Reforms of Peter I - transformations in state and public life carried out during the reign of Peter I in Russia. All government activities Peter I can be conditionally divided into two periods: 1696-1715 and 1715-1725.

A feature of the first stage was haste and not always thought-out character, which was explained by the conduct of the Northern War. The reforms were aimed primarily at raising funds for the war, were carried out by force and often did not lead to the desired result. In addition to government reforms, at the first stage, extensive reforms were carried out with the aim of modernizing the way of life. In the second period, reforms were more systematic.

A number of historians, for example V. O. Klyuchevsky, pointed out that the reforms of Peter I were not something fundamentally new, but were only a continuation of those transformations that were carried out during the 17th century. Other historians (for example, Sergei Solovyov), on the contrary, emphasized the revolutionary nature of Peter's transformations.

Historians who analyzed Peter's reforms have different views on his personal participation in them. One group believes that Peter did not play a role either in drawing up the reform program or in the process of implementing it. leading role(which was attributed to him as a king). Another group of historians, on the contrary, writes about the great personal role of Peter I in carrying out certain reforms.

Public Administration Reforms

See also: Senate (Russia) and Collegium (Russian Empire)

At first, Peter I did not have a clear program of reforms in the field government. The emergence of a new government agency or a change in the administrative-territorial management of the country was dictated by the conduct of wars, which required significant financial resources and mobilization of the population. The system of power inherited by Peter I did not allow raising enough funds to reorganize and increase the army, build a fleet, build fortresses and St. Petersburg.

From the first years of Peter's reign, there was a tendency to reduce the role of the ineffective Boyar Duma in government. In 1699, under the tsar, the Near Chancellery, or Consilium (Council) of Ministers, was organized, consisting of 8 proxies who administered individual orders. This was the prototype of the future Governing Senate, formed on February 22, 1711. The last mention of the Boyar Duma dates back to 1704. A certain mode of work was established in the Consilium: each minister had special powers, reports and minutes of meetings appeared. In 1711, instead of the Boyar Duma and the Council that replaced it, the Senate was established. Peter formulated the main task of the Senate this way: “To look at expenses throughout the state, and set aside unnecessary, and especially wasteful ones. How can we collect money, since money is the artery of war.”

Created by Peter for the current administration of the state during the absence of the tsar (at that time the tsar was setting off on the Prut campaign), the Senate, consisting of 9 people (presidents of the boards), gradually turned from a temporary to a permanent highest government institution, which was enshrined in the Decree of 1722. He controlled justice, was in charge of trade, fees and expenses of the state, monitored the orderly performance of military service by the nobles, and the functions of the Rank and Ambassadorial orders were transferred to him.

Decisions in the Senate were made collegially, at a general meeting, and were supported by the signatures of all members of the highest state body. If one of the 9 senators refused to sign the decision, the decision was considered invalid. Thus, Peter I delegated part of his powers to the Senate, but at the same time imposed personal responsibility on its members.

Simultaneously with the Senate, the position of fiscals appeared. The duty of the chief fiscal under the Senate and the fiscals in the provinces was to secretly supervise the activities of institutions: cases of violation of decrees and abuses were identified and reported to the Senate and the Tsar. Since 1715, the work of the Senate was supervised by the Auditor General, who was renamed Chief Secretary in 1718. Since 1722, control over the Senate has been exercised by the Prosecutor General and Chief Prosecutor, to whom the prosecutors of all other institutions were subordinate. No decision of the Senate was valid without the consent and signature of the Prosecutor General. The Prosecutor General and his deputy Chief Prosecutor reported directly to the sovereign.

The Senate, as a government, could make decisions, but required an administrative apparatus to carry them out. In 1717-1721, a reform of the executive bodies of government was carried out, as a result of which, in parallel with the system of orders with their vague functions, 12 colleges were created according to the Swedish model - the predecessors of future ministries. In contrast to orders, the functions and spheres of activity of each board were strictly demarcated, and relations within the board itself were built on the principle of collegiality of decisions. The following were introduced:

· Collegium of Foreign Affairs - replaced the Ambassadorial Prikaz, that is, it was in charge of foreign policy.

· Military Collegium (Military) - recruitment, armament, equipment and training of the ground army.

· Admiralty Collegium - naval affairs, fleet.

· Patrimonial Collegium - replaced the Local Order, that is, it was in charge of noble land ownership (land litigation, transactions for the purchase and sale of land and peasants, and the search for fugitives were considered). Founded in 1721.

· Chamber Board - collection of state revenues.

· State Office Board - was in charge of state expenses,

· Audit Board - control over the collection and expenditure of government funds.

· Commerce Board - issues of shipping, customs and foreign trade.

· Berg College - mining and metallurgy (mining industry).

· Manufactory Collegium - light industry (manufactures, that is, enterprises based on the division of manual labor).

· The College of Justice - was in charge of issues of civil proceedings (the Serfdom Office operated under it: it registered various acts - bills of sale, the sale of estates, spiritual wills, debt obligations). She worked in civil and criminal court.

· The Spiritual College or the Holy Governing Synod - managed church affairs, replaced the patriarch. Founded in 1721. This board/Synod included representatives of the highest clergy. Since their appointment was carried out by the tsar, and decisions were approved by him, we can say that the Russian emperor became the de facto head of the Russian Orthodox Church. The actions of the Synod on behalf of the highest secular authority were controlled by the chief prosecutor - a civil official appointed by the tsar. By a special decree, Peter I (Peter I) ordered the priests to carry out an educational mission among the peasants: read sermons and instructions to them, teach children prayers, and instill in them respect for the king and the church.

· Little Russian Collegium - exercised control over the actions of the hetman, who held power in Ukraine, because there was a special regime of local government. After the death of Hetman I. I. Skoropadsky in 1722, new elections of a hetman were prohibited, and the hetman was appointed for the first time by royal decree. The board was headed by a tsarist officer.

On February 28, 1720, the General Regulations introduced a uniform system of office work in the state apparatus for the entire country. According to the regulations, the board consisted of a president, 4-5 advisers and 4 assessors.

The central place in the management system was occupied by the secret police: the Preobrazhensky Prikaz (in charge of cases of state crimes) and the Secret Chancellery. These institutions were administered by the emperor himself.

In addition, there was a Salt Office, a Copper Department, and a Land Survey Office.

The “first” collegiums were called the Military, Admiralty and Foreign Affairs.

There were two institutions with the rights of collegiums: the Synod and the Chief Magistrate.

The boards were subordinate to the Senate, and to them were the provincial, provincial and district administrations.

The results of the management reform of Peter I are viewed ambiguously by historians.

Regional reform

Main article: Regional reform of Peter I

In 1708-1715, a regional reform was carried out with the aim of strengthening the vertical of power at the local level and better providing the army with supplies and recruits. In 1708, the country was divided into 8 provinces headed by governors vested with full judicial and administrative power: Moscow, Ingria (later St. Petersburg), Kyiv, Smolensk, Azov, Kazan, Arkhangelsk and Siberian. The Moscow province provided more than a third of revenues to the treasury, followed by the Kazan province.

Governors were also in charge of the troops stationed on the territory of the province. In 1710, new administrative units appeared - shares, uniting 5,536 households. The first regional reform did not solve the set tasks, but only significantly increased the number of civil servants and the costs of their maintenance.

In 1719-1720, a second regional reform was carried out, eliminating shares. The provinces began to be divided into 50 provinces headed by voivodes, and super-district provinces headed by zemstvo commissars appointed by the Chamber Board. Only military and judicial matters remained under the governor's jurisdiction.

Judicial reform

Under Peter, the judicial system underwent radical changes. Functions supreme court received the Senate and the College of Justice. Below them were: in the provinces - the Hofgerichts or court courts of appeal in large cities, and the provincial collegial lower courts. Provincial courts conducted civil and criminal cases of all categories of peasants except monasteries, as well as townspeople not included in the settlement. Since 1721, court cases of the townspeople included in the settlement were conducted by the magistrate. In other cases, the so-called single court acted (cases were decided individually by the zemstvo or city judge). However, in 1722, the lower courts were replaced by provincial courts headed by a voivode. Also, Peter I was the first person to carry out judicial reform, regardless of the state of the country.

