Everyone has heard about such concepts as the industrial age and industrialization, but few can succinctly characterize them. Well, let's try to figure it out.

Industrial society: what is it like?

This era is characterized by a type of social relations based on the division of labor, and industry is able to provide people with a comfortable life. It is an intermediate option between traditional and information (post-industrial) society.

Despite the fact that historians call the modern way of life post-industrial, it has many “industrial” features. After all, we still travel by metro, burn coal in boiler rooms, and the cable telephone sometimes reminds us of the industrial Soviet past with its shrill ringing.

Prerequisites for industrial society

The entry of European society onto the path of progress is a gradual process characterized by a change from feudal relations to capitalist ones.

(the era of industrialization) is considered to be the period from the 16th to the 19th (early 20th) centuries. Over these three centuries, European society has come a long way in development, covering all spheres of human life:

• Economic.
• Political.
• Social.
• Technological.
• Spiritual.

The process of gradual innovation is called modernization.

The transition to an industrial society is characterized by:

1. Division of labor. This is what caused an increase in production, as well as the formation of two economic classes: the proletariat (wage workers) and the bourgeoisie (capitalists). The result of the division of labor was the formation of a new economic system - capitalism.
2. Colonialism - the domination of developed European countries over the economically backward states of the East. It is clear that the colonialist exploits the human and natural resources of the dependent country.
3. Advances in science and engineering inventions have changed people's lives.

Industrial society is characterized by the following features

• Urbanization.
• The transition to capitalism.
• The emergence of a consumer society.
• Education of the global market.
• Reducing the influence of the church on a person’s life.
• Formation of mass culture.
• The enormous influence of science on people's lives.
• The emergence of two new classes - the bourgeoisie and the proletariat.
• Decrease in the number of peasants.
• Industrialization.
• Changing the worldview of people (human individuality is the highest value).

Industrial revolution in European countries

As stated earlier, an industrial society is characterized by industrialization. Let us list one by one the countries of the Old World in which this process took place:

1. England is first European country on the path of progress. Already in the 16th century, the flying shuttle and the steam engine were invented. The 17th century can generally be called the century of invention: the first steam locomotive made its way from Manchester to Liverpool. In 1837, scientists Cook and Winston created the electromagnetic telegraph.

2. France “lost” a little in the industrialization of England due to strong feudal orders. However, the past revolution of 1789-1794 changed the situation: machines appeared, and weaving began to actively develop. The 18th century is notable for the development of the textile and ceramic industries. The final stage of French industrialization is the emergence of mechanical engineering. To summarize, we can say that France became the second country to choose the capitalist path of development.

3. Germany lagged significantly behind the pace of modernization of its predecessors. The German industrial type of society is characterized by the appearance of the steam engine in the mid-19th century. As a result, the pace of industrial development in Germany gained impressive momentum, and the country became the leader in production in Europe.

What do traditional and industrial societies have in common?

These two fundamentally different ways of life have identical features. Traditional and industrial society are characterized by:

• the presence of an economic and political sphere;
• apparatus of power;
• - observed in any type of social relations, since all people are different, regardless of the era.

Economics of an industrial society

Compared to the agrarian relations of the Middle Ages, the economy of modern times was more productive.

How is the economy of an industrial society characterized and what distinguishes it?

• Mass production.
• Development of the banking sector..
• Origin of credit.
• The emergence of a global market.
• Cyclical crises (for example, overproduction).
• The class struggle of the proletariat with the bourgeoisie.

A prerequisite for major economic changes was the division of labor, which contributed to increased productivity.

The English economist Adam Smith described this perfectly. He gave an example of the production of pins, in which one can clearly understand what the “division of labor” is.

An experienced craftsman produces only 20 pins per day. If you divide the production process into simple operations, each of which will be performed by a separate worker, labor productivity will increase many times. As a result, it turns out that a team of 10 people produces about 48 thousand pins!

Social structure

Industrial society is characterized by the following features that have changed daily life people:

• population explosion;
• increasing life expectancy;
• baby boom (40-50s of the twentieth century);
• environmental deterioration (with the development of industry, harmful emissions increase);
• the emergence of a partner family instead of a traditional one - consisting of parents and children;
• complicated social structure;
• social inequality between people.

Popular culture

What characterizes an industrial society, besides capitalism and industrialization? it is an integral part of it.

Kept up with the emergence of sound recording technologies, cinema, radio and other means mass media- they united the tastes and preferences of most people.

Mass culture is simple and understandable to all segments of the population; its goal is to evoke a certain emotional response from a person. It is designed to satisfy fleeting requests, as well as to entertain people.

Here are examples of popular culture:

• Women's novels.
• Glossy magazines.
• Comics.
• Series.
• Detectives and science fiction.

The genres of literature indicated in the last paragraph are traditionally classified as mass culture. But some social scientists do not share this point of view. For example, “The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes” is a series of detective stories written in artistic language and having many meanings. But Alexandra Marinina’s books can easily be classified as mass culture - they are easy to read and have a clear plot.

What kind of society do we live in?

Western sociologists have introduced such a concept as information (post-industrial) society. Its values ​​are knowledge, development of information technology, safety of people and care for our big house- wonderful green Earth.

Indeed, knowledge plays an increasingly important role in our lives, and information technologies have affected almost every person.

