CRIMINAL WAR 1853-1856

Causes of the war and the balance of forces. Russia, the Ottoman Empire, England, France and Sardinia took part in the Crimean War. Each of them had its own calculations in this military conflict in the Middle East.

For Russia, the regime of the Black Sea straits was of paramount importance. In the 30-40s of the 19th century. Russian diplomacy waged a tense struggle for the most favorable conditions in resolving this issue. In 1833, the Unkiar-Isklessi Treaty was concluded with Turkey. According to it, Russia received the right to free passage of its warships through the straits. In the 40s of the XIX century. the situation has changed. Based on a series of agreements with European states, the straits were closed to all navies. This had a hard impact on the Russian fleet. He found himself locked in the Black Sea. Russia, relying on its military power, sought to re-solve the problem of the straits and strengthen its position in the Middle East and the Balkans.

The Ottoman Empire wanted to regain the territories lost as a result Russian-Turkish wars late XVIII - first half of the XIX century.

England and France hoped to crush Russia as a great power and deprive it of influence in the Middle East and the Balkan Peninsula.

The pan-European conflict in the Middle East began in 1850, when disputes broke out between the Orthodox and Catholic clergy in Palestine over who would own the Holy Places in Jerusalem and Bethlehem. The Orthodox Church was supported by Russia, and the Catholic Church by France. The dispute between the clergy escalated into a confrontation between these two European states. The Ottoman Empire, which included Palestine, sided with France. This caused sharp discontent in Russia and personally with Emperor Nicholas I. A special representative of the Tsar, Prince A.S., was sent to Constantinople. Menshikov. He was instructed to achieve privileges for the Russian Orthodox Church in Palestine and the rights of patronage to Orthodox subjects of Turkey. Failure of A.S. mission Menshikova was a foregone conclusion. The Sultan was not going to give in to Russian pressure, and the defiant, disrespectful behavior of her envoy only aggravated conflict situation. Thus, a seemingly private, but for that time important, given the religious feelings of people, dispute about Holy Places became the reason for the outbreak of the Russian-Turkish, and subsequently the pan-European war.

Nicholas I took an irreconcilable position, relying on the power of the army and the support of some European states (England, Austria, etc.). But he miscalculated. The Russian army numbered more than 1 million people. However, as it turned out during the war, it was imperfect, first of all, in technical terms. Its weapons (smoothbore guns) were inferior rifled weapons Western European armies. The artillery is also outdated. The Russian navy was predominantly sailing, while the European navies were dominated by steam-powered ships. There was no established communication. This did not make it possible to provide the site of military operations with a sufficient amount of ammunition and food, or human replenishment. The Russian army could successfully fight the Turkish one, but it was not able to resist the united forces of Europe.

Progress of military operations. To put pressure on Turkey in 1853, Russian troops were sent to Moldova and Wallachia. In response, the Turkish Sultan declared war on Russia in October 1853. He was supported by England and France. Austria took a position of “armed neutrality.” Russia found itself in complete political isolation.

The history of the Crimean War is divided into two stages. The first - the Russian-Turkish campaign itself - was conducted with varying success from November 1853 to April 1854. In the second (April 1854 - February 1856) - Russia was forced to fight against a coalition of European states.

The main event of the first stage was the Battle of Sinop (November 1853). Admiral P.S. Nakhimov defeated the Turkish fleet in Sinop Bay and suppressed coastal batteries. This activated England and France. They declared war on Russia. The Anglo-French squadron appeared in the Baltic Sea and attacked Kronstadt and Sveaborg. English ships entered the White Sea and bombarded the Solovetsky Monastery. A military demonstration was also held in Kamchatka.

The main goal of the joint Anglo-French command was to capture Crimea and Sevastopol, the Russian naval base. On September 2, 1854, the Allies began landing an expeditionary force in the Evpatoria area. Battle on the river Alma in September 1854, Russian troops lost. By order of the commander, A.S. Menshikov, they passed through Sevastopol and moved to Bakhchisarai. At the same time, the garrison of Sevastopol, reinforced by sailors of the Black Sea Fleet, was actively preparing for defense. It was headed by V.A. Kornilov and P.S. Nakhimov.