Control over the activities of civil servants

To monitor the implementation of local decisions and reduce endemic corruption, since 1711, the position of fiscal officers was established, who were supposed to “secretly inspect, report and expose” all abuses of both high and low officials, pursue embezzlement, bribery, and accept denunciations from private individuals. . At the head of the fiscals was the chief fiscal, appointed by the emperor and subordinate to him. The chief fiscal was part of the Senate and maintained contact with subordinate fiscals through the fiscal desk of the Senate office. Denunciations were considered and reported monthly to the Senate by the Execution Chamber - a special judicial presence of four judges and two senators (existed in 1712-1719).

In 1719-1723 The fiscals were subordinate to the College of Justice, and with the establishment in January 1722, the positions of the Prosecutor General were supervised by him. Since 1723, the chief fiscal officer was the fiscal general, appointed by the sovereign, and his assistant was the chief fiscal, appointed by the Senate. In this regard, the fiscal service withdrew from the subordination of the Justice College and regained departmental independence. The vertical of fiscal control was brought to the city level.

Military reform

Army reform: in particular, the introduction of regiments of a new system, reformed according to foreign models, began long before Peter I, even under Alexei I. However, the combat effectiveness of this army was low. Army reform and the creation of a fleet became necessary conditions for victory in the Northern War of 1700-1721 years. In preparation for the war with Sweden, Peter ordered in 1699 to carry out a general recruitment and begin training soldiers according to the model established by the Preobrazhensky and Semyonovtsy. This first recruitment yielded 29 infantry regiments and two dragoons. In 1705, every 20 households were required to send one recruit to lifelong service. Subsequently, recruits began to be taken from a certain number of male souls among the peasants. Recruitment into the navy, as into the army, was carried out from recruits.

Church reform

One of the transformations of Peter I was the reform of church administration that he carried out, aimed at eliminating the church jurisdiction autonomous from the state and subordinating the Russian church hierarchy to the Emperor. In 1700, after the death of Patriarch Adrian, Peter I, instead of convening a council to elect a new patriarch, temporarily placed Metropolitan Stefan Yavorsky of Ryazan at the head of the clergy, who received the new title of Guardian of the Patriarchal Throne or “Exarch”.

To manage the property of the patriarchal and bishop's houses, as well as monasteries, including the peasants belonging to them (approximately 795 thousand), the Monastic Order was restored, headed by I. A. Musin-Pushkin, who again began to be in charge of the trial of the monastic peasants and control income from church and monastic landholdings. In 1701, a series of decrees were issued to reform the management of church and monastic estates and the organization of monastic life; the most important were the decrees of January 24 and 31, 1701.

In 1721, Peter approved the Spiritual Regulations, the drafting of which was entrusted to the Pskov bishop, the tsar’s close Ukrainian Feofan Prokopovich. As a result, a radical reform of the church took place, eliminating the autonomy of the clergy and completely subordinating it to the state. In Russia, the patriarchate was abolished and the Spiritual College was established, soon renamed the Holy Synod, which was recognized by the Eastern patriarchs as equal in honor to the patriarch. All members of the Synod were appointed by the Emperor and took an oath of loyalty to him upon taking office. Wartime stimulated the removal of valuables from monastery storages. Peter did not go for the complete secularization of church and monastic properties, which was carried out much later, at the beginning of the reign of Catherine II.

Financial reform

The Azov campaigns, the Northern War of 1700-1721 and the maintenance of a permanent recruit army created by Peter I required huge funds, the collection of which was aimed at collecting financial reforms.

At the first stage, it all came down to finding new sources of funds. To the traditional customs and tavern levies were added fees and benefits from the monopolization of the sale of certain goods (salt, alcohol, tar, bristles, etc.), indirect taxes (bath, fish, horse taxes, tax on oak coffins, etc.) , mandatory use of stamp paper, minting coins of lesser weight (damage).

In 1704, Peter carried out a monetary reform, as a result of which the main monetary unit became not money, but a penny. From now on it began to be equal not to ½ money, but to 2 money, and this word first appeared on coins. At the same time, the fiat ruble, which had been a conventional monetary unit since the 15th century, equated to 68 grams of pure silver and used as a standard in exchange transactions, was also abolished. The most important measure during the financial reform was the introduction of a poll tax instead of the previously existing household taxation. In 1710, a “household” census was carried out, which showed a decrease in the number of households. One of the reasons for this decrease was that, in order to reduce taxes, several households were surrounded by one fence and one gate was made (this was considered one yard during the census). In force the mentioned shortcomings It was decided to switch to a poll tax. In 1718-1724, a repeat census was carried out in parallel with the population audit (revision of the census), which began in 1722. According to this audit, there were 5,967,313 people in taxable status.

Based on the data obtained, the government divided the amount of money needed to maintain the army and navy by the population.

As a result, the size of the per capita tax was determined: serf landowners paid the state 74 kopecks, state peasants - 1 ruble 14 kopecks (since they did not pay quitrent), urban population- 1 ruble 20 kopecks. Only men were subject to tax, regardless of age. The nobility, clergy, as well as soldiers and Cossacks were exempt from the poll tax. The soul was countable - between audits, the dead were not excluded from the tax lists, newborns were not included, as a result, the tax burden was distributed unevenly.

As a result of the tax reform, the size of the treasury was significantly increased. If in 1710 incomes extended to 3,134,000 rubles; then in 1725 there were 10,186,707 rubles. (according to foreign sources - up to 7,859,833 rubles).

Transformations in industry and trade

Main article: Industry and trade under Peter I

Having realized Russia's technical backwardness during the Grand Embassy, ​​Peter could not ignore the problem of reforming Russian industry. In addition, the creation of its own industry was dictated by military needs, as indicated by a number of historians. Having started the Northern War with Sweden in order to gain access to the sea and proclaiming as a task the construction of a modern fleet in the Baltic (and even earlier in Azov), Peter was forced to build manufactories designed to meet the sharply increased needs of the army and navy.

One of the main problems was the lack of qualified craftsmen. The Tsar solved this problem by attracting foreigners to the Russian service on favorable terms and by sending Russian nobles to study in Western Europe. Manufacturers received great privileges: they were exempt from military service with their children and craftsmen, they were subject only to the court of the Manufacture Collegium, they were freed from taxes and internal duties, they could import the tools and materials they needed from abroad duty-free, their houses were freed from military billets.

Significant measures have been taken for geological exploration of mineral resources in Russia. Previously, the Russian state was completely dependent on foreign countries for raw materials, primarily Sweden (iron was brought from there), but after the discovery of deposits of iron ore and other minerals in the Urals, the need for iron purchases disappeared. In the Urals, in 1723, the largest ironworks in Russia was founded, from which the city of Yekaterinburg developed. Under Peter, Nevyansk, Kamensk-Uralsky, and Nizhny Tagil were founded. Weapons factories (cannon yards, arsenals) appeared in the Olonetsky region, Sestroretsk and Tula, gunpowder factories - in St. Petersburg and near Moscow, leather and textile industries developed - in Moscow, Yaroslavl, Kazan and on the Left Bank of Ukraine, which was determined by the need to produce equipment and uniforms for Russian troops, silk spinning, paper production, cement production, a sugar factory and a trellis factory appeared.

In 1719, the “Berg Privilege” was issued, according to which everyone was given the right to search, smelt, cook and clean metals and minerals everywhere, subject to payment of a “mining tax” of 1/10 of the cost of production and 32 shares in favor of the owner of that land where ore deposits were found. For concealing ore and attempting to interfere with mining, the owner was threatened with confiscation of land, corporal punishment and even the death penalty “depending on guilt.”

The main problem in Russian factories of that time was the shortage of labor. The problem was solved by violent measures: entire villages and hamlets were assigned to manufactories, whose peasants worked off their taxes to the state in manufactories (such peasants would be called assigned), criminals and beggars were sent to factories. In 1721, a decree followed, which allowed “merchant people” to buy villages, the peasants of which could be resettled in manufactories (such peasants would be called possessions).

Trade developed further. With the construction of St. Petersburg, the role of the country's main port passed from Arkhangelsk to the future capital. River canals were built.

In particular, the Vyshnevolotsky (Vyshnevolotsk water system) and Obvodny canals were built. At the same time, two attempts to build the Volga-Don Canal ended in failure (although 24 locks were built), while tens of thousands of people worked on its construction, the working conditions were difficult, and the mortality rate was very high.

Some historians characterize Peter's trade policy as a policy of protectionism, consisting of supporting domestic production and imposing increased duties on imported products (this corresponded to the idea of ​​mercantilism). Thus, in 1724, a protective customs tariff was introduced - high duties on foreign goods that could be produced or were already produced by domestic enterprises.

The number of factories and factories at the end of Peter's reign extended to 233, including about 90 large manufactories.