But, despite this, industry continues to work, cars burn gasoline, and potatoes are still being collected in the fall 100 years ago. The industrial type of society, as mentioned earlier, is characterized precisely by industry. And harvesting potatoes is an agriculture that arose in time immemorial.

Therefore, the name of today's era “post-industrial” is a beautiful abstraction. It is more logical to call our society industrial with features of an information society.

Industrial society is characterized by many useful discoveries and human visits to space.

The amount of knowledge accumulated today is enormous; another thing is that it can either benefit humanity or cause harm. We hope that a person will have enough intelligence to apply the accumulated potential of knowledge in the right direction.

Industrial society is a type of social development based on accelerating change natural environment, forms of social relations and the person himself. The rapid development of industrial society is due not only to the expansion of the sphere of human activity, the emergence industrial production, but also by restructuring its very foundations, a radical change in traditionalist values ​​and life meanings. If in a traditional society any innovations were disguised as tradition, then industrial society proclaims the value of the new, not constrained by regulatory tradition. This contributed to the development of social productive forces unprecedented in history.
Industrial society is characterized by the rapid development of technology based on the introduction of scientific ideas into social production. If traditional society made do with relatively simple tools of labor, arranged on the principle of a composite object with a geometric fit of individual parts (block, lever, cart), then industrial society is characterized by technical devices based on force interactions (steam engines, machine tools, engines internal combustion etc.). The emergence of large industrial enterprises equipped with complex equipment created a social demand for a competent worker, and therefore contributed to the development of a mass education system. The development of the railway network not only significantly strengthened the economic and cultural exchange, but also required the introduction of a unified maternity time. The impact of technology on all aspects of life in industrial society is so great that it is often called technogenic civilization. The development of technology is not only expands the sphere of human domination over nature, but also changes the place of man in the system of social production. Living labor gradually loses strength and motor functions and increases control and information functions. In the second half of the 20th century. such technical systems(automated enterprises, spacecraft control systems, nuclear power plants), the operation of which requires not just virtuoso production skills, but also fundamental vocational training based on the latest achievements science. Science becomes not only the most important area of ​​spiritual culture, but also a direct productive force.
Technological progress contributed to the rise of the productive forces of society and an unprecedented increase in quality human life. The development of commodity production not only led to the saturation of the market with essential products, but also created new needs unknown to traditional society (synthetic medicines, computers, modern means of communication and transport, etc.). The quality of housing, food and medical care has noticeably improved, and average life expectancy has increased. The powerful development of technology has noticeably changed not only the objective environment of man, but also his entire daily life. If the patriarchal-stagnant turn of life in the traditionalist consciousness was symbolized by the “wheel of times,” i.e., the idea of ​​an eternal return to square one, then the dynamism of technogenic civilization gave rise to the image of axial historical time, about which the German philosopher K. Jaspers wrote. “Time-arrow” becomes a symbol of not only technical, but also social progress that is, ideas about the progressive development of society from barbarism and savagery to civilization and the further increase in civilizational achievements.
Technological progress has given rise to profound changes in the cultural meanings of nature, society and man himself, and introduced new values ​​and life meanings into the public consciousness. The traditionalist idea of ​​life-giving nature in the public consciousness of industrial society is replaced by the idea of ​​an ordered “system of nature” governed by natural laws. Such ideas are reflected in the metaphor of the world as a clockwork mechanism, the individual parts of which are connected by a rigid cause-and-effect interaction. Knowledge of the world was identified with its reproduction in forms human activity. The religious “disenchantment” of the world (M. Weber) was accompanied by a large-scale secularization of public consciousness, i.e., replacing a religious worldview and education with a secular one. K. Marx’s definition of nature as the “inorganic human body” illustrates the destruction of traditionalist ideas about the organic unity of man and nature: the perception of nature as a deified source of life is replaced by the concept of habitat as a storehouse of an inexhaustible supply of industrial raw materials. The pathos of the Promethean will of the new European man, the assertion of his strength and power meant the assertion of limitless transformative possibilities in relation to nature. Conquest, subjugation, transformation become the key metaphors of the new industrial culture. “We cannot expect favors from nature” - this is the motto of not only a technological engineer, but also a botanist-breeder.
formal (legal) equality of the parties in practice turns out to be actual inequality, economic coercion to work on the employer’s terms. But in terms of civilization, the abolition of personal dependence and the transition to social contract based on legal contract- a noticeable step forward in the establishment of human rights and the formation of civil society. The severance of relationships of personal dependence and clan affiliation creates conditions for social mobility, i.e., a person’s ability to move from one social group (class) to another. Industrial society gives man one of the highest civilizational values ​​- personal freedom. A free person becomes the master of his own destiny. Social relations, invisible threads social fabric, in an industrial society take the form of commodity-money exchange (activities, products of labor, services, etc.). This gives rise to the illusion that it is not people who dominate each other, connected by a historically specific type of social relations, but “money rules the world.” Only a deep study of society can dispel this illusion and show that one or another form of labor exploitation is based on a historically specific type of social production and the corresponding relations of property and distribution. If social relations in a traditional society are called directly social, then industrial modernity is characterized by indirect (money, goods, institutions) social connections of people who do not personally know each other - social partners. Describing medieval cities, M. Weber noted that urban dwellings were located much closer together than in rural areas, however, unlike fellow villagers, city neighbors do not necessarily know each other. Social institutions, and above all the state represented by law enforcement agencies, courts, the prosecutor's office, as well as institutions of socialization (schools, universities, etc.) and individual employment (state enterprises), become mediators in the relations of people in an industrial society. Institutionally mediated social connections give rise to people’s attitude towards each other as carriers social role(judge, boss, teacher, doctor, salesman, bus driver, etc.). And each person plays not one, but many social roles, acting both as an actor and as the author of his own life.
The period of industrialization is characterized by mass migration rural population to cities that can provide a higher standard of living. Characteristics Western European medieval cities took shape back in the 16th-17th centuries. The city is distinguished from rural settlements by a fortified territory (“burg”), as well as elected bodies of city government. Unlike the rural population with a strict division into masters and subjects, city dwellers are formally equal in rights, regardless of their social origin, personal merits and wealth. Industrial corporations defended the rights of their members in the city court, including in front of former owner. In many countries, the verdict of the city court was final and could not be appealed by the royal court. The saying “City air makes you free” has survived to this day. However, with the strengthening of centralized states, the administration of justice is increasingly concentrated in the hands of supreme power. Monopolization and regulation of violence by the state help reduce the overall level of unauthorized violence in society. The development of legal consciousness and legal institutions that equate the strong and the weak, the noble and the baseless, the rich and the poor in the face of the law, i.e. the formation rule of law, not only an integral condition for the development of industrial capitalism, but also the most important civilizational achievement of humanity.

