Nicolaus Copernicus his discoveries briefly. Great Astronomers

What contribution Nicolaus Copernicus made to science and astronomy, you will learn from this article.

The future astronomer was born in 1473 in the Polish city of Torun on the Vistula. While studying at the University of Krakow, he developed an interest in astronomy. It was during his student years that he conducted his first studies and began to doubt the Ptolemaic system of the world.

Nicolaus Copernicus's contribution to astronomy

Before Nicolaus Copernicus, the Earth was considered the only stationary body in the Universe and the most main part of the universe. Religion taught that all heavenly bodies were specially created for the Earth and people. However, the research and works of Nicolaus Copernicus forced science to abandon the Ptolemaic concept of the world. And that's why.

Scientist Nicolaus Copernicus put forward a revolutionary theory about what exactly The Sun, not the Earth, is at the center of the world. And the planets move around it, including the Earth and its satellite, the Moon. Far from the solar system there is a sphere of stars. In other words, the astronomer reduced our planet to the rank of an ordinary cosmic body. He explained the visible movements of stars and planets by the annual and daily revolution of the Earth around the star. The scientist first described the change of day and night, seasons. In his work “On Appeals celestial spheres"(1543), which Copernicus dedicated to the Pope, he described the entire inconsistency of the previously dominant idea of \u200b\u200bthe heavenly and earthly. Also in the book, the genius included tables of stars, instructions for observing the planets, useful information on spherical astronomy and trigonometry, and explained in more detail the new system of the world. After his death, Pope Gregory XIII, based on the research data of Nicolaus Copernicus, introduced a more accurate calendar - the Gregorian.

Copernicus' theory, compared to Ptolemy's theory, was simpler and more practical. According to it, the movement in the Universe was subject to a single mechanics and general patterns. The new world system is called the heliocentric world system.

In addition to astronomical research, Nicolaus Copernicus invented the hydraulic system and plumbing. The scientist’s hydraulic developments at the beginning of the 16th century were very progressive. He was the first to design a complex for effective use water resources. The invention supplied water to houses, regulated flows, ensured river navigation, used water energy for mills, and filled fortress ditches and city wells with water. Today, water pipelines created by his hand operate in Frauenburg and Grundziendz. Nicolaus Copernicus also designed for the Frombork Tower mechanical lift. In addition, the scientist is founder of the new Polish monetary system.

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Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation

Federal state autonomous educational institution higher professional education

"Kazan (Volga region) Federal University

Elabuga Institute of Kazan Federal University

Essay

Subject: " Philosophical views of Copernicus"

Completed by: Shaigardanova I.I.

Checked by: Gromov E.V.

Elabuga, 2015

Introduction

The "greatest progressive revolution" was the Renaissance. This era was marked by great discoveries and the development of art and science. During this turning point, a person opens new horizons, tries to understand the whole world and himself in it. During the Renaissance, nature was not ignored. The leading direction of philosophical thought of the 16th century. becomes natural philosophy. The desire for in-depth and reliable knowledge of nature was reflected in the works of Leonardo da Vinci, Nicolaus Copernicus, Johannes Kepler, Giordano Bruno, Galileo Galilei. Their theoretical developments and experimental research contributed not only to changing the world, but also ideas about science, about the relationship between theory and practice. My work examines the philosophical views of the Renaissance - Nicolaus Copernicus. He was one of prominent figures philosophy during the Renaissance, who was the first to open the doors to the vast expanses of the Universe and establish the place of man in it. The relevance of this work lies in the analysis of the relationship between the philosopher and society, the penetration of new ideas, which is a problem at the present time.

The purpose of this essay was to analyze the philosophical ideas of Nicolaus Copernicus and identify their features.

Objectives of this work:

* study the philosophical views of N. Copernicus as a representative of natural philosophy of the Renaissance.

* characterize his cosmological views, identify their innovation.

Life of Nicolaus Copernicus

Nikolai Nikolaevich Copernicus (1473-1543) - Polish astronomer, creator of the heliocentric system of the world. He made a revolution in natural science, abandoning the doctrine of the central position of the Earth, accepted for many centuries. Explained visible movements celestial bodies by the rotation of the Earth around its axis and the revolution of the planets (including the Earth) around the Sun. Copernicus outlined his teachings in his work “On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres” (1543), which was banned by the Catholic Church from 1616 to 1828.

Nicolaus Copernicus was born on February 19, 1473 in the Polish city of Toruń into the family of a merchant who came from Germany. He was the fourth child in the family. Elementary education He received it, most likely, at a school located near his home at the Church of St. John the Great.

