The idea of programmatic learning belongs to. Programmed training

Lecture by Minovskaya A.V. (Ph.D., Associate Professor)

Activities of teacher and student in programmed learning.

Programmed training- this is the controlled assimilation of programmed educational material using a teaching device (computer, programmed textbook, film simulator, etc.). Programmed educational material is a series of relatively small portions of educational information (“frames”, files, “steps”), presented in a certain sequence.

Programmed learning arose in the early 50s of the 20th century, when the American psychologist B. Skinner proposed building the educational process in accordance with psychological knowledge about it (based on the teachings of I.P. Pavlov and the theory of behaviorism). Three follow from them: law of learning :

Law of Effect(reinforcement): if the connection between stimulus and response is accompanied by a state of satisfaction, then the strength of the connections increases.

Exercise Law: The more often the connection between stimulus and response appears, the stronger it is.

Law of readiness: every connection between stimulus and response bears its imprint nervous system in its individual specific state.

The system of programmed learning is closely related to the ideas of cybernetics - the science of optimal organized process activity management. The ideas of cybernetics, transferred to the educational process, successfully fit in with the ideas and methods psychological theory gradual formation mental activity and with methods of algorithmic organization of educational activities (P.Ya. Galperin, N.F. Talyzina, L.N. Landa, etc.).

The main concept is the training program - this is a sequence of steps, each of which represents a micro-stage of mastering a unit of knowledge or skills. A micro-stage or program step consists of three parts:

presenting a dose of educational information;
tasks-operations for working with information, for its assimilation.
control tasks (feedback) and instructions to repeat exercises or move to the next step.

Programmed training targets:

1. Effective training based on a scientifically developed program.

2. Training that takes into account the child’s individual data.

Principles of programmed learning:

1.Defined hierarchy of control devices. In this hierarchy, first of all, the teacher acts, managing the system in the most critical situations: creating a preliminary general orientation in the subject, attitude towards it, individual assistance and correction in complex non-standard learning situations.

2.Feedback principle. The teacher needs feedback to correct educational material, and the student needs it to understand it. Feedback, which serves for students to independently correct the results and nature of their mental activity, is called internal. Feedback, in which the influence is carried out through the same control devices that lead the learning process or by the teacher, is called external.

3. The principle of step-by-step technological process when disclosing and presenting educational material, which makes it possible to achieve a generally understandable training program. The step includes three interconnected links (frames): information, operation with feedback and control

4. The principle of individual pacing and control in teaching creates conditions for successful learning of the material by all students, albeit at different times.

5. The principle of using special technical means for the delivery of programmed educational materials when studying a number of disciplines related to the development of certain personality traits and qualities of students, for example, good reaction, orientation.

Types of training programs:

Linear programs represent sequentially changing small blocks of educational information with a control task. The student must give the correct answer, sometimes simply choose it from several possible ones. If the answer is correct, he receives new educational information, and if the answer is incorrect, then he is asked to study the original information again.

Branched program differs from linear in that the student, in case of an incorrect answer, can be provided with additional educational information that will allow him to complete the test task, give the correct answer and receive a new piece of educational information. Their creator N. Crowder said that doses of educational material should be quite large, since assimilation depends not on an error-free path in small steps, but on a deep and comprehensive analysis of the content.

Their second feature is a new form of control - the student’s selective answer: the student chooses the correct answer in control task from a set of answers where, in addition to the correct one, there are incomplete and incorrect answers containing typical mistakes. If the student chooses the correct answer, he moves on to the next step. If not, the nature of the error is explained to him and he is instructed to work with one of the programs depending on the error made or to return to the starting point. The third feature is the branching of the teaching steps.

Adaptive program selects or provides the student with the opportunity to choose the level of complexity of new educational material, change it as he masters it, and consult electronic reference books, dictionaries, and manuals. Adaptability in pace academic work and the optimality of training is achieved through the use of special technical means, in particular a computer, working according to a program for searching for a training mode and automatically supporting the found conditions. In a partially adaptive program, a branch is made (another option is given) based on one (last) student answer. In a fully adaptive program, diagnosing student knowledge is a multi-step process, at each step of which the results of the previous ones are taken into account.

Combined program includes fragments of linear, branched, adaptive programming.

Advantages programmed training:

ü The information capacity of training increases. 60-70% more useful information is absorbed per unit of time, and in best examples– up to 80-100%.

ü The individualization of learning is increasing: everyone works at a pace that is acceptable to them, can return to the key material as many times as necessary, in the programs everyone is given individual explanations of mistakes made, and appropriate instructional and auxiliary material is offered.

ü There is operational feedback, primarily internal (in the “educational material - student” system). It provides training in self-control and correction of educational activities, and constructive thinking is formed.