10. How do philosophy and ideology fundamentally differ as forms of spiritual activity? (in question 5)

In society as a whole, the sphere of value production turns out to be initially bifurcated. On the one hand - ideology, on the other - philosophy, art. Religion stands apart, as it can take one side or the other. This bifurcation of value systems lies the spiritual driving force of social development. Bifurcation always means struggle, mutual complementation, and the impossibility of these systems existing without each other.

Ideology is a set of ideals, goals and values ​​that reflects and expresses needs and interests large groups persons - layers, estates, classes, professions or the whole society. In the latter case, it borrows or receives the most general provisions from the outside, from the sphere political management social processes. Ideology is created, as a rule, by professionals in their field, people well trained both theoretically and practically. Ideology, undoubtedly, is a spiritual education, since its content always goes beyond the boundaries of everyday, empirical experience. But at the same time, the ideology created and operating in society has a purely practical purpose. It unites all people who share its basic principles and determines the immediate motivation for their specific deeds and actions. National and state ideologies play a special role in society, although they do not always coincide. In terms of content, national ideology is broader than state ideology. The latter includes an extensive hierarchical structure of values, which is intensively distributed in society by the propaganda machine, and to a certain extent is literally imposed by the state on citizens. Without uniting the country's population into a single community, without people realizing that they are citizens a certain state with all the ensuing rights and responsibilities, the state simply cannot exist and will collapse. Millions of people consciously, and most often unconsciously, are guided in their lives by ideological assessments. This is the familiar world of life meanings and assessments (moral, political and economic) in which the existence of an individual person is immersed. It was already said above that in this hierarchical structure not all values ​​can be classified as strictly spiritual. There are vital needs for food, clothing, and medicine that are directly related to everyday life. But the fact of the matter is that only if there are higher spiritual values ​​in the ideology itself, all other values ​​acquire their legitimate, proper place in the system of values ​​propagated by it. Hence the colossal role played by the spiritual aspect of ideology in society. Lack of spirituality is a serious disease that has affected and continues to affect many societies. The main culprit is always ideology. If it is beneficial for certain political forces for millions of people to see the meaning of life in consuming anything - cinema, entertainment, food or clothing, then such an ideology will be created by professional ideologists. Criticism of the content of any ideology always has serious justifications. And we will talk about this below. But first she needs to be protected from unfounded accusations. The struggle against the existence of ideology in society is a certain ideological attitude. A completely legitimate question arises: who benefits from this? Of course, criticism of the totalitarian claims of any ideology is necessary. An ideology that leaves no room for independent spiritual searches is untenable and doomed to destruction unless it causes the collapse of the entire society. The huge spiritual crisis that struck post-Soviet society was caused primarily by the collapse of the entire structure of socialist values, on which more than one generation of Soviet people grew up. But we should not forget that it was a totalitarian ideology that was all-pervasive. Ideology created from words, perhaps, the most perfect reality that secular science and culture knew. But in real life it was opposed by a unified, gray and poor social reality. They usually say that there can never be too much spirituality. But the spiritual search for higher ideals, especially in ideology, is not an end in itself. Man is also an earthly and social being. Therefore, the desire for a harmonious combination of the natural, social and spiritual in a person looks much more attractive than an extremely elevated spirituality in the absence of basic material means of life in society. Philosophy, art and other types of spiritual activity associated with them precisely perform a critical-reflective function in society, primarily in relation to state ideology or its substitutes, although their role in public life cannot be reduced to this function. Philosophy is the study of general principles being and knowledge, it represents a rational form of justification and expression of a person’s value relationship to the world. Philosophy develops the most general system of views of a social person on the world and his place in it. Familiarity with philosophical systems introduces a person to the collective experience of humanity, to its wisdom, as well as misconceptions and mistakes, and allows one to develop ideals, goals and values ​​that are in tune with his aspirations. The specificity of art lies in the sensory-visual, figurative mastery of reality, in contrast to the theoretical-conceptual mastery characteristic of scientific knowledge. Behind the diverse social functions of philosophy and art, one cannot help but see their main critical-reflective function. Ideology, on the one hand, philosophy and art, on the other, being spiritual and practical types of activity, allow, each in its own way, to connect together all spheres of social life, including science and material practice. As the spheres of science and material production develop, the role of the value development of the world not only does not decrease, but, on the contrary, increases. From this point of view, philosophy and art perform, in managerial language, the function of feedback, which is engaged in assessing the results of society under the determining influence of goals formulated by ideology. Therefore, the value sphere of activity often aroused suspicion among politicians and ideologists. The further a society is from democracy, the narrower the boundaries of what is permitted. Religion plays a special role in the sphere of value activity. A person’s ability to transcend takes on a special form in it. Spirituality from a religious point of view is an absolute, comprehensive, supra-individual reality. This world, which forms the true basis of the life of society (as well as nature), is revealed only to believers. Unlike philosophy, which appeals to reason, the starting point of a religious worldview is faith. The believer is completely within this reality, which reveals to him the eternal, unchanging norms of individual behavior, the principles of organizing social life, i.e., everything that is called the social and moral ideal. For many centuries, religion in different countries strived to realize her goals and ideals through the apparatus state power. The transformation of religious teaching into the dominant value system in society, and even more so into a state ideology, sometimes led to the emergence of a theocratic state. Religious views that are imposed by the force of the state lead to the discrediting of religion, to the departure of the broad masses of the population from it. In a secular state, religion, as well as philosophy and art, should not be an instrument of state power and politics. Each of them develops its own system of values, its own view of the world. Despite the inevitable difficulties of the so-called transition period in modern Russia, the value sphere of people’s social life is increasingly establishing itself as a special universal sphere.