Autocracy reform

Before Peter, the order of succession to the throne in Russia was not regulated in any way by law, and was entirely determined by tradition. In 1722, Peter issued a decree on the order of succession to the throne, according to which the reigning monarch appoints a successor during his lifetime, and the emperor can make anyone his heir (it was assumed that the king would appoint “the most worthy” as his successor). This law was in force until the reign of Paul I. Peter himself did not take advantage of the law on succession to the throne, since he died without specifying a successor.

Class politics

The main goal pursued by Peter I in social policy was the legal registration of class rights and obligations of each category of the population of Russia. As a result, a new structure of society emerged, in which the class character was more clearly formed. The rights of the nobility were expanded and the responsibilities of the nobility were defined, and, at the same time, the serfdom of the peasants was strengthened.

Nobility

1. Decree on education of 1706: boyar children must receive either primary school or home education.

2. Decree on estates of 1704: noble and boyar estates are not divided and are equated to each other.

3. Decree on single inheritance of 1714: a landowner with sons could bequeath all his real estate to only one of them of his choice. The rest were obliged to serve. The decree marked the final merger of the noble estate and the boyar estate, thereby finally erasing the differences between them.

4. Division of military, civil and court service into 14 ranks. Upon reaching the eighth grade, any official or military man could receive the status of a personal nobleman. Thus, a person’s career depended primarily not on his origin, but on his achievements in public service.

The place of the former boyars was taken by the “generals”, consisting of ranks of the first four classes of the “Table of Ranks”. Personal service mixed up representatives of the former family nobility with people raised by service. Peter's legislative measures, without significantly expanding the class rights of the nobility, significantly changed its responsibilities. Military affairs, which in Moscow times was the duty of a narrow class of service people, is now becoming the duty of all segments of the population. The nobleman of Peter the Great's times still has the exclusive right of land ownership, but due to the decrees on single inheritance and audit, he is made responsible to the state for the tax service of his peasants. The nobility is obliged to study in preparation for service. Peter destroyed the former isolation of the service class, opening access to the environment of the nobility to people of other classes through length of service through the Table of Ranks. On the other hand, with the law on single inheritance, he opened the way out of the nobility into merchants and clergy for those who wanted it. The nobility of Russia is becoming a military-bureaucratic class, whose rights are created and hereditarily determined by public service, and not by birth.

Peasantry

Peter's reforms changed the situation of the peasants. From different categories of peasants who were not in serfdom from the landowners or the church (black-growing peasants of the north, non-Russian nationalities, etc.), a new unified category of state peasants was formed - personally free, but paying dues to the state. The opinion that this measure “destroyed the remnants of the free peasantry” is incorrect, since the population groups that made up the state peasants were not considered free in the pre-Petrine period - they were attached to the land (the Council Code of 1649) and could be granted by the tsar to private individuals and the church as serfs. State peasants in the 18th century had the rights of personally free people (they could own property, act in court as one of the parties, elect representatives to estate bodies, etc.), but were limited in movement and could be (up to early XIX century, when this category was finally established as free people) were transferred by the monarch to the category of serfs. Legislative acts, relating to the serf peasantry itself, were of a contradictory nature. Thus, the intervention of landowners in the marriage of serfs was limited (a decree of 1724), it was forbidden to present serfs as defendants in court and to hold them on the right for the debts of the owners. The norm was also confirmed about the transfer into custody of the estates of landowners who ruined their peasants, and serfs were given the opportunity to enroll as soldiers, which freed them from serfdom (by decree of Emperor Elizabeth on July 2, 1742, serfs were deprived of this opportunity). By the decree of 1699 and the verdict of the Town Hall in 1700, peasants engaged in trade or craft were given the right to move to posads, freed from serfdom (if the peasant was in one). At the same time, measures against runaway peasants were significantly tightened, large masses of palace peasants were distributed to private individuals, and landowners were allowed to recruit serfs. By decree of April 7, 1690, it was allowed to cede for unpaid debts of “manorial” serfs, which was actually a form of trade in serfs. The imposition of a capitation tax on serfs (that is, personal servants without land) led to the merging of serfs with serfs. Church peasants were subordinated to the monastic order and removed from the authority of the monasteries. Created under Peter new category dependent farmers - peasants assigned to manufactories. In the 18th century, these peasants were called possession farmers. A decree of 1721 allowed nobles and merchant manufacturers to buy peasants to manufactories to work for them. The peasants bought for the factory were not considered the property of its owners, but were attached to production, so that the owner of the factory could neither sell nor mortgage the peasants separately from the manufacture. Possession peasants received a fixed salary and performed a fixed amount of work.

Transformations in the sphere of culture

Peter I changed the beginning of the chronology from the so-called Byzantine era (“from the creation of Adam”) to “from the Nativity of Christ.” The year 7208 in the Byzantine era became 1700 AD, and New Year began to be celebrated on January 1. In addition, under Peter, uniform application of the Julian calendar was introduced.

After returning from the Grand Embassy, ​​Peter I waged a struggle against the external manifestations of an “outdated” way of life (the most famous is the ban on beards), but no less paid attention to introducing the nobility to education and secular Europeanized culture. Secular people began to appear educational institutions, the first Russian newspaper was founded, translations of many books into Russian appeared. Peter made success in service for the nobles dependent on education.

Under Peter in 1703 the first book appeared in Russian with Arabic numerals. Before that, numbers were designated by letters with titles (wavy lines). In 1708, Peter approved a new alphabet with a simplified style of letters (the Church Slavonic font remained for printing church literature), two letters “xi” and “psi” were excluded.

Peter created new printing houses, in which 1,312 book titles were printed between 1700 and 1725 (twice as many as in the entire previous history of Russian printing). Thanks to the rise of printing, paper consumption increased from 4-8 thousand sheets at the end of the 17th century to 50 thousand sheets in 1719.

Changes have occurred in the Russian language, which included 4.5 thousand new words borrowed from European languages.

In 1724, Peter approved the charter of the organized Academy of Sciences (opened in 1725 after his death).

Special significance there was the construction of stone Petersburg, in which foreign architects took part and which was carried out according to the plan developed by the tsar. They created a new urban environment with previously unfamiliar forms of life and pastime (theater, masquerades). Changed interior decoration homes, lifestyle, nutritional composition, etc.

By a special decree of the tsar in 1718, assemblies were introduced, representing a new form of communication between people in Russia. At the assemblies, the nobles danced and communicated freely, unlike previous feasts and feasts. The reforms carried out by Peter I affected not only politics, economics, but also art. Peter invited foreign artists to Russia and at the same time sent talented young people to study “art” abroad, mainly to Holland and Italy. In the second quarter of the 18th century. “Peter’s pensioners” began to return to Russia, bringing with them new artistic experience and acquired skills.

On December 30, 1701 (January 10, 1702) Peter issued a decree, which ordered that full names should be written in petitions and other documents instead of derogatory half-names (Ivashka, Senka, etc.), not to fall on your knees before the Tsar, and a hat in winter in the cold Do not take pictures in front of the house where the king is. He explained the need for these innovations in this way: “Less baseness, more zeal for service and loyalty to me and the state - this honor is characteristic of a king...”

Peter tried to change the position of women in Russian society. By special decrees (1700, 1702 and 1724) he prohibited forced marriage. It was prescribed that there should be at least a six-week period between betrothal and wedding, “so that the bride and groom can recognize each other.” If during this time, the decree said, “the groom does not want to take the bride, or the bride does not want to marry the groom,” no matter how the parents insist on it, “there will be freedom.” Since 1702, the bride herself (and not just her relatives) was given the formal right to dissolve the betrothal and upset the arranged marriage, and neither party had the right to “beat the forfeit.” Legislative regulations 1696-1704 on public celebrations, mandatory participation in celebrations and festivities was introduced for all Russians, including the “female sex.”

Gradually, a different system of values, worldview, and aesthetic ideas developed among the nobility, which was radically different from the values ​​and worldview of the majority of representatives of other classes.

Education

On January 14, 1700, a school of mathematical and navigational sciences was opened in Moscow. In 1701-1721, artillery, engineering and medical schools were opened in Moscow, an engineering school and a naval academy in St. Petersburg, and mining schools at the Olonets and Ural factories. In 1705, the first gymnasium in Russia was opened. The goals of mass education were to be served by digital schools created by decree of 1714 in provincial cities, designed to “teach children of all ranks literacy, numbers and geometry.” It was planned to create two such schools in each province, where education was to be free. Garrison schools were opened for soldiers' children, and a network of theological schools was created for the training of priests in 1721.