Restrictions programmed training:

oIt is not advisable on every material. Emotionally figurative, descriptive, holistic material is of little use, since fragmentation makes it difficult to perceive and assimilate integrity.

othe system is less effective in educational terms compared to the traditional one: leading worldview ideas are lost during a strict (without repetition) presentation of information, the direct influence of the teacher’s personality and the possibility of live communication with him are reduced, contacts between students are minimal.

oCreative activity and independence, the ability to put forward a hypothesis, and look for new solutions are poorly developed, since program developers, focusing on the independent work of students, are forced to remove many difficulties and facilitate assimilation. Otherwise, students will not be able to work on such a program themselves. But such training poorly develops creative potential personality.

In order to compensation of restrictions programmed training, you can introduce heuristic elements into it, introduce elements of games, discussions, disputes, in addition to studying programs, conduct separate lectures, conferences, etc. Modern multimedia systems allow you to enter video sequences, video fragments, dynamic diagrams, audio recordings, and design electronic teaching aids . We are talking about a system of programmed training, enriched with elements and approaches of other types of training.

Programmed learning is learning according to a pre-developed program, which provides for the actions of both students and the teacher (or a teaching machine that replaces him).

The idea of programmed learning was proposed in the 50s. XX century American psychologist B. Skinner to improve the efficiency of managing the learning process using the achievements of experimental psychology and technology. Objectively programmed training, in relation to the field of education, reflects the close connection of science with practice, the transfer of certain human actions to machines, and the increasing role of management functions in all spheres of social activity. To increase the efficiency of managing the learning process, it is necessary to use the achievements of all sciences related to this process, and above all cybernetics - the science of general laws management. Therefore, the development of ideas for programmed learning turned out to be associated with the achievements of cybernetics, which sets general requirements for managing the learning process. The implementation of these requirements in training programs is based on data from psychological and pedagogical sciences that study the specific features of the educational process. However, when developing this type of training, some specialists rely only on the achievements of psychological science (one-sided psychological direction), others - only on the experience of cybernetics (one-sided cybernetic direction). In teaching practice, this is a typically empirical direction, in which the development of training programs is based on practical experience, and only isolated data is taken from cybernetics and psychology.

The general theory of programmed learning is based on programming the process of learning material. This approach to learning involves studying cognitive information in certain doses that are logically complete, convenient and accessible for holistic perception.

Today, programmed learning means the controlled assimilation of programmed educational material using a teaching device (computer, programmed textbook, film simulator, etc.).

Programmed material is a series of relatively small portions of educational information ("frames", files, "steps"), presented in a certain logical sequence.

In programmed learning, learning is carried out as a clearly controlled process, since the material being studied is broken down into small, easily digestible doses. They are sequentially presented to the student for assimilation. Each dose is followed by an absorption check. The dose is absorbed - move on to the next one. This is the “step” of learning: presentation, assimilation, verification.

Usually, when drawing up training programs, only the need for systematic feedback was taken into account from cybernetic requirements, and from psychological requirements - the individualization of the learning process. There was no consistency in the implementation of a specific model of the assimilation process. The most famous concept is B. Skinner, based on the behaviorist theory of learning, according to which there is no significant difference between human learning and animal learning. In accordance with behaviorist theory, training programs must solve the problem of obtaining and reinforcing the correct response. To develop the correct reaction, the principle of breaking the process into small steps and the principle of a hint system are used. When breaking down the process, programmed complex behavior is broken down into its simplest elements (steps), each of which the student could complete without error. When a prompt system is included in the training program, the required reaction is first given in a ready-made form (maximum degree of prompting), then with the omission of individual elements (fading prompts), at the end of the training a complete response is required self-execution reactions (removing the prompt). An example is memorizing a poem: at first the quatrain is given in full, then with the omission of one word, two words and an entire line. At the end of memorization, the student, having received four lines of ellipses instead of a quatrain, must reproduce the poem independently.

To consolidate the reaction, the principle of immediate reinforcement is used (using verbal encouragement, providing a sample to ensure the correctness of the answer, etc.) of each correct step, as well as the principle of repeated repetition of reactions.

Types of training programs

Training programs built on a behavioral basis are divided into:

a) linear, developed by Skinner, and
b) branched programs of N. Crowder.
1. Linear system of programmed learning, originally developed by the American psychologist B. Skinner in the early 60s. XX century based on the behaviorist direction in psychology.

He put forward the following requirements for the organization of training:

In learning, the student must move through a sequence of carefully chosen and placed “steps.”

Training should be structured in such a way that the student is “busy and busy” all the time, so that he not only perceives the educational material, but also operates with it.

Before moving on to study subsequent material, the student must master the previous one well.

The student needs to be helped by dividing the material into small portions ("steps" of the program), through hints, encouragement, etc.

Each student's correct answer must be reinforced using feedback - not only to develop certain behavior, but also to maintain interest in learning.

According to this system, students go through all the steps of the taught program sequentially, in the order in which they are given in the program. The tasks in each step are to fill in one or more words in a blank in an informational text. After this, the student must check his solution with the correct one, which was previously closed in some way. If the student's answer is correct, then he must move on to the next step; if his answer does not coincide with the correct one, then he must complete the task again. Thus, the linear system of programmed learning is based on the principle of learning, which involves error-free execution of tasks. Therefore, the program steps and assignments are designed for the weakest student. According to B. Skinner, the learner learns mainly by completing tasks, and confirmation of the correctness of completing the task serves as reinforcement for stimulation further activities trainee.