In October 1854, the defense of Sevastopol began. The fortress garrison showed unprecedented heroism. Admirals V.A. became famous in Sevastopol. Kornilov, P.S. Nakhimov, V.I. Istomin, military engineer E.I. Totleben, Lieutenant General of Artillery S.A. Khrulev, many sailors and soldiers: I. Shevchenko, F. Samolatov, P. Koshka and others.

The main part of the Russian army undertook diversionary operations: the battle of Inkerman (November 1854), the attack on Yevpatoria (February 1855), the battle on the Black River (August 1855). These military actions did not help the residents of Sevastopol. In August 1855 it began final assault Sevastopol. After the fall of Malakhov Kurgan, continuation of the defense was difficult. Most of Sevastopol was occupied by the allied forces, however, having found only ruins there, they returned to their positions.

In the Caucasian theater, military operations developed more successfully for Russia. Türkiye invaded Transcaucasia, but suffered a major defeat, after which Russian troops began to operate on its territory. In November 1855, the Turkish fortress of Kare fell.

The extreme exhaustion of Allied forces in the Crimea and Russian successes in the Caucasus led to a cessation of hostilities. Negotiations between the parties began.

Parisian world. At the end of March 1856, the Paris Peace Treaty was signed. Russia did not suffer significant territorial losses. Only the southern part of Bessarabia was torn away from her. However, she lost the right of patronage to the Danube principalities and Serbia. The most difficult and humiliating condition was the so-called “neutralization” of the Black Sea. Russia was prohibited from having naval forces, military arsenals and fortresses in the Black Sea. This dealt a significant blow to the security of the southern borders. Russia's role in the Balkans and the Middle East was reduced to nothing.

The defeat in the Crimean War had a significant impact on the situation international forces and on the internal situation in Russia. The war, on the one hand, exposed its weakness, but on the other, demonstrated the heroism and unshakable spirit of the Russian people. The defeat brought a sad conclusion to Nikolaev's rule, shook up the entire Russian public and forced the government to come to grips with reforming the state.

What you need to know about this topic:

Socio-economic development of Russia in the first half of the 19th century. Social structure population.

Development of agriculture.

Development of Russian industry in the first half of the 19th century. The formation of capitalist relations. Industrial revolution: essence, prerequisites, chronology.

Development of water and highway communications. Start of railway construction.

Exacerbation of socio-political contradictions in the country. Palace coup 1801 and the accession to the throne of Alexander I. “The days of Alexander are a wonderful beginning.”

Peasant question. Decree "On Free Plowmen". Government measures in the field of education. Government activities M.M. Speransky and his plan for state reforms. Creation of the State Council.

Russia's participation in anti-French coalitions. Treaty of Tilsit.

Patriotic War of 1812. International relations on the eve of the war. Causes and beginning of the war. Balance of forces and military plans of the parties. M.B. Barclay de Tolly. P.I. Bagration. M.I.Kutuzov. Stages of war. Results and significance of the war.

Foreign campaigns of 1813-1814. Congress of Vienna and its decisions. Holy Alliance.

The internal situation of the country in 1815-1825. Strengthening conservative sentiments in Russian society. A.A. Arakcheev and Arakcheevism. Military settlements.

Foreign policy tsarism in the first quarter of the XIX V.

First secret organizations Decembrists - "Union of Salvation" and "Union of Prosperity". Northern and Southern society. The main program documents of the Decembrists are “Russian Truth” by P.I. Pestel and “Constitution” by N.M. Muravyov. Death of Alexander I. Interregnum. Uprising on December 14, 1825 in St. Petersburg. Uprising of the Chernigov regiment. Investigation and trial of the Decembrists. The significance of the Decembrist uprising.

Beginning of the reign of Nicholas I. Strengthening autocratic power. Further centralization and bureaucratization of the Russian state system. Intensifying repressive measures. Creation of the III department. Censorship regulations. The era of censorship terror.

Codification. M.M. Speransky. Reform of state peasants. P.D. Kiselev. Decree "On Obligated Peasants".

Polish uprising 1830-1831

The main directions of Russian foreign policy in the second quarter of the 19th century.