According to the Hanoverian Weber, during the reign of Peter the Great, several thousand Russians were sent to study abroad.

Peter's decrees introduced compulsory education for nobles and clergy, but a similar measure for the urban population met fierce resistance and was cancelled. Peter's attempt to create an all-class primary school failed (the creation of a network of schools ceased after his death, most of the digital schools under his successors were repurposed as estate schools for training the clergy), but nevertheless, during his reign the foundations were laid for the spread of education in Russia.

Score 1 Score 2 Score 3 Score 4 Score 5

Peter 1. Beginning of reforms

Peter 1 began to change the foundations and orders in Russia as soon as he returned from Europe in 1698, where he traveled as part of the Great Embassy.

Literally the very next day, Peter 1 began to trim the beards of the boyars; decrees were issued demanding that all subjects of the Russian Tsar shave their beards; the decrees did not apply only to the lower class. Those who did not want to shave their beards had to pay a tax, which reduced the grumbling of the classes and was profitable for the treasury. Following the beards, it was the turn to reform traditional Russian clothing; long-skirted and long-sleeved clothes began to be replaced with short camisoles of the Polish and Hungarian style.

Before the end of the century, Peter 1 created a new printing house in Moscow, and began printing textbooks on arithmetic, astronomy, literature and history. The education system was completely reformed and developed by Peter 1, the first mathematical schools were opened.

The calendar was also reformed; the New Year, calculated from the creation of the world and celebrated on September 1, began to be celebrated on January 1, on the Nativity of Christ.

Peter by his decree approved the first Russian order, the Order of St. Andrew the First-Called. Peter 1 began to conduct all meetings with foreign ambassadors personally and signed all international documents himself.

By personal decree of Peter 1, the system of civil administration was reformed, a central governing body was created in Moscow - the Town Hall, in other cities in 1699, zemstvo huts were created for local government. Peter 1 reformed the system of orders; as of September 1699, there were more than 40 orders - ministries. Peter 1 eliminated some orders, and began to unite others under the control of one boss. The Church also underwent reforms, and I.A. was placed at the head of the Monastic Order in charge of church property. Musin-Pushkin, a secular man. Due to the church reform in 1701-1710, the treasury received more than a million rubles received from church taxes.

The reforms had been brewing for a long time, but until the Battle of Poltava, Peter 1 solved pressing problems as they arose, giving orders to solve problems as they immediately arose. Instead of state acts regulating certain aspects of the life of the state, Peter 1 wrote a written order for each problem, indicating who should solve it and how. It was not systemic management that led to problems in the Russian state; there was not enough money for the basic necessities, arrears increased, the army and navy could not fully obtain the supplies necessary to wage war.

Before the Battle of Poltava, Peter 1 issued only two acts; the first act, dated January 30, 1699, restored zemstvo institutions; the second act, dated December 18, 1708, divided the state into provinces. Only after the defeat of the Swedish army near Poltava did Peter 1 have time and the opportunity to engage in reforms and arrangement of the state. As time has shown, the reforms carried out by Peter 1 put Russia on par with European states not only in military terms, but also economically.

Carrying out reforms was vital for the survival and development of the state, but it would be a mistake to think that Peter 1 carried out reforms in individual sectors and areas. Having begun to create an army and navy, Peter 1 had to link the changes with the social, economic and political aspects of the country's life.

Peter 1. Military reforms

In the Azov campaign of 1695, undertaken by Perth 1, 30 thousand people took part, only 14 thousand of whom were organized in the European manner. The remaining 16 thousand were militias, involved in military labor only during combat operations. The unsuccessful siege of Narva in 1695 showed the complete inability of the militia to conduct offensive combat operations, and they did not cope well with defense, constantly being willful and not always obeying their superiors.

Reforms and transformations began in the army and navy. Carrying out the decrees of Peter 1, on November 19, 1699, 30 infantry regiments were created. These were the first regular infantry troops to replace the Streltsy militia; the service became indefinite. Only for the Little Russian and Don Cossacks was an exception made; they were called up only if necessary. The cavalry did not escape the reforms either; many officers recruited from foreigners turned out to be unfit for service, they were hastily replaced and trained by new personnel from among their own, from the Russians.

To wage the northern war with the Swedes, the army of Peter 1 is already being formed from a set of free people and serfs; recruits are recruited from landowners, depending on the number of peasant households. Hastily trained by officers hired in Europe, the army of Peter I, according to foreign diplomats, was a pitiful sight.

But gradually, having gone through battles, the soldiers gained combat experience, the regiments become more combat-ready, being in battles and campaigns for a long time, the army becomes permanent. Recruits, previously recruited haphazardly, are now being streamlined, recruiting from all classes, including nobles and clergy. The training of new recruits was carried out by retirees who had passed military service and those who left due to injury and illness. Recruits were trained at assembly points of 500–1000 people, from where they were sent to the troops when the need arose to replenish the army. In 1701, before the military reform, Russian army numbered up to 40 thousand people, of which more than 20 thousand were militias. In 1725, shortly before the end of the reign of Peter 1, after the reform, the regular troops of the Russian Empire numbered up to 212 thousand regular troops and up to 120 thousand militias and Cossacks.

Peter 1 builds the first warships in Voronezh for the siege and capture of Azov, which were later abandoned due to a change in policy and the transfer of hostilities from south to north against a new enemy. The defeat at Prut in 1711, and the loss of Azov, rendered the ships built in Voronezh useless, and they were abandoned. The construction of a new squadron in the Baltic began; in 1702, up to 3 thousand people were recruited and trained as sailors. At the shipyard in Lodeynopolsk in 1703, 6 frigates were launched, forming the first Russian squadron in the Baltic Sea. At the end of the reign of Peter 1, the Baltic squadron consisted of 48 battleships, additionally there were about 800 galleys and other ships, the number of crews was 28 thousand people.

To manage the fleet and army, the Military, Artillery and Admiralty Collegiums were created, which dealt with recruits, distributing them among regiments, supplying the army with weapons, ammunition, horses, and distributing salaries. To control the troops, a general staff was created, consisting of two general field marshals, Prince Menshikov and Count Sheremetev, who distinguished himself in the Northern War; there were 31 generals.

Voluntary recruitment into the army was replaced by permanent recruitment, the army switched to government support, and the number of infantry began to prevail over the cavalry. The maintenance of the army and navy cost 2/3 of the country's budget.

Peter 1. Reforms in social policy

Peter 1, who was busy carrying out state reform, needed associates capable of bearing not only the burden of war, but also capable of participating in state reforms and implementing the reforms conceived by Peter 1. The nobility, whose original function was to protect the state, did not always meet the requirements of the time , and Peter 1 acquired many of his associates from ordinary classes, thereby giving the smart and talented the opportunity to fully serve the fatherland and achieve positions on their own merits.

In 1714, Peter 1 issued a decree on single inheritance, ordering the transfer of property to any of the sons, at the choice of a nobleman or landowner, the rest were ordered to look for employment in the military or civil service, where they began service from the very bottom. By introducing reforms to the inheritance of property and estates, Peter 1 protected farms belonging to nobles and landowners from fragmentation and ruin, and at the same time encouraged the remaining heirs to enter public service in search of food and achieve a position in society and in the service.

The next stage regulating service to the state was the table of ranks, published in 1722, dividing public service into military, civil and court service, providing for 14 ranks. The service had to start from the very beginning, moving forward according to one’s abilities. Not only nobles, but also people from any social class could enter the service. Those who reached rank 8 received lifelong nobility, which ensured an influx of smart and talented people into the ruling class, capable of performing government functions.

The population of Russia, except for the clergy and nobles, was taxed, peasants paid 74 kopecks per year, residents of the southern outskirts paid 40 kopecks more. The reform and replacement of the land tax, and the following household tax, with a poll tax for every male resident of the Russian Empire, led to an increase in arable land, the size of which now did not affect the amount of the tax. The population size was established by the population census conducted in 1718 - 1724. City residents were assigned to their place of residence and were also taxed. In 1724, Peter 1 issued a decree prohibiting serfs from going to work without the written permission of the landowner, which marked the beginning of the passport system.