Linear programs are designed for error-free steps of all students, i.e. must correspond to the capabilities of the weakest of them. Because of this, program correction is not provided: all students receive the same sequence of frames (tasks) and must complete the same steps, i.e. move along the same line (hence the name of the programs - linear).

2. An extensive program of programmed training. Its founder is the American teacher N. Crowder. In these programs, which have become widespread, in addition to the main program designed for strong students, additional programs (auxiliary branches) are provided, to one of which the student is sent in case of difficulties. Branched programs provide individualization (adaptation) of training not only in terms of the pace of progress, but also in terms of the level of difficulty. In addition, these programs open up greater opportunities for the formation of rational species cognitive activity, than linear ones, limiting cognitive activity mainly to perception and memory.

Test tasks in the steps of this system consist of a task or question and a set of several answers, of which usually one is correct, and the rest are incorrect, containing typical errors. The student must choose one answer from this set. If he chooses the correct answer, he receives reinforcement in the form of confirmation of the correctness of the answer and an instruction to move on to the next step of the program. If he chose the wrong answer, the essence of the mistake made is explained to him, and he is instructed to return to one of the previous steps of the program or go to some subroutine.

In addition to these two main systems of programmed training, many others have been developed, which to one degree or another use a linear or branched principle, or both of these principles, to construct a sequence of steps in a training program.

The general disadvantage of programs built on a behaviorist basis is the impossibility of controlling the internal, mental activity of students, control over which is limited to recording the final result (answer). From a cybernetic point of view, these programs carry out control according to the “black box” principle, which in relation to human training is unproductive, since the main goal in training is the formation of rational methods of cognitive activity. This means that not only the answers must be controlled, but also the paths leading to them. The practice of programmed training has shown the unsuitability of linear and insufficient productivity of branched programs. Further improvements to training programs within the framework of the behaviorist model of education did not lead to significant improvements in results.

Development of programmed training in domestic science and practice

In domestic science theoretical basis Programmed learning was actively studied, and achievements were put into practice in the 70s. XX century One of the leading experts is Moscow University professor Nina Fedorovna Talyzina. In the domestic version, this type of training is based on the so-called theory of the gradual formation of mental actions and concepts by P.Ya. Galperin and the theory of cybernetics. The implementation of programmed learning involves identifying specific and logical thinking methods for each subject being studied, indicating rational methods of cognitive activity in general. Only after this is it possible to draw up training programs that are aimed at developing these types of cognitive activity, and through them the knowledge that makes up the content of a given academic subject.

Advantages of programmed learning

Programming training has a number of advantages: small doses are easily absorbed, the pace of assimilation is chosen by the student, high results are ensured, rational methods of mental action are developed, and the ability to think logically is cultivated. However, it also has a number of disadvantages, for example:

does not fully contribute to the development of independence in learning;

requires a lot of time;

applicable only for algorithmically solvable cognitive problems;

ensures the acquisition of knowledge embedded in the algorithm and does not contribute to the acquisition of new ones. At the same time, excessive algorithmization of learning hinders the formation of productive cognitive activity.

Disadvantages of Programmed Learning

During the years of greatest enthusiasm for programmed learning - the 60-70s. XX century - a number of programming systems and many different teaching machines and devices were developed. But at the same time, critics of programmed learning also appeared. E. Laben summed up all the objections against programmed learning against programmed learning: it does not take advantage of the positive aspects of group learning; contributes to the development of student initiative, since the program, as if with the help of programmed training, always leads him by the hand; theory can only be taught simple material at the rote level; learning based on reinforcement is worse than learning based on, as opposed to the assertions, intellectual gymnastics; some American researchers - programmed training is not revolutionary, but conservative, since it is bookish and verbal; programmed training ignores the achievements of psychology, which has been studying the structure of brain activity and the dynamics of learning for more than 20 years; programmed learning does not provide an opportunity to get a holistic picture of the subject being studied and is “learning in pieces”

Programmed training

Programmed training- a teaching method put forward by Professor B.F. Skinner in 1954 and developed in the works of specialists from many countries, including domestic scientists. N. F. Talyzina, P. Ya. Galperin, L. N. Landa, I. I. Tikhonov, A. G. Moliboga, A. M. Matyushkin, V. I. Chepelev and others participated in the development of certain provisions of the concept. At the same time, it is believed that elements of programmed learning were already encountered in ancient times. They were used by Socrates and Plato, and are found in the works of I. F. Herbart and even J. Dewey.

Features of the technique

The purpose of the concept is to strive to increase the efficiency of managing the learning process based on the cybernetic approach. At its core, programmed learning involves the student working according to a certain program, in the process of which he acquires knowledge. The role of the teacher is to monitor psychological state the student and the effectiveness of his step-by-step mastery of educational material, and, if necessary, the regulation of program actions. In accordance with this, various schemes and programmed learning algorithms have been developed - straightforward, branched, mixed and others, which can be implemented using computers, programmed textbooks, and teaching materials. Didactic principles of programmed learning: 1) consistency; 2) accessibility; 3) systematic; 4) independence.

