being of an unbalanced and hot-tempered disposition, Paul often subjected high clergy to disgrace. Thus, among them, the outstanding church leader Metropolitan Gabriel (Petrov) of Novgorod and St. Petersburg suffered only because Catherine II favored him. Pavel left behind him only the Novgorod See, from which he was forced to “retire” in 1799.

    In his coronation manifesto on April 5, 1797, Paul I declared himself the head of the Russian Orthodox Church. This was later enshrined in the Code of Laws Russian Empire"(1832). Its Article 42 (Vol. I, Part 1) read: “The Emperor, as a Christian sovereign, is the supreme defender and guardian of dogmas and the guardian of orthodoxy and all holy piety in the Church.”

    Under Paul I, religious tolerance towards “schismatics” was proclaimed. Free activity allowed Old Believer Church. The books taken from them were returned to the Old Believers. But punishments were provided for those who deviated from the schism.

    Tolerance was shown towards the Uniates of Belarus and Right Bank Ukraine: the Kiev, Minsk, Zhitomir and Bratslav dioceses were warned that it was impossible to force the Uniates to convert to the Orthodox faith. Priests who violated this ban were deprived of their parishes. In 1798 the Department of Roman Catholic Confession was established. It was in charge of both Catholics and Uniates, for whom freedom of religion was recognized.

    Paul I pursued a favorable policy towards Catholicism. He willingly responded to the request of Napoleon, who was liquidated in 1798 during the capture of Fr. The Maltese Order of the Ioannites took them under their protection. Having become Master of the Order of Malta, Paul awarded the Order of St. John of Jerusalem to some bishops, and elevated the court priests to the rank of knights of the order.

    Paul gave shelter to the Jesuits, allowing them to elect their own vicar in Russia. In 1799, Paul favorably received the general of the Jesuit order, Pastor Gabriel Gruber, who obtained from him permission for the Jesuits to open “charitable institutions” in St. Petersburg. In 1800, the Catholic Church of St. Petersburg was transferred to the Jesuits. Catherine, under whom the Jesuit college was founded. Perhaps, not without Gruber's suggestions, Paul was inspired by the idea of ​​reuniting the Catholic and Orthodox churches. Paul sent Gruber's plan (for the reunification of churches) to the Synod. Metropolitan Ambrose (Podobedov) of St. Petersburg, who was first present at the Synod, resolutely opposed the Jesuit’s proposal. Ambrose was supported by the entire Synod. Since the Jesuit order was banned by Pope Clement XIV back in 1773, Paul obtained from Pope Pius VII the publication of a bull on March 7, 1801 on the restoration of the Jesuit order within Russia. It came into force already under Alexander I.

    4. Changes in policy towards the Old Believers in the last third of the 18th century

    In the last third of the 18th century. The policy towards the Old Believers softened significantly. By decree of Peter III of January 29, 1762, Old Believers who fled abroad were allowed to return to Russia. The decree prescribed that “there should be no objection from anyone in the content of the law, according to their custom and according to the old printed books.” On February 1, 1762, a decree was issued to stop all investigative and judicial cases regarding the Old Believers, “and to immediately release those kept under guard to their homes and not take anyone away again.”

    Catherine II confirmed these decrees and even granted a number of new concessions to the Old Believers. She ordered the local authorities to provide patronage to the Old Believers who came from abroad, protect them and not force them to wear the specified dress and shave their beards.

    In 1762, she allowed the Old Believers who came from Poland to settle in the Saratov Trans-Volga region along the river. Irgiz, where they were allocated 70 thousand acres of land. In this case, the goal was to colonize this sparsely populated region. For the same purpose, in 1785, the governor of New Russia G.A. Potemkin was ordered to settle the Old Believers in the Tauride province. A number of measures were also taken to eliminate the administrative and legal isolation of the Old Believers.

    In 1763, the Raskolnik Office, established in 1725 to collect double poll tax from Old Believers and beard tax, was abolished. In 1764, Old Believers who did not renounce “the sacraments of the church from Orthodox priests" Other discriminatory measures adopted by the previous “split” legislation were eliminated. The decree of 1783 read: “The secular authorities should not interfere in distinguishing which of the inhabitants are among the faithful, or who among the erring ones to honor, but is obliged to generally observe everyone, so that everyone acts according to the prescribed state laws.”