Peter 1. Reforms in industry and trade

The most labor-intensive reform was carried out in industry, which was in its infancy. To change the situation, money, specialists, and human resources were required. Peter 1 invited specialists from abroad, trained his own, workers at the factories were assigned to the land, they could not be sold except with the land and the factory. In 1697, by order of Peter 1, the construction of blast furnaces and foundries for the manufacture of cannons began in the Urals, and a year later the first metallurgical plant was built. New cloth, gunpowder, metallurgical, sailing, leather, rope and other factories and plants are being built; up to 40 enterprises were built in a few years. Among them, one can highlight the plants under the leadership of Demidov and Batashov, which met Russia’s need for iron and copper. The weapons factory built in Tula supplied the entire army with weapons. To attract boyars and nobles to industrial production, and develop their entrepreneurship skills, Peter 1 introduced a system of benefits, government subsidies and loans. Already in 1718, Russian factories smelted almost 200 thousand poods (1 pood = 16 kilograms) of copper, and 6.5 million poods of cast iron.

By inviting foreign specialists, Peter 1 created the most convenient working conditions for them, severely punishing any official noticed in their oppression. In return, Peter 1 demanded only one thing: to teach Russian workers the craft without hiding professional techniques and secrets from them. IN different countries Russian students were sent to Europe to study and adopt various skills and professions, from the skill of laying out stoves to the ability to heal people.

Introducing reforms and seeking the development of trade, Peter 1 encouraged merchants, freeing them from duties, government and city services, allowing them to trade duty-free for several years. One of the obstacles to trade was the distance and condition of the roads; even the journey from Moscow to St. Petersburg sometimes took up to five weeks. Peter 1, carrying out reforms in industry and trade, first of all dealt with the problem of cargo delivery routes. Deciding to adapt river routes for the delivery of goods and cargo, Peter 1 ordered the construction of canals; not all of his undertakings were successful; during his lifetime, the Ladoga and Vyshnevolotsky canals were built, connecting the Neva River with the Volga.

Petersburg is becoming shopping center, receiving several hundred merchant ships annually. Duties are introduced for foreign merchants, giving Russian merchants an advantage in the domestic market. The monetary system is developing and improving, copper coins are beginning to be minted and put into circulation.

The next year, after the death of Peter 1, as a result of the trade reform he carried out, the export of goods from Russia was twice as high as the import of foreign goods.

Reforms and transformations were unsystematic and chaotic in nature; Peter 1 had to first of all implement those reforms that were needed immediately; being in a state of constant wars, he did not have the time and opportunity to develop the country according to any specific system. Peter the Great had to implement many reforms with a whip, but as time has shown, all taken together, the reforms of Peter the Great developed into a certain system that ensured that the Russian state respected national interests in the present and future, preserved national sovereignty and prevented falling behind European countries.

Peter 1. State administrative reforms

While streamlining and simplifying the cumbersome and confusing bureaucracy, Peter 1 carried out a series of reforms that made it possible to replace the system of orders and the Boyar Duma, which turned out to be ineffective in governing the state, which was changing under the influence of wars and reforms, and which required a new approach to its needs.

The Boyar Duma was replaced by the Senate in 1711; decisions previously made by the boyars began to be made and approved by the closest associates of Peter 1, who enjoyed his trust. Since 1722, the work of the Senate began to be led by the Prosecutor General; members of the Senate, taking office, took an oath.

The previously existing system of orders for governing the state was replaced by collegiums, each of which dealt with its assigned area. The Collegium of Foreign Affairs was in charge exclusively of external relations, the Military Collegium dealt with all issues related to the ground forces. In addition to the above, the following collegiums were created: Admiralty, Patrimonial, State - office - collegium, Kamer - collegium, Commerce - collegium, Berg - collegium, Manufactur - collegium, Justits - collegium, Revision - collegium. Each board dealt with the area assigned to it, the fleet, noble lands, state expenditures, revenue collection, trade, the metallurgical industry, all other industry, legal proceedings and budget execution, respectively.

The reforms of the church led to the formation of the Spiritual Collegium, or Synod, which subordinated the church to the state; the patriarch was no longer elected; the “guardian of the patriarchal throne” was appointed in his place. Since 1722, states were approved for clergy, according to which one priest was assigned to 150 households, and the remaining clergy were taxed on a general basis.

The vast territory of the Russian Empire was divided into eight provinces: Siberian, Kazan, Azov, Smolensk, Kyiv, Arkhangelsk, St. Petersburg, Moscow. Further administrative fragmentation took place into provinces; provinces were divided into counties. In each province, a regiment of soldiers was stationed to perform police functions during riots and riots.

Estate (social) reforms of Peter I - chronological table

1714 - Decree of March 23, 1714 “On single inheritance”: a ban on the fragmentation of noble estates; they must be transferred entirely to one heir. The same decree eliminates the difference between estates and fiefdoms, which are now inherited equally. Decrees on compulsory education for children of nobles, clerks and clerks. A ban on promoting nobles who did not serve as privates in the guard as officers.

1718 – Abolition of servitude and the state of free walking people through the extension of taxation and conscription to both of these states.

1721 – Permission for “merchant people” to acquire populated estates for factories. Decree on the receipt of hereditary nobility by non-nobles who have served in the army to the rank of chief officer.

1722 – Compilation of revision tales with equal inclusion in them of serfs, slaves and persons “in between” free states: they are all now equalized in social status, as a single class. The “Table of Ranks” puts the bureaucratic hierarchy, the principle of merit and length of service in place of the aristocratic hierarchy of the breed.

Peter I. Portrait by J. M. Nattier, 1717

Administrative reforms of Peter I - chronological table

1699 – Introduction of city self-government: establishment of city town halls consisting of elected mayors and the central Burmister Chamber in Moscow.

1703 – Founding of St. Petersburg.

1708 – Division of Russia into eight provinces.

1711 - Establishment of the Senate - the new highest administrative body of Russia. The establishment of a fiscal system headed by the chief fiscal to control all branches of administration. Beginning of connecting counties in the province.

1713 – Introduction of landrats (noble councils under governors, the governor is only their chairman).

1714 – Transfer of the Russian capital to St. Petersburg.

1718 - Establishment (instead of the old Moscow orders) of collegiums (1718-1719) - new highest administrative bodies in branches of affairs.

The building of the Twelve Collegiums in St. Petersburg. Unknown artist of the third quarter of the 18th century. Based on an engraving by E. G. Vnukov from a drawing by M. I. Makhaev

1719 – Introduction of a new regional division (11 provinces, divided into provinces, counties and districts), which included lands conquered from Sweden. Abolition of Landrats, transfer of noble self-government from the province to the district. Establishment of district zemstvo offices and elected zemstvo commissars under them.

1720 – Transformation of city government: establishment of city magistrates and the Chief Magistrate. Magistrates receive broader rights compared to the previous town halls, but are elected less democratically: only from the “first-class” citizens.

Financial reforms of Peter I - chronological table

1699 – Introduction of stamp paper (with a special tax on it).

1701 – New taxes: “dragoon” and “ship” money (for the maintenance of cavalry and fleet). The first widespread re-minting of coins with a decrease in the content of precious metal.

1704 – Introduction of a tax on baths. Establishment of state monopolies on salt and oak coffins.

1705 – Introduction of the “beard” tax.

1718 – Destruction of most state-owned monopolies. Decree on the census (first audit) of the population in order to prepare for the introduction of the poll tax.

1722 – Completion of the first audit and the introduction of the poll tax based on its results.

Economic reforms of Peter I - chronological table

1699 – Establishment of state-owned ironworks in Verkhoturye district in the Urals, which were later given into the possession of Tula resident N. Demidov.

1701 – Work begins on establishing a water connection between the Don and Oka across the Upa River.

1702 – Construction of a canal that established water communication between the upper reaches of the Volga and Neva (1702-1706).

1703 – Construction of an iron smelting and ironworks at Lake Onega, from which the city of Petrozavodsk then grows.

1717 – Abolition of forced recruitment of workers for the construction of St. Petersburg.

1718 – Construction of the Ladoga Canal begins.

1723 – Founding of Yekaterinburg, a city to administer the vast Ural mining district.

Military reforms of Peter I - chronological table

1683-1685 – Recruitment for Tsarevich Peter of “amusing soldiers”, from which the first two regular guards regiments were later formed: Preobrazhensky and Semyonovsky.

1694 – “Kozhukhov campaigns” of the amusing soldiers of Peter I.

1697 - Decree on the construction of fifty ships for the Azov campaign by the “kumpanstvos”, led by large secular and spiritual landowners (the first attempt to create a strong Russian fleet).

1698 – Destruction of the Streltsy army after the suppression of the third Streltsy revolt.