Programmed learning algorithms

Linear algorithm (Skinner algorithm)

B.F. Skinner, having developed his own concept of programmed learning, laid down the following principles in it:

small steps - educational material is divided into small parts ( portions), so that students do not have to spend a lot of effort to master them;
low level of difficulty of portions - the level of difficulty of each portion of educational material should be low enough to ensure that the student answers correctly to most questions. Thanks to this, the student constantly receives positive reinforcement while working with the training program. According to Skinner, the proportion of a student’s incorrect answers should not exceed 5%.
open-ended questions - Skinner recommended using questions to test portion absorption open type(text input) rather than selecting from a variety ready-made options answer, while asserting that “even vigorous correction of an erroneous answer and reinforcement of the correct one do not prevent the emergence of verbal and subject associations that arise when reading erroneous answers.”
immediate confirmation of the correctness of the answer - after answering the question posed, the student has the opportunity to check the correctness of the answer; if the answer still turns out to be incorrect, the student takes this fact into account and moves on to the next portion, as in the case of a correct answer;
individualization of the pace of learning - the student works at an optimal pace for himself;
differentiated consolidation of knowledge - each generalization is repeated in different contexts several times and illustrated with carefully selected examples;
uniform course of instrumental teaching - no attempts are made to differentiate the approach depending on the abilities and inclinations of the students. The entire difference between students will be expressed only in the duration of the programs. They will arrive at the end of the program the same way.

Branched algorithm (Crowder's algorithm)

The main difference between the approach developed by Norman Crowder in 2009 and the introduction of individual paths through the training material. The program itself determines the path for each student in the learning process, based on the students' answers. N.A. Crowder laid down the following principles in his concept:

the complexity of portions of the surface level and their simplification as they go deeper - educational material is given to the student in relatively large portions and quite difficult questions are posed. If the student is unable to cope with this presentation of the material (as determined by an incorrect answer), then the student moves on to a portion of a deeper level, which is simpler.
use of closed questions - in each portion the student is asked to answer the question by choosing one of the answer options. Only one answer option is correct and leads to the next portion of the same level. Incorrect answers send the student to portions of a deeper level, in which the same material is explained (“chewed”) in more detail.
the presence of explanations for each answer option - if the student chooses an answer, the program explains to him what he did wrong before moving on to the next portion. If the student selects the correct answer, the program explains the correctness of that answer before moving on to the next portion.
differentiated course of instrumental learning - different students will learn in different ways.

Adaptive algorithm

The training program supports optimal level difficulties of the material being studied individually for each student, thereby automatically adapting to the person. The ideas behind adaptive programmed learning were pioneered by Gordon Pask in the 1950s.

The role of programmed learning in education

In general, programmed training can be considered as an attempt to formalize the learning process with the maximum possible elimination of the subjective factor of direct communication between the teacher and the student. It is currently believed that this approach has not been justified. Its use has shown that the learning process cannot be completely automated, and the role of the teacher and the student’s communication with him in the learning process remain a priority. However, development computer technology and distance learning increases the role of the theory of programmed learning in educational practice.

Literature

Bespalko V. P. Programmed training. Didactic basics. - M.: graduate School, 1970. - 300 p.
Galperin P. Ya. Programmed learning and the tasks of radical improvement of teaching methods // To the theory of programmed learning. - M., 1967.
Kram D. Programmed learning and teaching machines. - M.: Mir, 1965. - 274 p.
Kupisevich Ch. Fundamentals of general didactics. - M.: Higher School, 1986. Bilan V.V.

Links

Programmed training in the Theoretical Mechanics course
Theoretical mechanics simulator - a programmed manual on theoretical mechanics.

Wikimedia Foundation.

2010.
Film library

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training according to programs designed for portioned delivery of educational material, step-by-step control of assimilation and prompt assistance to students.

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PROGRAMMED TRAINING

training according to a pre-developed program, which provides for the actions of both students and the teacher (or a teaching machine replacing him) The idea of P.o. was proposed in the 50s. 20 in American psychologist B F Skinner to improve management efficiency

process of learning using experimental achievements. psychology and technology. Objectively P. o. In relation to the field of education, it reflects the close connection of science with practice, the transfer of certain human actions to machines, and the increasing role of management functions in all spheres of society. activities. To increase the efficiency of managing the learning process, it is necessary to use the achievements of all sciences related to this process, and above all cybernetics - the science of general laws of control. Therefore, the development of the ideas of P. o. turned out to be associated with the achievements of cybernetics, which sets general requirements for managing the learning process, and the implementation of these requirements in training programs is based on data from psychological and pedagogical studies. sciences that study specific features of the school process. However, when developing P. o. Some experts rely only on the achievements of psychology. science (one-sided psychological direction), others - only on the experience of cybernetics (one-sided cybernetic). In teaching practice it is typically empirical. direction, in which the development of training programs is based on practical. experience, and only departments are taken from cybernetics and psychology. data.