    In 1783, 1,500 Old Believers of Starodubye submitted a petition to the Synod to be allowed to perform divine services using old printed (“Donikonian”) books and to appoint a bishop who, under the jurisdiction of the Synod, would manage the affairs of all Old Believers. In 1784, the Synod allowed them to give priests, although “a bishop was denied.” This was the beginning of Edinoverie - a compromise form of unification of a part of the Old Believers-Priests with the Orthodox Church on the condition that they retain their old rituals, but subject to its jurisdiction. Those who entered into the same faith were freed from the curse to which the schism was committed at the Church Council of 1667; the fellow believers were allowed to receive priests from the diocesan bishop, and they obeyed him in matters of spirituality and church court.

    Several Edinoverie churches and monasteries were opened in Starodubye and Novorossiya.

    In 1797, in the Nizhny Novgorod diocese, up to 1 thousand Old Believers-priests joined the Edinoverie. Then some of the Old Believers-priests of the Kazan, Moscow, St. Petersburg and Irkutsk dioceses joined the Edinoverie. On March 12, 1798, a decree of Paul I was issued granting the Old Believers-Polovtsians the right “to have a church and special priests ordained by diocesan bishops to perform the service of God according to old printed books.” In 1799, Edinoverie churches were opened in Moscow and St. Petersburg. Metropolitan of Moscow Platon (Levshin) compiled the “Rules of Edinovery”, approved on October 27, 1800 by Paul I. Thus, Edinoverie received official status.

    Peter the Great is a controversial figure in world history. Assessing the reforms of Peter I briefly, some historians consider him the Great Reformer, who managed to turn the development of Russia along a different course. Others are almost the Antichrist, who went backwards against the previous orders and church foundations, destroying the usual way of life of the Russian people.

    Coming to power and prerequisites

    Pyotr Alekseevich Romanov (1672-1725) was the son of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich from his second marriage. He was proclaimed tsar together with his half-brother Ivan in 1682. Due to the young age of both, the country was actually ruled by their older sister Sophia.

    In 1689, Sophia was removed from the throne. Power completely passed into the hands of Peter. Although formally Ivan continued to be considered a co-ruler, he was too weak and ill to participate in the affairs of the state.

    The state was in a difficult position: the Moscow kingdom was in a state of another war with Ottoman Empire. In search of allies, Peter 1 went on a trip to Europe with the aim of concluding political alliances. Getting to know the culture and structure European countries, he saw firsthand how far behind Russia was in development compared to the Western powers. Peter 1 realized that the time had come for change. Returning to his homeland, he decisively began to “cut a window to Europe”.

    The reforms of Peter the Great are shown in the table.

    Foreign policy and military reform of Peter I

    The young tsar planned to pursue a rather aggressive foreign policy. Peter intended to strengthen Russia's influence in the international arena, expand its borders and gain access to the ice-free seas - the Azov, Black and Caspian seas. To achieve such ambitious goals, it was necessary to build a combat-ready army.

    Peter has been interested in military affairs since childhood. For the young prince, amusing (Petrine) regiments were created - special military formations for studying battle tactics and weapons handling techniques. It was then that Peter developed his views on what the Russian army should look like in the future. After coming to power, these views formed the basis of the military reform of Peter I.

    Military reform had five main directions:

    Thanks to these changes, the Russian army was able to become one of the strongest at that time. This was especially evident during Northern War, where the troops of Peter 1 defeated the exemplary Swedish army.

    Administrative-territorial changes

    The domestic policy of Peter 1 was aimed at creating an absolute monarchy by strengthening the vertical of power based on local self-government, as well as strengthening police supervision to prevent and quickly suppress revolts.

    Administrative reforms can be divided into 2 categories:

    • central management;
    • local government.

    The reason for the transformation of central government bodies was Peter's desire to replace the old bureaucratic machine and build new model authorities.

    The result of the reform was the creation of:

    • Council of Ministers (Senate)- an authority to govern the state during the absence of the king. Senators were appointed personally by Peter 1;
    • Synod- was created instead of the abolished position of patriarch to manage church affairs. The church became subordinate to the state;
    • Collegiums- government bodies, which were clearly divided into departments and replaced the outdated system of orders;
    • Secret Chancery- an organization whose activities consisted of persecuting opponents of the tsar’s policies.

    The prerequisite for local government reforms was the war with Sweden and the need for a more efficient state apparatus.

    According to the provincial (regional) reform, the country was divided into provinces, districts and provinces. This structure made it possible to more efficiently collect taxes from the tax-paying classes in each region. A separate military unit was attached to the province, which the inhabitants of the province had to support, provide food and housing. In case of war, recruits from local residents joined the same military unit and could be instantly transferred to places of hostilities. Governors were appointed personally by Peter.

    Urban reform was rather unsystematic and took place in several stages. The main goal was to collect as much taxes as possible from the population.