1699 – Decree on the recruitment of the first three conscription divisions.

1703 – The shipyard in Lodeynoye Pole launches 6 frigates: the first Russian squadron on the Baltic Sea.

1708 – Introduction of a new order of service for the Cossacks after the suppression of the Bulavin uprising: the establishment of compulsory military service for them in Russia instead of the previous contractual relations.

1712 – Listing of the contents of regiments by province.

1715 – Establishment of a constant rate of conscription.

Church reforms of Peter I - chronological table

1700 – Death of Patriarch Adrian and the ban on choosing his successor.

1701 – Restoration of the Monastic Order - transfer of church estates to the management of the secular administration.

1714 – Permission for Old Believers to openly practice their faith on condition of payment of double salary.

1720 – Closing of the Monastic Order and return of real estate to the clergy.

1721 – Establishment (in place of the previous sole Patriarchate) of the Holy Synod - the body for collegial management of church affairs, which, moreover, closely dependent on secular power.

1. Prerequisites for reforms:

The country was on the eve of great transformations. What were the prerequisites for Peter's reforms?

Russia was a backward country. This backwardness posed a serious danger to the independence of the Russian people.

Industry was feudal in structure, and in terms of production volume it was significantly inferior to the industry of Western European countries.

The Russian army largely consisted of backward noble militia and archers, poorly armed and trained. The complex and clumsy state apparatus, headed by the boyar aristocracy, did not meet the needs of the country.

Rus' also lagged behind in the field of spiritual culture. Education hardly penetrated the masses, and even in the ruling circles there were many uneducated and completely illiterate people.

Russia of the 17th century, by the very course of historical development, was faced with the need for radical reforms, since only in this way could it secure its worthy place among the states of the West and the East.

It should be noted that by this time in the history of our country, significant shifts in its development had already occurred.

The first industrial enterprises of the manufacturing type arose, handicrafts and crafts grew, and trade in agricultural products developed. The social and geographical division of labor has continuously increased - the basis of the established and developing all-Russian market. The city was separated from the village. fishing and agricultural areas were allocated. Domestic and foreign trade developed.

In the second half of the 17th century, the nature of the state system in Rus' began to change, and absolutism took shape more and more clearly. Russian culture and sciences received further development: mathematics and mechanics, physics and chemistry, geography and botany, astronomy and mining. Cossack explorers discovered a number of new lands in Siberia.

Belinsky was right when he spoke about the affairs and people of pre-Petrine Russia: “My God, what eras, what faces! They would have become several Shakespeares and Walter Scotts!” The 17th century was the time when Russia established constant communication with Western Europe, established closer trade and diplomatic ties with her, used her technology and science, perceived her culture and enlightenment. learning and borrowing, Russia developed independently, taking only what it needed, and only when it was necessary. This was a time of accumulation of strength of the Russian people, which made it possible to implement the grandiose reforms of Peter, prepared by the very course of the historical development of Russia.

Peter's reforms were prepared by the entire previous history of the people, "demanded by the people." Already before Peter, a fairly integral reform program had been drawn up, which in many ways coincided with Peter’s reforms, in others going even further than them. A general transformation was being prepared, which, in the peaceful course of affairs, could spread over a number of generations.

The reform, as it was carried out by Peter, was his personal matter, an unparalleled violent matter and, however, involuntary and necessary. The external dangers of the state outpaced the natural growth of the people, who were ossified in their development. The renewal of Russia could not be left to the gradual quiet work of time, not pushed by force.

The reforms affected literally all aspects of the life of the Russian state and the Russian people, but the main ones include the following reforms: military, government and administration, class structure of Russian society, taxation, church, as well as in the field of culture and everyday life.

It should be noted that the main driving force behind Peter's reforms was war.

2. Reforms of Peter 1

2.1 Military reform

During this period, a radical reorganization of the armed forces took place. A powerful regular army is being created in Russia and, in connection with this, the local noble militia and the Streltsy army are being eliminated. The basis of the army began to consist of regular infantry and cavalry regiments with a uniform staff, uniforms, and weapons, which carried out combat training in accordance with general army regulations. The main ones were the military regulations of 1716 and the naval regulations of 1720, in the development of which Peter the Great participated.

The development of metallurgy contributed to a significant increase in the production of artillery pieces; outdated artillery of different calibers was replaced by new types of guns.

For the first time in the army, a combination of bladed weapons and firearms was made - a bayonet was attached to the gun, which significantly increased the fire and striking power of the army.

At the beginning of the 18th century. for the first time in the history of Russia on the Don and the Baltic was created navy, which was not inferior in importance to the creation of a regular army. The construction of the fleet was carried out unprecedentedly at a fast pace at the level of the best examples of military shipbuilding of that time.

The creation of a regular army and navy required new principles for their recruitment. The basis was the recruitment system, which had undoubted advantages over other forms of recruitment that existed at that time. The nobility was exempt from conscription, but military or civil service was obligatory.

2.2 Reforms of government and management bodies

In the first quarter xviii V. a whole set of reforms was carried out related to the restructuring of central and local authorities and management. Their essence was the formation of a noble-bureaucratic centralized apparatus of absolutism.

Since 1708, Peter the 1st began to rebuild old institutions and replace them with new ones, as a result of which the following system of government and management bodies emerged.

All legislative, executive and judicial power was concentrated in the hands of Peter, who, after graduating northern war received the title of emperor. In 1711, a new supreme body of executive and judicial power was created - the Senate, which also had significant legislative functions.

To replace the outdated system of orders, 12 boards were created, each of which was in charge of a specific industry or area of ​​government and was subordinate to the Senate. The collegiums received the right to issue decrees on those issues that were within their jurisdiction. In addition to the boards, a certain number of offices, offices, departments, orders were created, the functions of which were also clearly delineated.

In 1708 - 1709 The restructuring of local authorities and administration began. The country was divided into 8 provinces, differing in territory and population.

At the head of the province was a governor appointed by the tsar, who concentrated executive and service power in his hands. Under the governor there was a provincial office. But the situation was complicated by the fact that the governor was subordinate not only to the emperor and the senate, but also to all collegiums, whose orders and decrees often contradicted each other.

The provinces in 1719 were divided into provinces, the number of which was 50. The province was headed by a governor with a provincial office under him. The provinces, in turn, were divided into districts (counties) with a governor and a district office. After the introduction of the poll tax, regimental divisions were created. The military units stationed there supervised the collection of taxes and suppressed manifestations of discontent and anti-feudal protests.

All this complex system bodies of power and administration had a clearly expressed pro-noble character and consolidated the active participation of the nobility in the implementation of their dictatorship at the local level. But at the same time she further expanded the scope and forms of service of the nobles, which caused their discontent.

2.3 Reform of the class structure of Russian society

Peter's goal was to create a powerful noble state. To do this, it was necessary to disseminate knowledge among the nobles, improve their culture, and make the nobility prepared and suitable for achieving the goals that Peter set for himself. Meanwhile, the nobility for the most part was not prepared to understand and implement them.

Peter sought to ensure that all the nobility considered “sovereign service” their honorable right, their calling, to skillfully rule the country and command the troops. To do this, it was necessary first of all to spread education among the nobles. Peter established a new duty for the nobles - educational: from 10 to 15 years of age, the nobleman had to learn “literacy, numbers and geometry”, and then had to go to serve. Without a certificate of “training,” a nobleman was not given “eternal memory”—permission to marry.

Decrees of 1712, 1714 and 1719 a procedure was established according to which “birth” was not taken into account when appointing to a position and serving. And vice versa, those who came from the people, the most gifted, active, and devoted to the cause of Peter, had the opportunity to receive any military or civilian rank. Not only “high-born” nobles, but even people of “vile” origin were nominated by Peter to prominent government positions

2.4 Church reform

Church reform played an important role in establishing absolutism. In 1700 Patriarch Adrian died and Peter the 1st forbade the election of a successor to him. The management of the church was entrusted to one of the metropolitans, who performed the functions of “locum tenens of the patriarchal throne.” In 1721, the patriarchate was abolished, and the “Holy Governing Synod,” or spiritual college, which was also subordinate to the Senate, was created to govern the church.

Church reform meant the elimination of the independent political role of the church. It turned into an integral part of the bureaucratic apparatus of the absolutist state. In parallel with this, the state strengthened control over church income and systematically seized a significant part of it for the needs of the treasury. These actions of Peter the 1st caused discontent among the church hierarchy and the black clergy and were one of the main reasons for their participation in all kinds of reactionary conspiracies.