Usually, when compiling training programs from cybernetic. requirements, only the need for systematic feedback, from psychological - individualization of the learning process. There were no consecutive implementation of a certain model of the assimilation process. max. B. Skinner's concept is known, based on the behaviorist theory of teaching, according to which there is no significant difference between human learning and animal learning (see Behaviorism). In accordance with behaviorist theory, training programs must solve the problem of obtaining and reinforcing the correct response. To develop the correct reaction, the principle of breaking the process into small steps and the principle of a hint system are used. When breaking down the process, programmed complex behavior is divided into simple elements (steps), each of which the student could perform without error. When a prompt system is included in the training program, the required reaction is first given in a ready-made form (maximum degree of prompting), then with the skipping of the section. elements (fading prompts), at the end of training it is required to be completely independent. performing a reaction (removing a prompt). An example is memorizing a poem: at first the quatrain is given in full, then with the omission of one word, two words and an entire line. At the end of memorization, the student, having received 4 lines of ellipses instead of a quatrain, must reproduce the poem independently.

Training programs built on a behavioral basis are divided into linear, developed by Skinner, and the so-called. branched programs of N. Crowder. Linear programs are designed for error-free steps of all students, i.e. must correspond to the maximum capabilities. the weakest of them. Because of this, program correction is not provided: all students receive the same sequence of frames (tasks) and must complete the same steps, i.e. move along the same line (hence the name of the programs - linear). In widely used branched programs, in addition to the main ones. programs designed for strong students provide additional programs (auxiliary branches), to one of which the student is sent in case of difficulties. Branched programs provide individualization (adaptation) of training not only in terms of the pace of progress, but also in terms of the level of difficulty. In addition, these programs open up great opportunities for the formation of rational types of cognition. activities than linear ones that limit cognition. activities in the main perception and memory.

The general disadvantage of programs built on a behaviorist basis is the impossibility of controlling internal, mental. activities of students, control over the cut is limited to registration of the final result (answer). With cybernetic point of view, these programs carry out control according to the “black box” principle, which in relation to human training is unproductive, because Ch. The goal of teaching is to form rational methods of cognitive activity. This means that not only the answers must be controlled, but also the paths leading to them. Practice P. o. showed the unsuitability of linear and insufficient productivity of branched programs. Further improvements to training programs within the framework of the behaviorist model of education did not lead to significant improvements in results.

In the USSR (60s), the development of P. o.’s ideas was based on. the activity theory of assimilation was posited, i.e. the focus was on the cognitive activity of students, and the training program was aimed at the formation of its specified types with predetermined qualities. Training according to programs compiled in accordance with the requirements of cybernetics and the activity theory of learning has shown the high effectiveness of this way of educational programming. process and the ability to manage the learning process as it progresses. However, in the practice of mass education of this type of program before the beginning. 90s rarely met.

The compilation of training programs is associated with the algorithmization of teaching. process, i.e. with the development of constructive instructions (algorithms), which should guide both students and teachers. In conditions of mass learning, a teacher cannot simultaneously implement several. training programs that take into account the individual characteristics of students; the teacher cannot also provide systematic feedback to each trainee. Therefore P. o. is always associated with the use of teaching machines (machine education) and programmed textbooks (machineless education). At the same time, direct control of the assimilation process, characteristic of traditions. training is replaced by indirect control (using a program implemented by a teaching machine or other automation means).

Difficulty of the lesson process, insufficient knowledge of its laws does not allow us to foresee in advance all the situations that may arise during its implementation. Hence, full automation learning is impossible, and at certain stages the intervention of a teacher is necessary, who must be able to go beyond the limits of the instructions known to him and make a creative decision regarding the specifics of further education of a particular student.

Efficiency of P. o. determined by the degree to which the program takes into account the requirements of cybernetics for management, as well as the degree of consideration of specific laws of teaching process in implementing these requirements. These same conditions determine the effectiveness of traditions. training. Therefore, a scientifically unfounded training program implemented by a machine may give worse results than a traditional one. training, if the teacher takes into account the specified conditions of effectiveness to a greater extent. In the practice of education P. o. usually combined with traditional.

By. should not be identified with automation of teaching. process using various tech. means (tape recorders, film projectors, etc.), where the presentation and processing of information during the learning process is carried out without a program for controlling the assimilation process. Development of scientifically based training programs implemented by modern scientists. tech. means, opens the way for a significant increase in the effectiveness of teaching. process at all levels of education.