Copernicus entered the University of Krakow in 1491, where he studied mathematics, medicine and theology with equal diligence, but he was especially attracted to astronomy. To continue his education, Copernicus went to Italy (1497) and entered the University of Bologna. In addition to theology, law and ancient languages, he had the opportunity to study astronomy there. However, in 1500 he left his studies and went to Rome, his homeland, Padua. It was possible to obtain the degree of Doctor of Canon Law in the biography of Nicolaus Copernicus only in 1503. In 1506, Copernicus received news, perhaps far-fetched, of his uncle's illness. He left Italy and returned to his homeland. He settled first in the city of Lidzbark, and then took the position of canon in Frombork, a fishing town at the mouth of the Vistula. He spent the next 6 years at the episcopal castle of Heilsberg, engaged in astronomical observations and teaching in Krakow. At the same time, he is a doctor, secretary and confidant of Uncle Lukash.

The astronomical observations begun by Copernicus in Italy were continued, albeit on a limited scale, in Lidzbark. But he deployed them with particular intensity in Frombork, despite the inconvenience due to the high latitude of this place, which made it difficult to observe the planets, and due to frequent fogs from the Vistula Lagoon, significant cloudiness and cloudy skies over this northern area.

The invention of the telescope was still a long way off, and the best instruments for pre-telescopic astronomy did not yet exist. With the help of instruments of that time, the accuracy of astronomical observations was brought to one or two minutes. The most famous instrument used by Copernicus was the triquetrum, a parallactic instrument. The second device used by Copernicus to determine the angle of inclination of the ecliptic, “horoscopes”, sundials, a type of quadrant.

In 1512, the uncle bishop died. Copernicus moved to Frombork, a small town on the shores of the Vistula Lagoon, where he had been listed as a canon all this time, and began his spiritual duties. However, he did not give up scientific research. The northwestern tower of the fortress became an observatory.

Already in the 1500s, the idea of a new astronomical system it was quite clear to him. He began to write a book describing a new model of the world. During these years (ca. 1503-1512), Copernicus distributed a handwritten summary of his theory to friends ("Small Commentary on the Hypotheses Relating to the Celestial Motions"), and his student Rheticus published a clear exposition of the heliocentric system in 1539. Apparently, rumors about new theory were widely distributed already in the 1520s. Work on the main work - “On the Rotation of the Celestial Spheres” - lasted almost 40 years, Copernicus constantly introduced clarifications into it, prepared new astronomical calculation tables.

Rumors about a new outstanding astronomer were spreading in Europe. There is a version, not supported by documents, that Pope Leo X invited Copernicus to take part in the preparation of the calendar reform (1514, implemented only in 1582), but he politely refused.

When necessary, Copernicus devoted his energy to practical work: according to his project, a new coin system was introduced in Poland, and in the city of Frombork he built a hydraulic machine that supplied water to all houses. Personally, as a doctor, he was involved in the fight against the plague epidemic of 1519. During the Polish-Teutonic War (1519-1521), he organized the successful defense of the bishopric from the Teutons.

In 1531, 58-year-old Copernicus retired and concentrated on finishing his book. At the same time, he practiced medicine (free of charge). The faithful Rheticus constantly worked for the speedy publication of Copernicus's work, but progress was slow. Fearing that the obstacles would prove insurmountable, Copernicus circulated among his friends short summary his work entitled "Small Commentary" (Commentariolus). In 1542, the scientist’s condition deteriorated significantly, and paralysis of the right half of the body occurred. Copernicus died on May 24, 1543 at the age of 70 from a stroke.

Philosophical views of Nicolaus Copernicus as a representative ofnatural philosophy of the Renaissance

Astronomy has been the most important applied and at the same time worldview natural science discipline almost from the very beginning of its emergence. During the Renaissance, the powerful impulses of astronomy, which contributed to the development of science and practice, came from the field of navigation, which acquired a worldwide scale and required increasingly precise orientation. The contradiction between the fundamental ideological, Aristotelian basis of the fundamental astronomical system and its applied significance given to it by Ptolemy developed more and more noticeably. The complex of astronomical knowledge received its most general expression in the geocentric system of Aristotle - Ptolemy, which had dominated since ancient times. The idea of geocentrism, emanating from Aristotle, was an organic expression of his teleological philosophical system, which required a finite cosmos, beyond which there was a divine prime mover. Aristotelian cosmology, being necessary integral part his physics, included ideas about the fundamental difference between sublunar, earthly matter, composed of four traditional elements - water, earth, air and fire, subject to continuous changes, and the unchanging celestial substance - ether; about perfectly circular and uniform movements the Sun and planets near the Earth in special ethereal spheres; about the so-called intelligentsia - especially subtle intelligent spirits, who were seen as the main source of planetary movement, in the absence of a real understanding of the physical reasons for their movement in space.