2.1. Philosophical (worldview) paradigms of sociological analysis of society

2.2 General scientific, theoretical methods and their role in sociological science

2.3. Empirical methods of sociological research

2.4. Methods of processing, analysis and interpretation of empirical data

Topic 4. Sociological research: stages, program, main theoretical procedures and research strategies

1. Main stages of concrete sociological, empirical research

2. Program, goals and objectives, object and subject of research

3. Main theoretical procedures of xi

4. Research strategies

1. Sociological knowledge: general and specific

2. Sociology and laws of social life of society

3. Objectivity, epistemological and historical relativity (relativity) of sociological knowledge

Sociological knowledge

Topic 6. Internal diversity of sociology

Topic 7. Sociological pluralism. The main directions of modern world sociological thought

Topic 8. Sociology and other sciences

3. Sociology and psychology

4. Sociology and economics

Topic 9. Sociology and social life. Functions of sociology

Topic 10. Sociological thinking: some epistemological characteristics

Topic 11. Social. Social life, its basic elements.

1.Social

2.1 Social action.

2.3. Social communities.

2.5 Social organizations.

Topic 12. Society as a type of social community, social and societal system

3. Types of societies

3. Change (development) of society

5. Addition to the question of types of society (from the book “Modern Western Sociology: Dictionary” - M., Politizdat, 1990. P. 270-271)

Topic 13. Social structure of society: concept, pluralism of interpretations, place in the categorical system of sociology

1.About the term “structure”

2. Social structure as a sociological concept

3. Social structure: Western sociological paradigms of interpretation

Topic 14. Personality. Socialization of the individual

2. Personality structure

3. Personality formation (socialization of the individual)

Topic 15. Culture. Sociocultural dynamics

1. Culture: concept and its sociological interpretation

2. Internal differentiation (diversity) of culture

3. Sociocultural process

4. Types of crops. Sociocultural supersystems

Topic 16. Deviation: essence, causes and types. Social control

1. The concept of deviation

2. Causes of deviant behavior: biological, psychological and sociocultural explanation

3. Types of deviation

4. Deviation and social control

Deviation theories

Topic 17. Social structure of society

Topic 18. Family and marriage, their place and functions in society

1. Family as an object of sociological analysis

2. The concept of family and its definition

3. Social functions of the family

4. Types of family and marriage relationships

5. Historical change (development) of the family

Topic 19. Ethnic communities. Nations and interethnic relations

Topic 20. Settlement communities. Sociology of the city

1. Population settlement as a subject of sociological science. The concept of a settlement community

3. Urbanization features of urbanization in Russia

Topic 21. Social process and changes in society: classical and modern theories

2. Social changes: concept, essence, factors.

3. Types (varieties) of social changes.

Topic 22. Collective behavior: features, subjects, forms

1. Some preliminary remarks.

2.Collective behavior: concept, general characteristics and definition.

3.Mass behavior as a type of collective

4.Crowd and public. Crowd behavior.

2.Collective behavior: concept, general characteristics and definition

3.Mass behavior as a type of collective behavior

4. Crowd and audience. Crowd behavior

Topic 23. Social movements: essence types, life cycle

Topic 24. Management of social processes

1. The phenomenon of management. History of managerial social thought

2.Management of social processes: concept and system

3. Laws, principles and methods of social management

3. Types of societies

Existence (as well as previous existence, as well as those that may appear later) society, on the one hand, have a little similar, common, repeating (these are the same, for example, signs of society), on the other hand, they can significantly ( even) differ from each other, i.e. have their own characteristics, distinctive features and originality. In this regard, any particular society may be closer in its features to other societies, but in relation to others it may be very far removed from them. On this basis, all societies can be classified (typologized), i.e. subdivide into a minority of types, groups. Moreover, this grouping and classification can be carried out according to a variety of criteria or grounds. According to one criterion, all societies are divided into certain groups (types), according to another - into different types, and according to a third - into completely different types or classes (groups).