    In 1699, the Burmist Chamber was created, which was popularly dubbed the Town Hall. The main functions of the Town Hall were collecting taxes and providing housing for the army. It was an elected body, holding elections was possible with the payment of double taxes by the city. Naturally, most cities did not appreciate the reform.

    After the end of the Northern War, the second stage of urban reform began. Cities were divided into categories (depending on the number of households), and citizens were divided into categories (taxable and non-taxable).

    During administrative reforms, Peter also undertook judicial reform. The purpose of the reform was to separate the branches of government and create courts independent from the city or provincial administration. Peter himself became the supreme judge. He conducted trials of the most important state affairs. Hearings on political cases were handled by the Secret Chancellery. The Senate and the Collegium (with the exception of the Collegium of Foreign Affairs) also had judicial functions. Court and lower courts were created in the provinces.

    Economic transformation

    The socio-economic situation in Russia was unenviable. In conditions of an aggressive foreign policy and constant wars, the country needed a lot of resources and money. Peter's reformist mind persistently searched for ways to obtain new financial sources.

    Tax reform was carried out. Its main feature was the introduction of a poll tax - funds were collected from each person, whereas previously the tax was collected from the yard. This made it possible to fill the budget, but increased social tension, and the number of peasant uprisings and riots increased.

    To develop the backward Russian industry, Peter 1 actively used the help of foreign specialists and invited the best European engineers to his court. But there was a catastrophic shortage of workers. Therefore, with the growth of production and the opening of new factories, instead of a capitation payment, a serf could be assigned to a factory and undertake to work there for a certain amount of time.

    Peter encouraged the construction of factories and provided merchants with a wide range of benefits. Enterprises were also built with public money, and later transferred to private hands. If the chosen owner of the factory could not cope with production and was at a loss, Peter took the enterprise back into state ownership, and the careless industrialist could be executed.

    But clumsy Russian products could not adequately compete with advanced European ones. To support domestic production, Peter began to use a policy of protectionism - high duties were introduced on the import of foreign goods.

    Peter actively promoted trade. He understood that for this it was necessary to develop a convenient transport system. New water canals were laid (Ivanovsky, Staroladozhsky, Tveretsky), and overland communication routes were built.

    During the reign of Peter 1, a monetary reform was also carried out. The ruble began to be equal to 100 kopecks, or 200 money. Lighter ones were minted silver coins. For trade needs, round copper coins were introduced into use. For the needs of the state, 5 mints were established.

    Innovations in the field of culture

    Peter the Great sought to introduce Russia to European cultural traditions. He perceived the norms of appearance and behavior established in the era of the 18th century in Russian society extremely negatively, considering them barbaric and outdated.

    The tsar began his transformative activities with the creation of the Council - an entertainment and debauchery event. The council ridiculed the rituals performed in the Catholic and Orthodox Church, parodied them, accompanied by tongue-lashing and drinking. It was created with the aim of reducing the importance of the church and the influence of the clergy on the common people.

    While traveling around Europe, Peter became addicted to such a bad habit as smoking. In Russia, according to the decree of 1634, the use of tobacco and its sale were prohibited. According to this decree, smokers had to have their noses cut off. Naturally, the tsar became more loyal in this matter, canceled the previous ban, and as a result, soon their own tobacco plantations began to be created on the territory of Russia.

    Under Peter 1, the state began to live according to the new, Julian calendar. Previously, the countdown started from the day of the creation of the world, and the New Year began on September 1. The decree was issued in December, so since then January has become the beginning not only of a new calendar, but also of the year.

    Peter's reforms also affected the appearance of his subjects. From his youth, he ridiculed baggy, long and uncomfortable court clothes. Therefore, with a new decree, he ordered that class nobles wear European-style clothing - German or French clothing was used as an example. People who did not follow the new fashion could simply be grabbed in the middle of the street and “cut off the excess” - reshaping their clothes in a new way.

    Beards also fell out of favor with Peter. He himself did not wear a beard, and did not accept all the talk that it was a symbol of the honor and dignity of the Russian person. All boyars, merchants and military men were required by law to cut their beards. For some disobedient ones, Peter cut them down personally. The clergy and village residents were allowed to keep beards, but upon entering the city, bearded people had to pay a tax for it.

    A public theater was created to ridicule Russian traditions and customs, as well as to promote Western culture. Admission was free, but the theater was not successful with the public and did not last long. Therefore, Peter issued a new decree on entertainment for the nobility - Assemblies. Thus, the king wanted to introduce his subjects to the life of the average European.