Through the entire bright life of Nicolaus Copernicus, starting with student years in Krakow and before last days, the main thread runs through - the great matter of affirmation new system peace. Called to replace the fundamentally incorrect geocentric system of Ptolemy. The twenties accounted for a significant part of the astronomical results of N. Copernicus. It was possible to make many observations. So, around 1523, observing the planets at the moment of opposition, i.e. when the planet is at the point of the celestial sphere opposite to the Sun, Nicolaus Copernicus made important discovery he refuted the opinion that the position of planetary orbits in space remains fixed. The line of apses - a straight line connecting the points of the orbit at which the planet is closest to the Sun and most distant from it, changes its position compared to what was observed 1300 years earlier and recorded in Ptolemy's Almagest. Reflecting on the Ptolemaic system of the world, Copernicus was amazed at its complexity and artificiality and, studying the works of ancient philosophers, especially Niketas of Syracuse and Philolaus, he came to the conclusion that not the Earth, but the Sun should be the fixed center of the Universe. Based on this assumption, Copernicus very simply explained all the apparent confusion of the movements of the planets, but, not yet knowing true paths planets and considering them as circles, he was forced to preserve the epicycles and deferents of the ancients to explain the unevenness of movements.

Creating your own heliocentric system, Copernicus relied on the mathematical and kinematic apparatus of Ptolemy’s theory, on the specific geometric and numerical laws obtained by the latter. The heliocentric system in the Copernican version can be formulated in seven statements:

There is no single center for all celestial orbits or spheres.

The center of the Earth is not the center of the world, but only the center of gravity and the lunar orbit.

All spheres move around the Sun as around their center, as a result of which the Sun is the center of the whole world.

The ratio of the distance from the Earth to the Sun to the height of the firmament (that is, to the distance to the sphere of fixed stars) is less than the ratio of the radius of the Earth to the distance from it to the Sun, and the distance from the Earth to the Sun is negligible compared to the height of the firmament.

Any movement noticed in the firmament is not associated with any movement of the firmament itself, but with the movement of the Earth. The earth, together with the elements surrounding it (air and water), makes a complete revolution around its constant poles during the day, while the firmament and the sky located on it remain motionless.

What seems to us to be the movement of the Sun is actually connected with the movements of the Earth and our sphere, with which we revolve around the Sun, like any other planet. Thus, the Earth has more than one movement.

The apparent forward and backward movements of the planets are not caused by their movements, but by the movement of the Earth. Consequently, the motion of the Earth itself alone is sufficient to explain many apparent irregularities in the sky.

These seven theses clearly outline the contours of the future heliocentric system, the essence of which is that the Earth simultaneously moves around its axis and around the Sun. Thus, in Ptolemy’s model, all planets obeyed a general (albeit incomprehensible within the framework of geocentrism) law: the radius vector of any planet in the epicycle always coincided with the radius vector of the Earth - the Sun, and the movement along the epicycle for the upper planets (Mars, Jupiter, Saturn) and according to the deferent for the lower ones (Mercury, Venus) occurred with a single annual period for all planets. In the Copernican model, this law received a simple and logical explanation. These statements were completely contrary to the prevailing geocentric system at that time. Although, from a modern point of view, the Copernican model is not radical enough. All orbits in it are circular, the movement along them is uniform, so the epicycles were preserved (although there were fewer of them than in Ptolemy). The mechanism that ensured the movement of the planets was also left the same - the rotation of the spheres to which the planets were attached. Copernicus placed the sphere of fixed stars on the border of the world. Strictly speaking, Copernicus’s model was not even heliocentric, since he did not place the Sun at the center of the planetary spheres.

The immortal work of Nicolaus Copernicus" On the rotations of the celestial spheres"

... I often wondered if it was possible to find some more dietline combination of circles thatit would be possible explain all visible irregularities, and in such a way that every movement in itself was uniform, like this requires the principle of perfect motion. Copernicus philosophical heliocentric

Nicolaus Copernicus" Small comment"

By the beginning of the thirties, work on the creation of a new theory and its presentation in his work “On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres” (Latin: De revolutionibus orbium coelestium) was basically completed. The work was published in Nuremberg in 1543; it was printed under supervision best student Copernicus, Rhetica. In the preface to the book, Copernicus writes: “By that time, the system of the world structure proposed by the ancient Greek scientist Claudius Ptolemy had existed for almost one and a half millennia. It consisted in the fact that the Earth rests motionless in the center of the Universe, and the Sun and other planets revolve around it.”

The first book (part) talks about the spherical shape of the world and the Earth, and instead of the position about the immobility of the Earth, another axiom is placed: the Earth and other planets rotate around an axis and revolve around the Sun. This concept is argued in detail, and the “opinion of the ancients” is convincingly refuted. From a heliocentric position, he easily explains the reciprocal motion of the planets.