Let's start with the Marxist typology of societies, which is still known to all (both domestic and foreign) sociologists. K. Marx based it on such a characteristic as the method of production of material goods, and especially good production relations, calling the five types of society he identified, (succeeding each other according to the principle from “lowest to highest”) socio-economic forms. Another type of society was called less well-founded and known - it was based on the so-called Asian mode of production, i.e. in Marxist sociology, societies are distinguished with a primitive - appropriating mode of production (primitive communal), with an Asian mode of production, characterized by the presence of a special type of collective ownership of land, slave-holding societies, the specific feature of which is the ownership of people and the use of slave labor, feudal societies with production based on the exploitation of peasants attached to the land, bourgeois societies, characterized by a transition to the economic dependence of formally free wage workers, and finally, communist or socialist societies, in which it was assumed that everyone would have an equal attitude towards ownership of the means of production by eliminating private-own relations.

American sociologists G. Lenski and J. Lenski (1970) divided society into four main types. At the same time, they took the method of obtaining (earning) a livelihood as the basis for this division. These types of society are: 1) societies living by hunting and gathering;

2) gardening communities,

3) agricultural societies;

4) industrial (industrial) societies.

A little about each of them in the characteristics of vocabulary.

1) Societies living by hunting and gathering. Most of these societies, for example, the Bushmen of southwest Africa and the Aborigines of central Australia, usually lead a nomadic lifestyle, hunting, collecting berries, roots and other plant foods. Hunters and gatherers have the most primitive tools: stone axes, spears, knives; their property is limited to the most necessary items, which they carry with them while wandering from place to place. Their social life is organized on the basis of kinship ties; It is known that in a society of hunters and plant gatherers, everyone knows who is closely or distantly related to whom. There is almost no political structure in this society; it is headed by a foreman or leader, others power structures it didn’t work out.

2) Horticultural societies first appeared in the Middle East about four thousand years BC; later they spread from China to Europe; Currently, they are preserved mainly in Africa, in the south of the Sahara. In the most primitive horticultural societies, metal tools or plows are not used to cultivate gardens. More advanced horticultural societies have metal tools and weapons, but do not use plows. Like hunter-gatherer societies, horticultural societies do not produce surplus; people who work with only a hoe cannot create a highly productive system agriculture. The political structures of simple horticultural societies have up to two social layers, but in more developed societies of this type there are four or more. System family ties is also the basis of the social structure of these societies, but here it becomes much more complicated; sometimes societies consist of many clans with complex relationships, including rules governing marriage between members of different clans.

3) Agrarian societies first appeared in Ancient Egypt, which was facilitated primarily by the improvement of the plow and the use of animals as labor. Thanks to increased agricultural productivity, these societies were able to produce more food than was needed to support the rural population. The emergence of surplus agricultural products created the basis for the emergence of cities, the development of crafts and trade. From agrarian societies, the state arose (which formed a limited bureaucracy and army), writing was invented, the first monetary systems emerged, and trade expanded. More complex forms of political organization began to emerge, so the system of kinship ties ceased to be the basis of the social structure of society. However, family ties continued to play an important role in political life: Major civil and military positions passed from father to son, most business enterprises were family owned. In an agricultural society, the family continued to be the basis of the production unit.

4) Industrial (industrial) societies arose only in modern era, at the end of the 18th century. influenced by the industrialization of Great Britain. The most advanced modern industrial societies have developed in North America, Europe (including Eastern Europe), East Asia (Japan, Taiwan, Hong Kong and South Korea); Many other countries, such as India, Mexico, Brazil and some African countries, also experienced significant industrialization. As with the transition from horticultural to agricultural societies, improvements in technology and the use of new energy sources played a major role in the development of industrial societies. Industrial production involves the application of scientific knowledge necessary to control the production process; The muscular strength of humans and animals gives way to the use of thermal energy (obtained by burning coal), as well as electrical and subsequently atomic energy.

Society is also divided into pre-industrial, or traditional, industrial And post-industrial, or modern. In pre-industrial society, the determining factor of development was agriculture, in industrial society - industry, and in post-industrial society - information (theoretical knowledge). One of the most important studies of the contrast between pre-industrial and modern societies was carried out by the German sociologist Ferdinand Tönnies (1855-1936). He coined the terms "Gemeinschaft" and "Gesellschaft" (translated as "community" and "society"), expressing the difference between traditional and modern societies. More precisely, the term Gemeinshaft refers to a rural community, and the term Gesellschaft refers to an urban industrial society. What are the main differences between Gemeinshaft and Gesellschaft? N. Smelser describes them as follows:

1. If we talk about industrial motivation, “gemeinshaft” stimulates people’s desire to live in accordance with community interests, for example, peasant families help each other for free during the harvest season. A Gesellschaft society is based on the rational pursuit of personal interests; individuals interact in a business setting and pay money for certain goods and services.

2. In the sphere social control a Gemeinshaft society attaches decisive importance to traditional customs, beliefs and written laws, while a Gesellschaft society is a society based on formal law.

3. In the field of division of labor, a Gemeinshaft-type society is distinguished by limited specialization, which develops mainly on the basis of family ties - usually husbands, wives and children perform certain duties in the household. Gesellschaft societies are characterized by specialization of professional roles and separation of the latter from family roles.