In psychological and educational research, conventional or traditional learning is considered poorly managed. According to the majority of domestic scientists and teachers, the main disadvantages of traditional education are the following:
1. Average overall pace of learning the material.
2. A single average amount of knowledge acquired by students.
3. An unreasonably large proportion of knowledge acquired by students in a ready-made form through a teacher without relying on independent work to acquire this knowledge.
4. The teacher’s almost complete ignorance of the progress of students’ assimilation of the communicated knowledge (no internal feedback and weak external feedback).
5. Insufficient stimulation of students’ cognitive activity, relying mainly on the teacher.
6. The predominance of verbal methods of presenting knowledge, creating objective prerequisites for the dispersion of attention.
7. Difficulty independent work students with a textbook due to insufficient division of educational material, dryness of language, almost complete absence emotional impact.
The emergence of programmed learning is associated with an attempt to eliminate these and other shortcomings of conventional learning.
A significant role in the formation of programmed learning was played by the famous psychologist B.F. Skinner, who in 1954 called on the pedagogical community to increase the effectiveness of teaching by managing the learning process, building it in full accordance with psychological knowledge about it.
In the neo-behaviourist concept of B.F. Skinner, the doctrine of operant conditioning is developed, according to which the importance of the effect of reinforcement of the expected reaction is affirmed as a regulator of subsequent actions and actions, which led to new system understanding behavior in behavioral psychology according to the relationship scheme: “response-stimulus” (R->S). The main postulate of B.F. Skinner's theory is the thesis that the result of a previous action (or rather, its psychological effect) influences subsequent behavior. Hence,
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behavior itself can be controlled by selecting certain rewards (reinforcements) for correct actions, thus stimulating further behavior in the expected direction.
The category of management acts as the central concept for constructing programmed training. As N.F. Talyzina notes, “the real problem is that at all levels of education, training should be good management, including elementary school and even preschool institutions» .
B.F. Skinner and his followers identified the laws by which behavior is formed, and on their basis they formulated the laws of learning:
1. Law of effect (reinforcement): if the connection between stimulus and response is accompanied by a state of satisfaction, then the strength of the connections increases, and vice versa. Hence the conclusion: in the learning process you need more positive emotions.
2. The law of exercises: the more often the connection between stimulus and response is manifested, the stronger it is (all data were obtained experimentally).
3. The law of readiness: every connection between stimulus and response bears the imprint of the nervous system in its individual, specific state.
B.F. Skinner based the technology of programmed learning on two requirements:
1) get away from control and move on to self-control;
2) transfer the pedagogical system to self-education of students.
The concept of programmed learning is based on general and specific didactic principles of consistency, accessibility, systematicity, and independence. These principles are implemented during the implementation of the main element of programmed training - a training program, which is an ordered sequence of tasks. For programmed learning, the presence of a “didactic machine” (or a programmed textbook) is essential. In this training, an individual approach is implemented to a certain extent, taking into account the nature of the student’s mastery of the program. However, the main thing remains that the process of assimilation and development of skills is controlled by the program.
There are three main forms of programming:
1) linear;
2) branched;
3) mixed.
The first form of programming is based on the behaviorist understanding of learning as the establishment of a connection between stimulus and response. The development of linear programs belongs to the
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The correct step of the student in this form of training is reinforced, which serves as a signal for further implementation of the program. As V. Okon testifies, a linear program in the understanding of B.F. Skinner is characterized by the following:
- didactic material divided into small doses called steps, which students overcome relatively easily, step by step;
- questions or gaps contained in individual frames of the program should not be very difficult so that students do not lose interest in the work;
- students themselves give answers to questions and fill in gaps, using the necessary information for this;
- during the training, students are immediately informed whether their answers are correct or incorrect;
- all students go through all the framework of the program in turn, but everyone does it at a pace convenient for him;
- a significant number of instructions at the beginning of the program that facilitate obtaining an answer are gradually limited;
- in order to avoid mechanical memorization of information, the same thought is repeated in various options in several program areas.
The linear program seems to assume that the student will not make a mistake in the answer. In 1954, B.F. Skinner tested his program on university students and received a negative result. The linear program did not bring success.
The development of the branched form was carried out by another representative of the American technology of programmed learning - Norman A. Crowder. In his S - R - P scheme, connections between stimulus, response and product are carried out by mental operations. In addition, he assumed a differentiated approach to
trainees. Branched. the program can be presented as follows (see diagram).
In a branched program, the answer is used primarily to guide the learner further along one of the branches. N. Crowder, unlike B.F. Skinner,