Copernicus gave the Earth three rotations: the first - the rotation of the Earth around its axis with an angular velocity u; the second (at a speed of ?) - around the axis of the world, which is perpendicular to the plane of the earth’s orbit and passes through its center; the third (with the oppositely directed speed š??) - around an axis parallel to the axis of the world and passing through the center of the Earth. The last two rotations form (with exact coincidence of š? and š?? in magnitude) a pair of rotations equivalent to the translational motion of the Earth around the Sun in a circular orbit.

Memorial plaque at the printing house of Johannes Petraeus in Nuremberg, where the first edition of Copernicus's book "De revolutionibus orbium coelestium" was published

The second part of Copernicus's work provides information on spherical trigonometry and rules for calculating the apparent positions of stars, planets and the Sun in the firmament.

The third talks about the annual movement of the Earth and the so-called precession of the equinoxes, which shortens the tropical year (from equinox to equinox) compared to the sidereal year (return to the same position relative to the fixed stars) and leads to a movement of the line of intersection of the equator with the ecliptic, which changes the ecliptic longitude of the star by one degree per century. Ptolemy's theory, in principle, could not explain this precession. Copernicus gave this phenomenon an elegant kinematic explanation (proving himself to be a very sophisticated mechanic): he suggested that the angular velocity not exactly equal to u?, but slightly different from it; the difference between these angular velocities is manifested in the precession of the equinoxes.

The fourth part talked about the Moon, the fifth about planets in general, and the sixth about the reasons for changes in the latitudes of the planets. The book also contained a star catalog, an estimate of the sizes of the Sun and Moon, distances to them and to the planets (close to true), and the theory of eclipses. It should be specially noted that the Copernican system (unlike the Ptolemaic system) made it possible to determine the ratios of the radii of planetary orbits. This fact, as well as the fact that in the description of the motion of the planets the first and most important epicycle was thrown out, made the Copernican system simpler and more convenient than the Ptolemaic one.

Let us dwell on one of Mikhailov’s remarks, made in a report at the same anniversary where Fok also spoke. Mikhailov writes: “Since the loops in the movements of the planets turned out to be a reflection of the circular motion of the Earth along its orbit, the size of these loops indicated the distance of the planets: the farther the planet, the smaller the loop it described. Based on this, Copernicus, with the help of impeccable geometric reasoning, was able to determine the distances of the planets for the first time from the Sun, expressed in units of its distance from the Earth<...>Copernicus gave a correct and accurate plan of the Solar system, drawn up on a single scale (my italics; the unit was orbis magnus - the radius of the earth's orbit. - S.T.), and the task of subsequent generations was to express all distances in earthly units (stadia, kilometers or other )".

Conclusion

In Renaissance philosophy main goal becomes an objective knowledge of the world. The development of natural science made significant progress in the 16th century. Knowledge and reason come out of exile, where they were imprisoned by the medieval attitude to the primacy of faith over feelings, and feelings over reason. The world, the universe are infinite. In natural philosophy, the central place in the range of problems considered is given to the problem of the infinite. The infinity of the world is cognized by reason. During the Renaissance, N. Copernicus, creating a heliocentric system of the world, in fact shows the creative possibilities of the mind, which allows, through the identification and study of contradictions in the sphere of phenomena, to penetrate into the essence of things, which can be completely opposite to the phenomenon. So, Copernicus created the heliocentric system of the world. Its main ideas are as follows: The Earth is not the stationary center of the world, but rotates around its axis and at the same time around the Sun, which is in the center of the world. This discovery was revolutionary. It refuted the picture of the world that existed for more than a thousand years, which was based on the geocentric system of Aristotle and Ptolemy. But it took at least a century before Copernicus's heliocentric system was widely accepted. Only Kepler mastered the complete Copernican system. Copernicus, in the first book of his work “On the Rotations of the Celestial Spheres,” gave only an initial sketch of a picture of the solar system, in which each planetary sphere is depicted as a circle in the center of which was the Sun. This picture was wrong. It was created by Aristarchus of Samosok. However, this picture was corrected by Johannes Kepler; he replaced circles with ellipses, and instead of motion along a circle with a constant speed, he introduced motion with a constant sectorial speed. These two Kepler laws provided the basis on which modern celestial mechanics is built.

List of used literature

1. Antipova O.L. "Development of natural science during the Renaissance" [ Electronic resource] - Access mode. - http://bibliofond.ru/view.aspx?id=134522 (access date: 01/02/2015).

2. K. Marx and F. Engels. Works, ed. II, vol. 21. - 785 p.

3. Copernicus, Nicholas (biography) [Electronic resource] - Access mode. --URL: https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copernicus,_Nicholas (access date: 01/03/2015).

4. Levin A. The Man Who Moved the Earth // Popular Mechanics.-- 2009.-- No. 6.

5. Mikhailov A.A. Nicolaus Copernicus, his life and work // Nicolaus Copernicus. pp. 18, 20.

6. N. Copernicus. On the rotations of the celestial spheres, 1964, p. 553.

7. Nicolaus Copernicus - biography. [Electronic resource] - Access mode. --URL: http://to-name.ru/biography/nikolaj-kopernik.htm (access date: 01/02/2015).