4. In a Gemeinshaft society, culture is formed on the basis of religious values, and in a Gesellschaft society, on secular ones.

5. Main social institutions in Gemeinshaft are family, neighbors and community; Large unions and associations (business circles, government, political parties, voluntary associations) form the Gesellschaft.

E. Durkheim also shares what is common to sociology of the 19th century. the idea of ​​two types of society: traditional and modern. He identifies two types of social solidarity. Firstly, mechanical solidarity, inherent in a traditional, archaic society and based on the underdevelopment and similarity of the people making up the society. The individual in such a society does not belong to himself, and the collective consciousness almost entirely covers individual characteristics, that is, the individual “I” is leveled: “I am only WE.” Individuals differ little from each other, they experience the same feelings, are committed to the same values, recognize the same things as sacred. Society is cohesive because individuals are not yet differentiated. As is known, social coercion was expressed here in strict repressive laws punishing the slightest deviation from the norms of collective behavior.

Secondly, organic solidarity, which is generated by the division of social labor and which is based not on the similarity, but on the differences of individuals. And if mechanical solidarity presupposes the absorption of the individual by the collective, then organic solidarity, on the contrary, presupposes the development of the individual. Durkheim calls solidarity based on the differentiation of individuals organic by analogy with the organs of a living being, each of which performs its own functions and is not like other organs. It is thanks to the division of labor that the individual realizes his dependence on society, which was previously supported by repressive measures. As E. Durkheim emphasized, “since the division of labor becomes an important source of social solidarity, it (the division of labor) at the same time becomes the basis of the moral order.” Here there is a reduction in the sphere of existence covered by collective consciousness, a weakening of collective reactions to the violation of prohibitions and an expansion of the zone of individual interpretation of social imperatives. Therefore, he considers the transition from mechanical to organic solidarity not only a historical law, but also the main indicator of progress.

There are also such types of societies as society preliterate(without writing) and a society with writing; simple society and complex(the first are pre-state developed societies and the second are societies that already have a state and law). The English philosopher, historian and sociologist K. Popper called these types of society closed And open. The basis of their religion, according to the scientist, is a different ratio of social control and individual freedom. A magical, tribal or collective society, and a society in which individuals are forced to make decisions is an open society.

In the 60s, the two already mentioned stages in the development of traditional industrial society were complemented by a third. The concept of post-industrial society appears, actively developed in American (D. Bell) and Western European (A. Tren) sociology. The reason for the emergence of this concept is structural changes in the economy and culture of the most developed countries, forcing us to take a different look at society itself as a whole. First of all, the role of knowledge and information has sharply increased. Having received the necessary education and having access to the latest information, the individual received an advantage in moving up the social hierarchy. Fruitful creative work - the child of freedom - becomes the basis for success and prosperity of both an individual and society.

However, on the basis of technological and information progress, processes have developed that have caused serious concern. The state and the ruling elite, thanks to preferential access to the most important socio-political information and proximity to electronic means of communication, have become the owners of a colossal opportunity to influence the masses. It was precisely this danger of the increasing role of the technocratic state and the gradual subordination of civil society to it that A. Touraine pointed out in his book “Post-Industrial Society”. That is, post-industrial society is not just a qualitatively different combination of social institutions and norms, ensuring, in particular, the priority of knowledge and education, but also an increase in the real threat of strengthening social control, and in a more sophisticated, hidden, and therefore more dangerous form.

Today this typology is the most significant and popular in social science, including sociology.

Social structure of industrial society
Industrial society is characterized by a process of urbanization, rapid
urban population growth. This was due to several reasons:
1. Overpopulation of the village due to improved land use and
introduction of advanced farming methods, resulting in
a lot of workers were freed up.
2. The decline of small towns associated with the fall of the craft industry
production and small trade.
3. And also with changes in transport: with the development of railway
transport industry centers moved to new areas.
The German scientist Werner Sombart called the 19th century. time when the earth
I threw my children away.” The masses of the population who have lived on earth for centuries,
start moving and leave their homes. Leaving the village gives rise to
emigration, people leave for other countries. Many residents of the towns
moved to large cities or new industrial centers of their country.
Due to the increase in agricultural productivity, the opportunity has arisen
feed big cities. In Great Britain, in this "land of cities",
Nine out of ten Englishmen lived in cities. There are only three in France
about ten people lived in cities, but urban populations were growing everywhere
at a very fast pace. It is especially important that for the first time in the history of the city
began to dominate economic life.
People on the move. Since the 20s XIX century mass relocation began
Europeans to other continents. The main destination for emigration
were Latin America, Canada, Australia, South Africa, but
absolute US champion. New York became the main port where
emigrants arrived. It took 12 days to get there from Europe
swimming. Ellis Island in New York Bay was created for emigrants.
"station" where they registered and received permission to enter
country. The new homeland did not accept everyone. A tenth of those arriving in the United States
were refused on medical grounds. Those who received permission
put on a ferry and sent to Manhattan. Here in the center of New York they are
were left to their own devices. Most of the new arrivals settled in
friends, parents, fellow countrymen. The city consisted of quarters, each of which
had its own language and customs. Emigrants were cheap labor force,
agrees to the most difficult working conditions.
Changes in social structure
No less important changes are taking place in the social structure. Disappear
class, the class structure of society becomes more complicated. Throughout
XIX century the industrial revolution changed social structure