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assumes that the student may make a mistake and then it is necessary to give him the opportunity to understand this mistake, correct it, practice to consolidate the material, i.e. in N. Crowder's program, each answer is used to identify the possibilities of the student's chosen path and determine what to do next.
Thus, a branched program differs from a linear program in the multiplicity (and recurrence) of step selection. It is focused not so much on the error-free action, but on understanding the reason that may cause the error. Accordingly, branched programming requires mental effort from the student; in essence, it is “control of the thinking process.” Confirmation of the correctness of the answer in this form of programming is feedback, and not just positive reinforcement (according to the law of effect). A branched program can be a large text containing many answers to a question about it. The detailed answers proposed in the “framework” are either assessed here as correct or rejected, in both cases accompanied by full argumentation. If the answer is incorrect, then the student is asked to return to the original text, think and find another solution. If the answer is correct, then the following questions are proposed, based on the text of the answer, etc. As V. Okon notes, questions, in the understanding of N. Crowder, are aimed at:
a) check whether the student knows the material contained in this frame;
b) in case of a negative answer, refer the student to the “framework” that coordinates and accordingly substantiates the answer;
c) consolidate basic information with the help of rational exercises;
d) increase the student’s efforts and at the same time eliminate mechanical learning through repeated repetition of information;
e) form the required motivation of the student. A branched program takes into account more fully than a linear one
features of human learning (motivation, meaningfulness, influence of the pace of progress).
Mixed programming and its other forms are generally close to those discussed above.
Programmed learning in the late 60s - early 70s. received a new development in the works of L. N. Landa, who proposed algorithmizing this process.
An algorithm is a rule (the opposite statement is illegal) that prescribes a sequence of elementary actions (operations), which, due to their simplicity, are clearly understood and executed by everyone; This is a system of instructions (instructions) about
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these actions, which of them and how to perform them. An algorithmic process is a system of actions (operations) with an object; it is nothing more than a sequential and ordered selection of certain elements in a particular object. One of the advantages of learning algorithms is the possibility of formalizing and model representation of this process.
Advantages of control, programming in educational process are most fully and theoretically substantiated in training based on the psychological theory of the stage-by-stage formation of mental actions by P. Ya. Galperin.
In the theory of P.Ya. Galperin, the process of formation of mental actions goes through 5 stages:
1. Preliminary familiarization with the action and the conditions for its implementation.
2. Formation of an action in material form with the deployment of all operations included in it.
3. Formation of action in external speech.
4. Formation of action in inner speech.
5. The transition of action into deep, collapsed processes of thinking.
Together with N.F. Talyzina, P.Ya. Galperin put this theory into practice during the learning process. The initial theoretical postulates were the following provisions developed in Russian psychology by L. S. Vygotsky, S. L. Rubinstein, A. N. Leontiev:
- every internal mental is a transformed, internalized external; first the mental function appears as interpsychic, then as intrapsychic;
- psyche (consciousness) and activity are unity, not identity: the psyche is formed in activity, activity is regulated by the psyche (image, thought, plan);
- mental, internal activity has the same structure as external, objective activity;
- mental development has a social nature: the development of human individuals did not proceed through the development of internal, hereditarily laid down by species experience, but through the assimilation of external social experience, enshrined in the means of production, in language;
- the active nature of the mental image allows us to consider action as its unit. It follows that it is possible to control the formation of images only through the actions with the help of which they are formed.
P. Ya. Galperin set fundamentally new tasks for teaching: to describe any formed action by a set of its properties that are subject to formation; create conditions for
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formation of these properties; develop a system of guidelines necessary and sufficient to manage the correct formation of actions and avoid mistakes. P.Ya. Galperin distinguished between two parts of a mastered objective action: its understanding and the ability to perform it. The first part plays the role of orientation and is called indicative, the second - executive. P. Ya. Galperin attached special importance to the indicative part, considering it also a “managing authority”; he would later call it the "navigator's chart."
As a result of research conducted by P.Ya. Galperin and his students, it was found that:
a) together with actions, sensory images and concepts about the objects of these actions are formed. The formation of actions, images and concepts are different aspects of the same process. Moreover, action schemas and object schemas can largely replace each other in the sense that known properties the object begins to denote certain methods of action, and behind each link of action certain properties of its object are assumed;
b) the mental plan constitutes only one of the ideal plans. The other is the plane of perception. It is possible that the third independent plan of activity of an individual person is the plan of speech. In any case, the mental plan is formed only on the basis of the speech form of action;
c) the action is transferred to perfect plan either in its entirety, or only in its indicative part. In this last case, the executive part of the action remains in the material plane and, changing along with the orienting part, ultimately turns into a motor skill;
d) the transfer of an action to an ideal, in particular mental, plan is accomplished by reflecting its objective content by means of each of these plans and is expressed by multiple successive changes in the form of the action;
e) the transfer of action to the mental plane, its internalization constitutes only one line of its changes. Other, inevitable and no less important lines are changes: the completeness of the links of action, the measures of their differentiation, the measures of mastery of them, tempo, rhythm and strength indicators. These changes, firstly, determine a change in methods of execution and forms of feedback, and secondly, they determine the achieved qualities of the action. The first of these changes lead to the transformation of an ideally performed action into something discovered in introspection as mental process; the latter allow you to control the formation of such properties of action as flexibility, rationality, consciousness, criticality, etc. . P.Ya. Galperin considered reasonableness to be the main characteristic of the actions performed.