8. Development of natural sciences. N. Copernicus, G. Bruno, G. Galileo. [Electronic resource] - Access mode. --URL:http://lib.kstu.kz:8300/tb/books/Filosofiya/t5gl2.htm (access date: 01/02/2015).

9. Engelhardt M.A. Nicolaus Copernicus. Chapter 4.

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The beginning of a spiritual career and astronomical research

In 1506, Copernicus returned to his homeland and became the personal assistant and secretary of his uncle, the bishop. In addition, he began teaching at the University of Krakow, teaching courses on medicine and astronomy (he continued his astronomical observations when he returned home).

In 1512 (after the death of his uncle) he went to Frombock, where he was listed as a canon, began to work for the parish, and astronomy became something like a hobby. It was at this time that he began to create a heliocentric system of the world, which became the work of his whole life.

He worked on a global astronomical work for more than 40 years, rumors about him and his research quickly spread. There is an opinion that Pope Leo X himself drew attention to him. But Copernicus was not seduced by fame (as is usually said in his biography, written for children). He worked a lot as a doctor, even took part in eliminating the consequences of the plague epidemic in 1519, improved the life of the residents of Frombock (built a special machine that distilled water to all the houses of the city), and became involved in the Polish-Teutonic conflict, which led to the emergence of the Duchy of Prussia .

last years of life

Copernicus devoted the last five years of his life to his book on the structure of the solar system and its publication, but he never managed to see it printed and distributed. He also worked a lot as a doctor for free. In 1542 he was struck down by paralysis, and in 1543, after several months of coma following a stroke, he died at home in Frombock.

Other biography options

It is interesting that biographers have not yet decided on the national identity of the great scientist. Some believe that he was Polish, others argue that his mother was German and Nikolai was brought up in classical German traditions.
Nicholas had two sisters and a brother, who, like Nicholas himself, became a canon. One of the sisters went to a monastery, and the other got married. Copernicus adored his nephews and supported them as best he could until the end of his life.
It is interesting that it was Copernicus who first spoke about the law of universal gravitation.
Copernicus knew Greek and Latin very well and even made literary translations.
For a long time, the location of the scientist’s grave was unknown. Only in 2005, during excavations in Frombock Cathedral, a grave was discovered, and DNA analysis showed that it was the grave of Copernicus (DNA analysis was made possible thanks to 2 hairs that were discovered by scientists in Copernicus's manuscripts). The remains were ceremonially reburied in 2010.

Nicolaus Copernicus is a great scientist who lived from 1473 to 1543 in Poland. Copernicus's range of interests and subjects of study included a variety of things relating to astronomy, physics, mathematics, economics and mechanics. His discoveries and works contributed to the development of many areas human life and more than one scientific revolution.

The main achievements of Copernicus, known to every schoolchild, were works on natural science, in which the usual theory about the central position of the Earth in solar system was refuted and described how celestial bodies actually interact with each other. Unfortunately, the work entitled “On Appeals celestial bodies"was banned for some time due to the religious beliefs of those years, however, it was not forgotten and remained one of the most ingenious creations in the field of physics and natural science.

Childhood and youth

Copernicus was born in a city called Torun. This happened significant event February 19, 1473. Although the scientist’s homeland is Poland, his ancestors were of German origin. The future genius became the fourth child. However, the Copernicians were far from poor, and the head of the family was a respected merchant, so each of the offspring received a decent education.

For the first ten years of his life, the boy grew up in complete peace, cared for by his parents and having everything he needed. However, life began to test the future scientist already from early years. His hometown was overtaken by a terrible plague epidemic, which flourished in those days. Copernicus Sr. came under attack, and then the boy’s entire family. Left unattended, he could have lost everything, but his maternal uncle suddenly decided to take part in his nephew’s life. Lukasz Wachenrodi took charge of Nikolai's education and upbringing.

As a young man, in October 1491, Copernicus came to Krakow with the goal of adding his name to the list of applicants to the Faculty of Arts. Together with his brother, whose name was Andrzej, he successfully graduated from the university and then went on a trip to Italy.

Nicolaus Copernicus and heliocentrism.

The emergence of a craving for science

Fate brought Copernicus to Bologna, which was famous for its educational institutions. Having become interested in jurisprudence, which was especially popular at that time, he decides to enroll in the faculty to study civil, ecclesiastical and canon law. However, despite his academic success, Nikolai began to gravitate more and more towards natural and exact sciences, and especially to astronomy.

The young Copernicus took his first serious step in this area in 1497, when he made his first observation together with the experienced and fairly famous astronomer Dominico Maria Novaro. As a result, it was found that the Moon is approximately at an equal distance from the earth both in quadrature and during the full moon and new moon. However, this statement completely contradicted the theory put forward earlier by Claudius Ptolemy. It was this discrepancy that pushed Copernicus to new experiments and works.