Western European society. The number of bourgeoisie increased and
hired industrial workers employed in capitalist production,
by the beginning of the 20th century. they became mainstream social groups industrial
society. As for the main classes traditional society -
nobles, landowners and peasants, then their number is constant
decreases.
The old classes are disappearing. The number of bourgeoisie and wage workers is growing.
In a number of countries, estates were abolished legally, and where they were preserved,
class barriers were destroyed in the process of modernization. Delamination
occurred within the classes of society themselves. There was a large
middle and petty bourgeoisie, the working class and
peasantry. It was generally difficult to classify a significant part of people as
to some specific class.
Aristocracy old and new. By the middle of the 19th century. European aristocracy
had to change her lifestyle in many ways, otherwise she would not have been able to
survive. Many aristocrats continued to own lands, and their lives were
connected more with the village than with the city. Political elite
was formed mainly from landowners. But gradually, with development
industrial society, the dominant position of the aristocracy is gone
to the past. Part of the land is being sold for urban development, decreasing
forest holdings. New times place new demands on those who
wants to make a career. The landed aristocracy occupies leading positions in
banks, industrial companies, in the colonial administration. Many
aristocratic families lose their wealth. And although to know with contempt
belonged to the rich "upstarts", many offspring of ancient families
marry heirs of large fortunes, and this leads to
the merger of the aristocracy and the bourgeoisie, the formation of a new “upper class”.
The leading role in society is played by the big bourgeoisie.
New bourgeoisie. In the 19th century in economic and political life
states, the bourgeoisie is making itself known more and more loudly. Much success
what is achieved is what was said about “a man who owes everything to himself.”
A classic example of the rise of such a person in society is given by
English writer W. Thackeray: “Old Man Pump sweeps the bench, runs on
parcels, becomes a trusted clerk and companion; Pump second
becomes the head of the company, rake in more and more money, marries his son
on the count's daughter. Pamptretii does not give up the bank, but the main thing in his life is
- become the father of Pampache the Fourth, and his offspring by right of inheritance
rules over our nation of snobs."
In the 19th century at the head of large industry and banks were representatives
bourgeoisie who have amassed millions of fortunes. They worked very hard

devoting time and effort to your business. Their life was modest, but many
strived to become part of the aristocracy. The politician Disraeli received from
Queen Victoria title of Lord Bickensfield, Guinness brewer and banker
Rothschild became barons, received titles of nobility in Germany Krupp and
Siemens.
Middle class. A new phenomenon in the social life of the 19th century. became
the emergence of a middle class that united various strata of society -
petty bourgeoisie, employees of private companies and state
institutions. The middle class also included intellectuals
professions - engineers, inventors, doctors, teachers, officers,
lawyers, etc. One of the main signs of belonging to the middle class
was stable financial situation, although different from individual to individual
layers.
The category of lawyers deserves special mention. With the formation of legal
state, civil society, with the development of economic life
The need for lawyers is growing significantly. Lawyers write constitutions
and legal codes, prepared wills, advised bankers,
entrepreneurs, engaged in legal proceedings. Lawyers for
many were educated politicians. The middle class gives
sustainability to society. As a rule, these people do not approve of social
shocks, preferring reforms to revolutions.
Important changes are also taking place among workers. The working class is divided
for skilled and unskilled workers. In the 19th century
the working class is formed, in industrial countries it becomes
heterogeneous. Highly qualified workers are identified, who
historians called it a labor aristocracy. Their position in the enterprise
was strong, the salary allowed to give technical education
sons, sometimes their children even became employees. And this was already a step
up the social ladder. In England by the beginning of the 20th century. such workers
made up a third of the total. Life was much more difficult for the rest of us
working class. Unskilled workers earned half as much
but sometimes the family's income could be increased by working children. In families
with a low income, any expense, such as buying shoes, forced
save on food, dinners were canceled for several days. Half English
workers could buy meat for lunch no more than once a week, and even then
there were purchases made at 11 p.m. Why at this time? By
traditions in industrial cities, most of the population acquired
groceries on Saturday, after payment for the week's work. By eight o'clock
In the evenings, shops in rich neighborhoods closed, and in poor neighborhoods life was only
began. The shops are brightly lit, the butchers are shouting all over the street.
the merits of your product. This is how he described Saturday in a working-class area of ​​London

contemporary: “Whole families walk along the sidewalks: the mother pushes a stroller,
in which, in addition to the child... there are also bags and packages, the father carries to
shoulders of my little son... Concerts are being held near the taverns... By 11 o'clock in the evening
The aristocracy of the working class... is already stocking up on provisions. Then they appear
emaciated, starved women in black straw hats, with
baskets in hands. They line up shyly in rows near the meat shops.
shops, and the butchers sell them all the remains for a cheap price: pieces of bones,
tripe, trimmings, etc.”
Female and child labor. Used throughout industry
female and child labor. This is very profitable, you can pay both
was less than for men. Many women worked as domestic servants,
and with the development of entrepreneurship, they acquired new professions:
telephone operators, typists, secretaries.
“A child of poverty, baptized in tears instead of a font,” wrote the English poet
Langori about “factory children”. Despite a number of parliamentary laws,
children continued to be used in the most difficult work, including in
coal mines. Some worked at the bottom of a mine well, loading
coal carts pulled by ponies. Others, sitting in complete darkness, must
doors leading to the underground galleries were opened and closed every time,
when the cart passed by. Such stupefying work was done
twelve year olds. It was only in 1893 that a law was passed in England
prohibited the employment of children under 11 years of age (before this,
Children over 8 years old were allowed). The working day lasted 6.5 hours, and after
work 3 times a week, by law they had to go to school. But children
We were so tired that we simply slept during class.
Women's rights were also infringed, and only at the beginning of the 20th century. women were
given equal rights to men.
Thus, industrial society has changed very significantly
not only people's lives, but also the social structure.