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The theory of the gradual formation of mental actions was the foundation of a new direction developed by N. F. Talyzina - programming the educational process. Its goal is to determine the initial level of cognitive activity of students, new formed cognitive actions; content of learning as a system of mental actions, means, i.e. actions aimed at mastering a wide range of knowledge in the third type of orientation (in terms of expanded speech); five main stages of the formation of mental actions, each of which has its own requirements for actions; development of an algorithm (system of instructions) for actions; feedback and provision on its basis for regulation of the learning process.
Essential for the implementation of training programming areas are General characteristics actions: by form (material, external speech, speech “to oneself”, mental); by degree of generalization; as it unfolds; as it is mastered and whether the action is given in a ready-made form or is mastered independently.
In action, indicative, executive and control functions are distinguished. According to N.F. Talyzina, “any human action is a kind of microcontrol system, including a “controlling body” (the indicative part of the action), an executive, a “working body” (the executive part of the action), a tracking and comparing mechanism (the control part of the action).” .
The central link in the formation of mental actions is its indicative basis, characterized by completeness, generalization and the degree of independent mastery of actions. The third type of indicative basis for actions (in expanded speech), characterized by an optimum of completeness, generality, and independence, ensures the highest efficiency in the formation of mental actions.
Correlating existing approaches to learning, N.F. Talyzina notes that, in comparison with the behaviorist theory of programming, the theory of the gradual formation of mental actions “builds the most rational structure (system of cognitive actions)”; this is true management of human development. At the same time, this theory serves as an example of the consistent implementation of the activity approach to learning.
In general, programmed learning is characterized by a set of five features/principles:
1) the presence of a measurable goal of educational work and an algorithm for this goal;
2) the division of the training part into steps associated with appropriate doses of information that ensure the implementation of each step;
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3) completing each step with a self-test, the results of which make it possible to judge how successful it is, and the proposal to the student is enough effective remedy for this self-check, and if required, then the appropriate corrective action;
4) use of an automatic, semi-automatic (matrix, for example) device;
5) individualization of training (within sufficient and accessible limits).
A special role belongs to the creation of appropriate programmed benefits. Programmed benefits are different from traditional themes, that in the latter only the educational material is programmed, and in the programmed ones - not only the educational material, but also its assimilation and control over it. When teaching, it is very important to notice the formation of semantic barriers in a timely manner. They arise when a teacher, using certain concepts, means one thing, and the students understand another.
Minimizing and overcoming semantic barriers is one of the most difficult learning problems to solve. In this regard, didactic support for programmed learning necessarily includes feedback: internal (to the learner) and external (to the teacher).
The material basis of programmed training is the training program, which is a manual specially created on the basis of the five principles noted above. In this manual, as already mentioned, not only the educational material is programmed, but also its assimilation (understanding and memorization), as well as control. The training program performs a number of teacher functions:
- serves as a source of information;
- organizes the educational process;
- controls the degree of assimilation of the material;
- regulates the pace of studying the subject;
- gives the necessary explanations;
- prevents errors, etc.
The learner's action, as a rule, is immediately controlled by the answers. If the action is performed correctly, the learner is asked to move on to the next step. If an action is incorrect, the training program usually explains the typical mistakes made by the trainees.
Thus, the training program is an indirect material implementation of the algorithm of interaction between the student and the teacher, which has a certain structure. It begins with an introductory part in which the teacher directly addresses the student, indicating the purpose of the program. In addition, the introductory part should contain some
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“an enticement” to interest the student, as well as brief instructions on how to complete the program.
The main part of the training program consists of several steps. They can be introductory, introductory and training or training. Each step can include several frames if it is computer program. On one, brief, measurable information is given and then a task or question so that the student can give his solution, answer the question posed, i.e. perform some operation. Such a frame is called information-operational. If the student answered correctly, information is displayed confirming the correctness of his answer and an incentive is given to further work. If the student answered inaccurately or incorrectly, a frame appears with guiding questions or information explaining his error.
The final part of the training program is general in nature: bringing into the system the material reported in the main part, instructions for checking the generalized data (self-test or teacher check).
If the training program is machine-free (nowadays this is rarely practiced, since there are computers), then it is recommended to draw up a methodological note for the teacher. It includes the specification of the training program and recommendations for the teacher to correct use training program and recording its results. The specification is the following instructions:
1. Purpose of the program: university, college, semester, specialty, characteristics of the initial level of advanced™ students (what they must know and be able to do in order to complete this program).
2. The purpose of the program: what and using what material the student will learn as a result of completing a given program.
3. Time required to complete the program.
4. Characteristics of the program by degree of mass participation (frontal, individual-group), by the specifics of the educational process (introductory, training, introductory-training), goals (type of activity: oral, written), by place of implementation (classroom, home, laboratory) , relation to teaching devices (machine-based, machine-free).
5. Attitude to other training programs and non-programmed aids (i.e., what happened before it and what will happen after it).
Developing a training program is always a huge job for a teacher. But those teachers who develop training programs significantly improve their pedagogical
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skoesky skill. They gain important experience in research and methodological work.
Programmed learning has its pros and cons. Positive, of course, is the individualization of learning, the activation of independent work of students, the development of their attention and observation skills; feedback ensures the strength of assimilation of the material; working according to a strict algorithm contributes to logical thinking students.
At the same time frequent work according to a given algorithm, accustoms students to performing activities, external responsibility, literalness of actions, and has a negative effect on development creative thinking. These and other shortcomings are overcome in the conditions of one of the most active forms of learning - problem-based learning technology.