Peter carried out church reform, expressed in the creation of collegial (synodal) governance of the Russian Church. The destruction of the patriarchate reflected Peter’s desire to eliminate the “princely” system of church power, unthinkable under the autocracy of Peter’s time.

By declaring himself the de facto head of the church, Peter destroyed its autonomy. Moreover, he made extensive use of church institutions to implement police policies. Subjects, under pain of heavy fines, were obliged to attend church and confess their sins to a priest. The priest, also according to the law, was obliged to report to the authorities anything illegal that became known during confession.

The transformation of the church into a bureaucratic office protecting the interests of the autocracy and serving its requests meant the destruction for the people of a spiritual alternative to the regime and ideas coming from the state. The Church became an obedient instrument of power and thereby lost much of the respect of the people, who later looked so indifferently at its death under the rubble of the autocracy and at the destruction of its churches.

2.5 Reforms in the field of culture and life

Important changes in the life of the country strongly required the training of qualified personnel. The scholastic school, which was in the hands of the church, could not provide this. Secular schools began to open, education began to acquire a secular character. This required the creation of new textbooks that replaced the church textbooks.

Peter the 1st in 1708 introduced a new civil font, which replaced the old Kirillov semi-charter. To print secular educational, scientific, political literature and legislative acts, new printing houses were created in Moscow and St. Petersburg.

The development of book printing was accompanied by the beginning of organized book trade, as well as the creation and development of a network of libraries. Since 1702 The first Russian newspaper "Vedomosti" was systematically published.

The development of industry and trade was associated with the study and development of the territory and subsoil of the country, which was expressed in the organization of a number of large expeditions.

During this time, major technical innovations and inventions appeared, especially in the development of mining and metallurgy, as well as in the military field.

Since this period, a number of important works on history have been written, and the Kunstkamera created by Peter the Great marked the beginning of collecting collections of historical and memorial objects and rarities, weapons, materials on the natural sciences, etc. At the same time, they began to collect ancient written sources, make copies of chronicles, charters, decrees and other acts. This was the beginning of museum work in Russia.

The logical result of all activities in the field of development of science and education was the founding of the Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg in 1724.

From the first quarter of the 18th century. There was a transition to urban planning and regular city planning. The appearance of the city began to be determined not by religious architecture, but by palaces and mansions, houses of government agencies and the aristocracy.

In painting, icon painting is replaced by portraiture. By the first quarter of the 18th century. There were also attempts to create a Russian theater; the first dramatic works were written at the same time.

Changes in everyday life affected the mass of the population. The old habitual long-skirted clothing with long sleeves was prohibited and replaced with new ones. Camisoles, ties and frills, wide-brimmed hats, stockings, shoes, and wigs quickly replaced old Russian clothing in the cities. Western European outerwear and dresses spread most quickly among women. It was forbidden to wear a beard, which caused discontent, especially among the tax-paying classes. a special “beard tax” and a mandatory copper sign indicating its payment were introduced.

Peter the Great established assemblies with the mandatory presence of women in them, which reflected serious changes in their position in society. The establishment of the assemblies marked the beginning of the establishment among the Russian nobility of “rules of good manners” and “noble behavior in society,” and the use of a foreign, mainly French, language.

The changes in everyday life and culture that occurred in the first quarter of the 18th century were of great progressive significance. But they even more emphasized the allocation of the nobility as a privileged class, turned the use of the benefits and achievements of culture into one of the noble class privileges and was accompanied by widespread gallomania, a contemptuous attitude towards the Russian language and Russian culture among the nobility.

2.6 Economic reform

Serious changes took place in the system of feudal property, proprietary and state duties of peasants, in the tax system, and the power of landowners over the peasants was further strengthened. In the first quarter of the 18th century. The merger of two forms of feudal land ownership was completed: by the decree on single inheritance (1714), all noble estates were turned into estates, the land and peasants became the full unlimited property of the landowner.

The expansion and strengthening of feudal land tenure and the property rights of the landowner helped to satisfy the increased needs of the nobles for money. This entailed an increase in the size of feudal rent, accompanied by an increase in peasant duties, and strengthened and expanded the connection between the noble estate and the market.

There was a real leap in Russian industry during this period; a large manufacturing industry grew, the main industries of which were metallurgy and metalworking, shipbuilding, textiles and leather industries.

The peculiarity of the industry was that it was based on forced labor. This meant the spread of serfdom to new forms of production and new areas of the economy.

The rapid development of the manufacturing industry for that time (by the end of the first quarter of the century there were more than 100 manufactories in Russia) was largely ensured by the protectionist policy of the Russian government aimed at encouraging the development of the country's economy, primarily in industry and trade, both domestic and especially external.

The nature of trade has changed. The development of manufacturing and handicraft production, its specialization in certain regions of the country, the involvement of serfdom in commodity-money relations and Russia's access to the Baltic Sea gave a powerful impetus to the growth of domestic and foreign trade.

A feature of Russia's foreign trade of this period was that exports, amounting to 4.2 million rubles, were twice as high as imports.

The interests of developing industry and trade, without which the feudal state could not successfully solve the tasks assigned to it, determined its policy towards the city, merchants and artisan population. The city's population was divided into "regular", who owned property, and "irregular". In turn, the “regular” was divided into two guilds. The first group included merchants and industrialists, and the second group included small merchants and artisans. Only the “regular” population enjoyed the right to choose city institutions.

3. Consequences of Peter the Great's reforms

In the country, feudal relations were not only preserved, but strengthened and dominated, with all the accompanying developments both in the economy and in the field of the superstructure. However, changes in all spheres of the country's socio-economic and political life, which gradually accumulated and matured in the 17th century, grew into a qualitative leap in the first quarter of the 18th century. medieval Muscovite Rus' turned into the Russian Empire.

In its economy, the level and forms of development of the productive forces, the political system, the structure and functions of government, management and courts, in the organization of the army, in class and class structure population, huge changes took place in the culture of the country and the way of life of the people. The place of Russia and its role in international relations of that time.

Naturally, all these changes took place on a feudal-serf basis. But this system itself existed under completely different conditions. He has not yet lost the opportunity for his development. Moreover, the pace and scope of its development of new territories, new areas of the economy and productive forces have increased significantly. This allowed him to solve long-standing national problems. But the forms in which they were decided, the goals they served, showed more and more clearly that the strengthening and development of the feudal-serf system, in the presence of prerequisites for the development of capitalist relations, was turning into the main obstacle to the country’s progress.

Already during the reign of Peter the Great, the main contradiction characteristic of the period of late feudalism can be traced. The interests of the autocratic-serf state and the feudal class as a whole, the national interests of the country, required accelerating the development of the productive forces, actively promoting the growth of industry, trade, and eliminating the technical, economic and cultural backwardness of the country.

But to solve these problems, it was necessary to reduce the scope of serfdom, create a market for civilian labor, limit and eliminate class rights and privileges of the nobility. The exact opposite happened: the spread of serfdom in breadth and depth, the consolidation of the feudal class, the consolidation, expansion and legislative formalization of its rights and privileges. The slowness of the formation of the bourgeoisie and its transformation into a class opposed to the class of feudal serfs led to the fact that the merchants and factory owners found themselves drawn into the sphere of serf relations.

The complexity and inconsistency of Russia's development during this period also determined the inconsistency of Peter's activities and the reforms he carried out. On the one hand, they had enormous historical meaning, since they contributed to the progress of the country and were aimed at eliminating its backwardness. On the other hand, they were carried out by serf owners, using serfdom methods and were aimed at strengthening their dominance.

Therefore, the progressive transformations of Peter’s time from the very beginning carried conservative features, which in the course of further development countries were becoming increasingly stronger and could not ensure the elimination of socio-economic backwardness. As a result of Peter's reforms, Russia quickly caught up with those European countries, where the dominance of feudal-serf relations remained, but it could not catch up with those countries that had embarked on the capitalist path of development. Peter's transformative activity was distinguished by indomitable energy, unprecedented scope and purposefulness, courage in breaking down outdated institutions, laws, foundations and way of life.

Understanding perfectly the importance of the development of trade and industry, Peter carried out a number of measures that satisfied the interests of the merchants. But he also strengthened and consolidated serfdom, substantiated the regime of autocratic despotism. Peter's actions were distinguished not only by decisiveness, but also by extreme cruelty. According to Pushkin’s apt definition, his decrees were “often cruel, capricious and, it seems, written with a whip.”