Despite his many talents, Copernicus often lacked cash. At the beginning of 1498, he was approved for the post of canon of the Frombork Chapter, and a little later, Nicholas’s brother received the same position. However, this did not help cope with the lack of money. The fact is that the brothers lived in Bologna, which at that time was famous for its high cost and attracted rich people from all over the world.

Left without a livelihood, the Copernicians were in a depressed state, but, fortunately, fate sent them a man like Bernard Sculteti. He took part in their lives and helped organize their income. More than once the Polish canon would meet the brothers and help them more than once.

Having decided to travel a little, Nikolai leaves Bologna and heads to his homeland - Poland. Having stayed there not so long, a little less than a year, he goes to Italy and begins to study medicine. Having entered the University of Padua to study, he quickly absorbs enormous amounts of knowledge and a few years later receives the long-awaited doctorate.

Having enriched his knowledge and acquired many different skills, he again goes to his homeland educated person, ready to conduct new experiments and capable of new discoveries. Therefore, with particular interest and enthusiasm, Copernicus began to continue the astronomical observations that he began in Italy. In the Polish city of Lidzbark he was constrained by certain circumstances, and in Frombork he had at his disposal not very convenient conditions for carrying out work.

However, nothing stopped the young scientist: neither the latitude of the area, which interfered with comfortable observation of the planets, nor fogs, nor cloudy weather. Good telescopes had not yet been invented at that time., and tools that made it possible to track the time of all phenomena from absolute precision, Copernicus did not.

But despite everything the above difficulties, the scientist nevertheless published his book entitled “Small Commentary,” in which he summarized the results of his experiments and observations, and also revealed the first hypotheses of his main theory. The convictions were understandable and impressive, but the book was not full of mathematical proofs, which Copernicus saved for a more voluminous work.

About the life of this talented person This video will tell you.

Life in wartime

Copernicus was unable to fully delve into the proof of his numerous hypotheses, since the war with the crusaders began. The scientist then again received quite a significant government position, however, unlike many other high-ranking officials, he chose not to sit in places remote from the battles, but to take direct part in them. Showing remarkable courage, courage and military ingenuity, he became the commander-in-chief of the defense of Olsztyn and defended the city from the enemy.

The merits of Copernicus during the war did not go unnoticed and, and he was awarded for courage and bravery by the Polish government. Copernicus was appointed commissioner. A little later, Nikolai takes over the post of general administrator. Since this was the highest position in which Copernicus had to be, he financial situation significantly improved, which opened up new opportunities for the scientist in conducting experiments and scientific work.

Despite the war, it was in the twenties that Copernicus conducted the most active research activities. During this period, the scientist made the following discoveries and experiments:

Conducted observations of planets during a time called opposition. Its essence is that the planets are at the opposite point from the Sun. This study prompted Copernicus to think about the possibility that the celestial bodies in question are in a constant position and do not make any movements relative to their orbit.
Completed the creation of his theory and presented it fully formalized in a book, which called into question the veracity of the statements of Claudius Ptolemy, who argued that our planet does not leave its orbit and is at the center of the Universe, and the rest of the celestial bodies revolve around it.
Confirmed the above hypothesis through complex mathematical calculations.

The work of Copernicus turned the entire scientific world upside down, because the opinion that the Sun and other planets move in relation to the Earth has existed for more than one and a half thousand years. However, there are some inaccuracies in Copernicus's work. For example, he believed that all stars were stationary and located on a huge sphere, which, in turn, was located at a very distant distance from the Earth. Such inaccuracies were a consequence of the lack of decent equipment and good telescopes, which were invented a little later.

other hobbies

As has already been said many times, Copernicus was a versatile and developed person in many areas of activity. And during his research, he continued to improve his medical skills and abilities, thanks to which he gained fame great doctor. His list of patients included the following:

bishops of Warmia;
officials and those close to the royal court of Prussia;
Tiedemann Giese - famous geologist, as well as prince-bishop;
Alexander Skulteti - canon of the chapter.

It should be noted that Copernicus never refused help ordinary people, strived to do as much as possible for each patient. Thanks to him, people survived; looking at their illness, many professionals of that time simply shrugged their shoulders. Nikolai's contemporaries always noticed that he was not guided by the traditional prescriptions of doctors for certain situations, but rather approached the issue with his characteristic originality.

At the age of 60, Copernicus was entrusted with the duties of chairman of the construction fund. Despite his age, he did not stop his scientific activity and continued research. A year before his death, Nikolai publishes a book dedicated to the study of the sides and angles of a triangle.

Having lived a long life full of amazing discoveries, Nicolaus Copernicus died on May 24, 1543. However, the memory of him and his achievements still lives among us, and his works are highly valued by modern scientists and researchers.