    Not only nobles, but also their wives had to attend the Assemblies. Unbridled fun was expected - conversations, dancing, playing cards and chess. Smoking and drinking alcoholic beverages were encouraged. Among the nobility, the Assemblies caused negativity and were considered indecent - due to the participation of women in them, and having fun under duress was not a pleasure.

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    Reforms of public administration of Emperor Peter 1

    Historians call Peter's reforms of central government the large-scale transformations of the state apparatus that took place during the reign of Peter the Great. The main innovations of the ruler are the creation of the Governing Senate, as well as the complete replacement of the system of orders by Collegiums, and the formation of the royal Secret Office of the Holy Synod.

    During Peter's accession to the throne, the key positions of government were occupied by the nobles, who received their rank by right of family name and origin. Peter, who came to power, understood that the established system of government was one of the weak links. That it is precisely this that is slowing down the country’s development.

    The tsar's travels around Europe from 1697 to 1698 as part of the Grand Embassy allowed him to become familiar with the system of administrative bodies in European states. Based on them, he decides to carry out reforms in Russia.

    With the beginning of Peter's rule, the Boyar Duma began to lose its power and subsequently turned into an ordinary bureaucratic department. From 1701, all its work was delegated to a new body called the "Concilia of Ministers", which was a council of heads of the most important government bodies. At the same time, it included many of the same boyars.

    Two years before this, the Near Office is created, controlling the financial transactions of each order and making administrative decisions. All royal advisers were required to sign important documents and register these events in a special book of registered decrees.

    Establishment of the Senate

    On March 2, 1711, Peter the Great formed the so-called Governing Senate, which is the highest body of administrative, judicial and legislative power. The tsar entrusted all his responsibilities to this body during his absence, because frequent trips due to the Northern War could not cause a halt in the development of the state. At the same time, this administrative body was completely subordinate to the royal will and had a collegial structure, the members of which were personally selected by Peter. On February 22, 1711, a new additional post of fiscal was created, which was supposed to exercise additional supervision over officials during the tsar’s absence.

    The formation and development of the collegiums occurs in the period from 1718 to 1726. In them the tsar saw an organ capable of replacing the outdated system of slow orders, which, for the most part, only duplicated each other’s functions.

    When they appeared, the Collegiums completely absorbed orders, and in the period from 1718 to 1720, the presidents of the formed Collegiums were even senators and personally sat in the Senate. It should be noted that subsequently only the main Collegiums remained in the Senate:

    • Foreign Affairs;
    • Admiralty;
    • Military.

    The formation of the above-described system of collegiums completes the process of bureaucratization and centralization of the Russian state apparatus. The delimitation of departmental functions, as well as the general norms of activity regulated by the General Regulations, is the main difference between the updated Petrine apparatus and the previous management system.

    General Regulations

    By a royal decree of May 9, 1718, the presidents of the three boards were instructed to begin developing a document called the General Regulations, which would be a system of office management and based on the Swedish charter. This system later became known as the “college” system. In fact, the regulations approved a collegial way of discussing and resolving cases, as well as organizing office work and regulating relations with self-government bodies and the Senate.

    Tenth March 1720 this document was approved and signed by the ruler of Russia Peter the Great. The Charter included an introduction, as well as fifty-six chapters with general principles the work of the apparatus of each government agency and various applications for the interpretation of new foreign words that were in the text of the General Regulations.

    Holy Synod

    Before the end of the Northern War, Peter the Great begins to plan his church reforms. He orders Bishop Feofan Prokopovich to begin developing the Spiritual Regulations and on February 5, 1721, the tsar approves and signs the establishment of the Theological College, which will later become known as the “Holy Governing Synod.”

    Each member of this body was obliged to personally swear allegiance to the king. On May 11, 1722, the post of Chief Prosecutor appeared, supervising the activities of the Synod and reporting all news to the ruler.

    By creating the Synod, the sovereign introduced the church into the mechanism of the state, essentially likening it to one of the many existing administrative institutions at that time, endowed certain functions and responsibilities.

    Scheme of government under Peter I


    Table: reforms of Peter I in the field of public administration

    Date of reform Contents of the reform
    1704 The Boyar Duma was abolished
    1711 The Senate was established (legislative, control and financial functions)
    1700-1720 Abolition of the Patriarchate and creation of the Holy Synod
    1708-1710 Local government reform. Creation of provinces
    1714-1722 Creation of the prosecutor's office, introduction of the position of fiscal officers
    1718-1721 Replacement of orders by collegiums
    1722 Change in the system of succession to the throne (now the monarch himself appointed his successor)
    1721 Proclamation of Russia as an empire

    Scheme: local government after the management reforms of Peter I

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