Conclusion

Transformations of the first quarter of the 18th century. allowed Russia to take a certain step forward. The country gained access to the Baltic Sea. Political and economic isolation was ended, Russia's international prestige was strengthened, and it became a great European power. The ruling class as a whole became stronger. A centralized bureaucratic system of governing the country was created. The power of the monarch increased, and absolutism was finally established. Russian industry, trade, and agriculture took a step forward.

The uniqueness of Russia's historical path was that each time the consequence of reforms was an even greater archaization of the system of social relations. It was precisely this that led to the slow flow of social processes, turning Russia into a country of catching-up development.

The originality also lies in the fact that fundamentally violent reforms, the implementation of which requires strengthening, at least temporarily, the despotic principles state power, ultimately lead to the long-term strengthening of despotism. In turn, slow development due to the despotic regime requires new reforms. And everything repeats itself again. These cycles become a typological feature of the historical path of Russia. This is how Russia’s special path is formed - as a deviation from the usual historical order.

Such were the undoubted successes of Russia in the first quarter of the 18th century.

Seminars classes.

TOPIC No. 1

Russia on the path of modernization inXVII – XIXcenturies

1. Reforms of Peter I: goals, content, result. The price of Peter's reforms.

At the turn of the XVII – XVIII centuries. The transformations that took place in Russia covered almost all aspects of life: the economy, domestic and foreign policy, science, everyday life, and the political system. In many ways, these transformations are associated with the activities of Peter I. His merit lay in the fact that he correctly understood the complexity of the tasks that faced the country and began to implement them purposefully.

Basically, the reforms were subordinated to the interests not of individual classes, but of the state as a whole: its prosperity, well-being and inclusion in Western European civilization. The purpose of the reforms was Russia's acquisition of the role of one of the leading world powers, capable of competing with Western countries militarily and economically. The main tool for carrying out reforms was consciously used violence. In general, the process of reforming the country was associated with an external factor - the need for Russia to access the seas, as well as with an internal one - the process of modernization of the country.

Military reform.

The new military system was created according to Western European models. The main and highest unit in the infantry was the regiment. Artillery has finally become an independent branch of the military with a clear organization. Engineer troops were created (as part of the artillery). To manage the armed forces, instead of orders, the Military Collegium and the Admiralty Collegium were established. A unified training system was established in the army and navy, and military educational institutions were opened (navigation, artillery, engineering schools). The Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky regiments, as well as a number of newly opened special schools and the Naval Academy, served to train officers.

Severe discipline was established in the troops and navy, to maintain which corporal punishment was widely used. A hierarchy of ranks and ranks has been introduced in the army and navy.

The military reforms of Peter I had a positive impact on the development of Russian military art and were one of the factors that determined the success of the Russian army and navy in the Northern War.

Reforms in the economy Russia covered agriculture, large and small production, crafts, trade and financial policy.

Agriculture under Peter I developed slowly, mainly in an extensive way. However, there were attempts at reforms here too (new crops, new breeds of livestock, etc. were introduced)

The development of industry was dictated solely by the needs of warfare and was Peter's special concern. During the first quarter of the 18th century, about 200 manufactories were created. The main attention was paid to metallurgy. The growth of industrial production was accompanied by increased feudal exploitation, the widespread use of forced labor in manufactories: the use of serfs, purchased peasants, as well as the labor of the state (black-growing) peasantry, which was assigned to the plant as a permanent source of labor.

The reforms also covered the sphere of small-scale production and contributed to the development of crafts and peasant crafts. Craft schools were introduced at manufactories. A guild system was introduced in the cities. All artisans, led by an elected headman, were assigned to workshops depending on their specialty, where they became masters, apprentices and apprentices.

In the field of domestic and foreign trade, a large role was played by the state monopoly on the procurement and sale of basic goods (salt, flax, hemp, furs, lard, caviar, bread, etc.), which significantly replenished the treasury. The expansion of trade relations with foreign countries was encouraged in every possible way. Much attention was paid to the development of waterways - the main mode of transport at that time.

Financial policy state during the reign of Peter I was characterized by unprecedented tax oppression. The growth of the state budget necessary for waging war, active internal and foreign policy, was achieved by expanding indirect and increasing direct taxes:

more and more new sources of income were sought (banya, fish, honey, horse and other taxes were introduced, including a tax on beards);

direct taxes were also introduced (recruitment, dragoon, ship and “special” taxes);

considerable income was brought in by minting coins of lighter weight and reducing the silver content in it;

introduction of the poll tax, which replaced household taxation.

Reorganization of public administration(test task 7)

The Church and the liquidation of the patriarchate. A radical church reform was carried out, eliminating the autonomy of the church and completely subordinating it to the state. The patriarchate in Russia was abolished, and a special Spiritual College was established to govern the church, which was soon transformed into the Holy Governing Synod. It was in charge of purely church affairs: interpretation of church dogmas, orders for prayers and church services, censorship of spiritual books, the fight against heresies, etc. The Synod also had the functions of a spiritual court. The presence of the Synod consisted of 12 highest church hierarchs appointed by the Tsar. A chief prosecutor (I.V. Boldin) was appointed to oversee the activities of the Synod. All property and finances of the church, the lands and peasants assigned to it, were under the jurisdiction of the Monastic Prikaz, subordinate to the synod.

Social policy.

In 1714, the “Decree on Single Inheritance” was issued, according to which the noble estate was equal in rights to the boyar estate. The decree marked the final merger of the two classes of feudal lords into a single class. From that time on, secular feudal lords began to be called nobles. The decree on single inheritance ordered the transfer of estates and estates to one of the sons. The remaining nobles had to perform compulsory service in the army, navy or government bodies.

In 1722, the “Table of Ranks” was published, dividing the military, civil and court services (14 ranks).

In 1724, an attempt was made to eradicate beggary in Russia in one day. All the sick and crippled were ordered to be registered and sent to almshouses set up at monasteries, and those able to work were to be returned to their original place.

Reforms in the field of education and culture.

State policy was aimed at educating society and reorganizing the education system. Theological subjects at school gave way to natural sciences and technology: mathematics, astronomy, geodesy, fortification, engineering. Navigation and Artillery schools, an Engineering School, and a Medical School appeared. Publishing has developed.

The foundations for the development of Russian science were laid. In 1725, the Academy of Sciences was created in St. Petersburg.

On January 1, 1700, a new chronology was introduced in Russia Julian calendar(before this, chronology was carried out from the creation of the world according to the Gregorian calendar). As a result of the calendar reform, Russia began to live at the same time as Europe.

There was a radical breakdown of all traditional ideas about the everyday way of life of Russian society (barber shaving, European clothing, wearing uniforms by military and civilian officials).

Decree of 1718 on holding assemblies with the mandatory presence of women.

The result of Peter's reformsI.

Peter's reforms marked the formation absolute monarchy.

The transformations significantly increased the efficiency of public administration and served as the main lever for the modernization of the country. Russia has become a Europeanized state and a member of the European community of nations. Industry and trade developed rapidly, and great achievements appeared in technical training and science. Authoritarian rule is becoming established, the role of the monarch and his influence on all spheres of life of society and the state are growing enormously.

The price of Peter's reformsI.

Multiple increases in taxes led to the impoverishment and enslavement of the bulk of the population.

A cult of institution has developed in Russia, and the pursuit of ranks and positions has become a national disaster.

The desire to catch up with Europe in economic development Peter tried to implement it with the help of accelerated “manufacturing industrialization”, i.e. through the mobilization of public funds and the use of serf labor. The main feature of the development of manufactories was the fulfillment of government orders, primarily military orders, which freed them from competition but deprived them of free economic initiative.

Instead of the emerging civil society in Europe with market economy By the end of Peter's reign, Russia was a military-police state with a nationalized, monopolized serf-owning economy.

The Europeanization of Russia brought with it new political, religious, social ideas that were accepted by the ruling classes of society before they reached the masses. A split arose between the top and bottom of society.

The main psychological support of the Russian state - the Orthodox Church at the end of the 17th century was shaken in its foundations and gradually lost its significance.

There was an aggravation of political and social problems. The abolition of zemstvo councils, which removed the people from political power, and the abolition of self-government in 1708 also created political difficulties.

Weakening contacts between the government and the people. It soon became clear that the majority did not sympathize with the Europeanization program. In carrying out its reforms, the government was forced to act cruelly.

The cost of the transformations was prohibitively high: when carrying out them, the tsar did not take into account the sacrifices made on the altar of the fatherland, nor with national traditions, nor with the memory of his ancestors.