Video

You will learn about the life of this outstanding person from this video.

The discoveries of the Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus not only made it possible to create a new scientific paradigm, but also made a real revolution in human consciousness, becoming the basis for a new picture of the world. The Renaissance, during which the scientist worked, became a turning point for the life of all of Europe. It was then that the most progressive representatives of humanity made breakthroughs in many areas of knowledge. The work of Copernicus marked the beginning of another scientific revolution and became part of the new natural science.

short biography

The famous canon and astronomer was born in the city of Toruń into a wealthy merchant family on February 19, 1473. Since Torun at the turn of the 15th-16th century changed hands several times, becoming the property of either the Teutonic Order or the Polish king, Germany and Poland are still arguing about what nationality Copernicus was. Now Torun is part of Poland.

In the early 1480s, a plague epidemic broke out in Europe, killing many thousands of people, including Nicolaus Copernicus the Elder, the father of the future scientist. In 1489, the mother of the family also died. Their uncle, Lukasz Wachenrode, who was the bishop of the Warm diocese, took custody of the remaining orphans. He gave very a good education to his nephews - Nikolai and his older brother Andrzej.

After the young people graduated from school in Torun, they continued their education at the cathedral school in Włocławsk, and then went to Krakow, where they entered the Jagiellonian University at the Faculty of Arts. Here Nikolai met the famous astronomer of that time - Professor Wojciech Brudzewski. Brudzewski believed that a scientist should respect the works of his predecessors, but not stop at the empty reproduction of other people’s theories, but move on and learn to compare the works of classics with the latest hypotheses. Brudzewski's approach largely determined the future scientific path of Copernicus himself.

In 1495, the brothers graduated from the university, became canons in their uncle's diocese and went to Italy. Here they continued their education at the Faculty of Law of the University of Bologna. Within the walls of Bologna, Nicolaus Copernicus met an astronomy teacher, Domenico Maria di Novara. Together with the teacher, Copernicus began to regularly observe the stars. It was then that he noticed that the real movement of the heavenly bodies did not correspond to the scheme of the geocentric Universe described by Ptolemy.

After studying in Bologna, Copernicus continued to travel around Italy. For some time, Nikolai lectured on mathematics in Rome and communicated with representatives of the Italian nobility. In the early 1500s, Copernicus was also educated in Padua and Ferrara. Here he became acquainted with medicine and received a doctorate in theology. A few years later, at the insistence of his uncle, the scientist returned to Poland and became personal secretary and at the same time the house physician of Bishop Wachenrode. At the same time, he continued his studies in astronomy in Krakow. An almost ten-year stay in Italy made Copernicus a comprehensively erudite person who had absorbed latest achievements all basic applied sciences.

In 1516, after the death of Bishop Wachenrode, Nicolaus Copernicus moved to Frombork and began to carry out the usual duties of a canon, at which time he began to develop his heliocentric system.

However, Poland remembers Nicolaus Copernicus not only as a brilliant astronomer and clergyman. Also he:

developed some economic laws that made it possible to carry out monetary reform in Poland,
how a doctor successfully fought the plague,
compiled detailed maps of Poland, Lithuania and the Vistula (now Kaliningrad) Lagoon,
invented a system for supplying water to Frombork houses,
during the Polish-Teutonic War he led the defense of the city.

In addition to astronomy, Nicolaus Copernicus was interested in painting and studying foreign languages and mathematics.

Since Copernicus’s works on his heliocentric system were published at the very end of the scientist’s life, the Catholic Church did not have time to take the necessary measures against the dissident astronomer. Nicolaus Copernicus died of a stroke on May 24, 1543, surrounded by his friends and students.

Development of the heliocentric system

Medieval Europe inherited ancient ideas about the structure of the cosmos, namely the geocentric system of Claudius Ptolemy, developed in the 2nd century AD. e. Ptolemy taught that:

The Earth is at the center of the Universe;
She is motionless;
All celestial bodies rotate around the Earth at a constant speed along certain lines - epicycles and deferents.

The Greek scientist left notes that also concerned calculations of the distance between space objects and the speed of their movement. For many centuries, the Ptolemaic system was generally accepted throughout Europe. Based on it, people calculated the fairways of ships, determined the length of the year and compiled calendars.

The first attempts to create different ideas about the Universe arose even before the birth of Ptolemy. Some ancient astronomers believed that the Earth, like other celestial bodies, revolves around the Sun, located at the center of the world. However, these theories have not found wide acceptance.

Even while studying the starry sky under the leadership of Novara, Nicolaus Copernicus noticed that the paths along which the planets moved that he observed did not correspond to the epicycles of Ptolemy. Initially, the scientist only wanted to make minor corrections to his predecessor’s system, however, the observations yielded stunning results. The actual motion of the planets in their orbits clearly indicated that they did not revolve around the Earth, but around the Sun.