Today, industrial society is a concept familiar in all developed and even many developing countries of the world. Transition process mechanical production, the decline in the profitability of agriculture, the growth of cities and a clear division of labor - all these are the main features of the process that is changing the socio-economic structure of the state.

What is an industrial society?

Apart from production characteristics, this society is different high level life, the emergence of civil rights and freedoms, the emergence of service activities, accessible information and humane economic relations. Previous traditional socio-economic models were characterized by a relatively low average standard of living of the population.

Industrial society is considered modern; both technical and social components are developing very quickly in it, affecting the improvement of the quality of life in general.

Main differences

The main difference between a traditional agrarian society and a modern one is the growth of industry, the need for modernized, accelerated and efficient production and the division of labor.

The main reasons for the division of labor and mass production can be considered both economic - the financial benefits of mechanization, and social - population growth and increased demand for goods.

Industrial society is characterized not only by the growth of industrial production, but also by the systematization and flow of agricultural activities. Moreover, in any country and in any society, the process of industrial reconstruction is accompanied by the development of science, technology, media and civic responsibility.

Changing the structure of society

Today, many developing countries are particularly characterized by accelerated process transition from traditional society to industrial one. The process of globalization and free information space play a significant role in changing socio-economic structures. New technologies and scientific advances make it possible to improve production processes, which makes a number of industries especially efficient.

Processes of globalization and international cooperation and regulation are also influencing changes in social charters. Industrial society is characterized by a completely different worldview, when the expansion of rights and freedoms is perceived not as a concession, but as something for granted. In combination, such changes allow the state to become part of the world market both from an economic and socio-political point of view.

Main features and characteristics of industrial society

The main characteristics can be divided into three groups: production, economic and social.

The main production features and characteristics of an industrial society are as follows:

• mechanization of production;
• labor reorganization;
• division of labor;
• increased productivity.

Among the economic characteristics it is necessary to highlight:

• growing influence of private production;
• emergence of a market for competitive goods;
• expansion of sales markets.

The main economic feature of an industrial society is uneven economic development. Crisis, inflation, decline in production - all these are frequent phenomena in the economy of an industrial state. The Industrial Revolution does not guarantee stability.

The main feature of industrial society in terms of its social development- change in values ​​and worldview, which is affected by:

• development and accessibility of education;
• improving quality of life;
• popularization of culture and art;
• urbanization;
• expansion of human rights and freedoms.

It is worth noting that industrial society is also characterized by reckless exploitation natural resources, including irreplaceable ones, and almost complete disregard for the environment.

Historical background

In addition to economic benefits and population growth, the industrial development of society was due to a number of other reasons. In traditional states, most people were able to provide themselves with a means of subsistence, and that’s all. Only a few could afford comfort, education and pleasure. Agrarian society was forced to move to agrarian-industrial society. This transition allowed for increased production. However, the agrarian-industrial society was characterized by an inhumane attitude of owners towards workers and a low level of mechanization of production.

Pre-industrial socio-economic models were based on one form or another of the slave system, which indicated the absence of universal freedoms and a low average standard of living of the population.

Industrial revolution

The transition to an industrial society began during the Industrial Revolution. It was this period, the 18th-19th centuries, that was responsible for the transition from manual labor to mechanized labor. The beginning and middle of the 19th century became the apogee of industrialization in a number of leading world powers.

During the industrial revolution, the main features of the modern state took shape, such as production growth, urbanization, economic growth and the capitalist model of social development.

The industrial revolution is usually associated with the growth of machine production and intensive technological development, but it was during this period that the main socio-political changes took place that influenced the formation of a new society.

Industrialization

There are three main sectors in both the global and national economies:

• Primary - resource extraction and agriculture.
• Secondary - processing resources and creating food products.
• Tertiary - service sector.

Traditional social structures were based on the superiority of the primary sector. Subsequently, in transition period, the secondary sector began to catch up with the primary sector, and the service sector began to grow. Industrialization consists of expanding the secondary sector of the economy.

This process took place in world history in two stages: the technical revolution, which included the creation of mechanized factories and the abandonment of manufacturing, and the modernization of devices - the invention of the conveyor, electrical appliances and engines.

Urbanization

In the modern understanding, urbanization is the increase in the population of large cities due to migration from rural areas. However, the transition to an industrial society was characterized by a broader interpretation of the concept.

Cities became not only places of work and migration, but also cultural and economic centers. It was the cities that became the boundary of the true division of labor - territorial.

The future of industrial society

Today at developed countries There is a transition from modern industrial society to post-industrial society. There is a change in the values ​​and criteria of human capital.

The engine of post-industrial society and its economy should be the knowledge industry. That's why scientific discoveries and new generation technological developments are playing a big role in many countries. Professionals with a high level of education, good learning ability, and creative thinking. The dominant sector of the traditional economy will be the tertiary sector, that is, the service sector.