Astronomical observations, carried out already in Frombork, were not easy for Copernicus. In addition to the fact that he devoted most of his time to his direct duties as a canon, the astronomer was greatly hampered by weather conditions. Frombork was located on the shores of the Vistula Lagoon, so there were always thick sea fogs over the town. For his work, Copernicus primarily used only two tools:

Triquetrum - a special ruler that made it possible to determine the zenith distances of astronomical objects;
Horoscope, with the help of which it was possible to determine the height of heavenly bodies above the horizon.

Despite the fact that Copernicus’s arsenal of astronomical instruments was not so large, the scientist managed to make complex and very accurate calculations, which laid the foundation for the formation of a new scientific paradigm. It is curious that the technical tools that make it possible to directly prove the rotation of the Earth around the Sun appeared only 200 years after the death of the scientist.

Copernicus was a sensible man and understood that his revolutionary conclusions could lead to accusations of heresy. Therefore, although the scientist did not make much secret of his observations, all his formulations were quite careful and streamlined. His hypotheses were outlined in a small work - “Small Commentaries”. This book was not intended for a wide range of readers and passed from hand to hand among Copernicus' friends.

The astronomer was also saved by the fact that the Catholic Church had not yet come to a consensus: whether to consider supporters of heliocentrism as heretics or not. In addition, the Catholic hierarchs needed the services of Copernicus: at the beginning of the 16th century, the question arose of creating a new calendar and establishing exact dates church holidays. First of all, it was necessary to develop a formula for calculating exact date Easter. Old Julian calendar complicated the calculations, since it did not take into account about 8 hours a year, and required processing. Copernicus, invited for these purposes, stated that such serious work should be based on careful astronomical observations. In particular, it was necessary to establish the exact length of the year and the trajectories of the Sun, Moon and neighboring planets.

While working on the new calendar, Copernicus was finally convinced of the falsity geocentric system. Many of Copernicus' solutions were ideal for a situation in which the Earth revolved around the sun, and not vice versa.

In the early 1530s, Copernicus decided to present his ideas in a completed and edited version. This is how work begins on the most important work of the scientist’s entire life - “On the revolutions of celestial bodies.” Copernicus did not forget about caution, so he presented his conclusions as just one of the possible theories of the structure of the Universe. The book included not only the results of astronomical observations, but also the very essence of Copernicus’ philosophical views. He wrote that:

The earth is spherical, it revolves around the sun and is just one of many planets, and not the center of the universe;
Movement is relative, we can talk about it only if there is a reference point;
Space is much larger than the area visible from Earth and is most likely infinite.

At the same time, the scientist did not abandon the idea of creating the world by a divine essence.

“On the Revolutions of Celestial Bodies” was published a few days before the astronomer’s death - in May 1543. Thus, Copernicus devoted almost 40 years to the development of the heliocentric system - from the moment of discovering the first inaccuracies in the works of Ptolemy to the formulation of the final version of his views.

The fate of the scientific heritage of Nicolaus Copernicus

At first, Copernicus's book did not cause much concern among Catholics. This was due to two reasons. Firstly, the abundance of formulas, numbers and diagrams was incomprehensible to an unprepared person. Secondly, the scientist very subtly presented his ideas in the form of just an alternative view. Therefore, the astronomer’s work spread freely throughout Europe for quite a long time. A few years later, the hierarchs realized the danger of the teaching set forth in “On the Revolutions of Celestial Bodies.” But this, however, did not stop them from using the results of Copernicus’ work to compile a new calendar. In 1582, despite the fact that the late Copernicus was considered a heretic, Europe began to gradually switch to modern Gregorian calendar, based on the calculations of the disgraced astronomer.

The revolutionary ideas of Copernicus contradicted the picture of the world, which was strongly supported by the Catholic Church. Accepting the heliocentric system meant recognizing that:

The earth, which was God's creation, is not in the center, but on the periphery of the Universe;
There is no celestial hierarchy;
The idea of anthropocentrism is controversial;
There is no cosmic prime mover.

However, on for a long time the name of Copernicus was forgotten. At the end of the 16th century, the Italian Dominican monk Giordano Bruno popularized the ideas of Copernicus. Unlike the Polish astronomer, he was not afraid to hide his views and preach them openly. This led Bruno to death at the stake, but at the same time made a real revolution in the minds of progressive Europeans. They started talking about Copernicus, and the best minds of that time began to get acquainted with his system.

Only in 1616, a special commission of inquisitors decided to include Copernicus’s book in the “Index of Prohibited Books.” However, the spread of heliocentrism could no longer be stopped. Despite all the prohibitions and rigidity of religious dogmas, the doctrine of the central position of the Sun in the Universe early XVII century has become generally accepted.