Eastern question. Russian-Turkish War 1828-1829 The problem of the straits in Russian foreign policy in the 30s and 40s of the 19th century.

Russia and the revolutions of 1830 and 1848. in Europe.

Crimean War. International relations on the eve of the war. Causes of the war. Progress of military operations. Russia's defeat in the war. Peace of Paris 1856. International and domestic consequences of the war.

Annexation of the Caucasus to Russia.

The formation of the state (imamate) in the North Caucasus. Muridism. Shamil. Caucasian War. The significance of the annexation of the Caucasus to Russia.

Social thought and social movement in Russia in the second quarter of the 19th century.

Formation of government ideology. The theory of official nationality. Mugs from the late 20s - early 30s of the 19th century.

N.V. Stankevich’s circle and German idealistic philosophy. A.I. Herzen’s circle and utopian socialism. " Philosophical writing"P.Ya. Chaadaeva. Westerners. Moderates. Radicals. Slavophiles. M.V. Butashevich-Petrashevsky and his circle. The theory of “Russian socialism” by A.I. Herzen.

Socio-economic and political prerequisites for bourgeois reforms of the 60-70s of the 19th century.

Peasant reform. Preparation of reform. "Regulation" February 19, 1861 Personal liberation of the peasants. Allotments. Ransom. Duties of peasants. Temporary condition.

Zemstvo, judicial, urban reforms. Financial reforms. Reforms in the field of education. Censorship rules. Military reforms. The meaning of bourgeois reforms.

Socio-economic development of Russia second half of the 19th century V. Social structure of the population.

Industrial development. Industrial revolution: essence, prerequisites, chronology. The main stages of the development of capitalism in industry.

Development of capitalism in agriculture. Rural community in post-reform Russia. Agrarian crisis of the 80-90s of the XIX century.

Social movement in Russia in the 50s and 60s of the 19th century.

Social movement in Russia in the 70-90s of the 19th century.

Revolutionary populist movement of the 70s - early 80s of the 19th century.

"Land and Freedom" of the 70s of the XIX century. "People's Will" and "Black Redistribution". Assassination of Alexander II on March 1, 1881. The collapse of Narodnaya Volya.

Labor movement in the second half of the 19th century. Strike struggle. The first workers' organizations. A work issue arises. Factory legislation.

Liberal populism of the 80-90s of the 19th century. Spread of the ideas of Marxism in Russia. Group "Emancipation of Labor" (1883-1903). The emergence of Russian social democracy. Marxist circles of the 80s of the 19th century.

St. Petersburg "Union of Struggle for the Liberation of the Working Class." V.I. Ulyanov. "Legal Marxism".

Political reaction of the 80-90s of the XIX century. The era of counter-reforms.

Alexander III. Manifesto on the “inviolability” of autocracy (1881). The policy of counter-reforms. Results and significance of counter-reforms.

International position of Russia after the Crimean War. Changing the country's foreign policy program. The main directions and stages of Russian foreign policy in the second half of the 19th century.

Russia in the system international relations after the Franco-Prussian War. Union of Three Emperors.

Russia and the Eastern crisis of the 70s of the XIX century. Russian policy goals in eastern question. Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878: causes, plans and forces of the parties, course of military operations. Treaty of San Stefano. Berlin Congress and its decisions. The role of Russia in the liberation of the Balkan peoples from the Ottoman yoke.

Foreign policy of Russia in the 80-90s of the XIX century. Formation of the Triple Alliance (1882). Deterioration of Russia's relations with Germany and Austria-Hungary. Conclusion of the Russian-French alliance (1891-1894).

• Buganov V.I., Zyryanov P.N. History of Russia: the end of the 17th - 19th centuries. . - M.: Education, 1996.

In short, the Crimean War broke out due to Russia’s desire to seize the Bosporus and Dardanelles from Turkey. However, France and England joined the conflict. Since the Russian Empire lagged far behind economically, its defeat was only a matter of time. The consequences were heavy sanctions, penetration of foreign capital, decline Russian authority, as well as an attempt to resolve the peasant question.

Causes of the Crimean War

The opinion that the war began because of a religious conflict and “protection of the Orthodox” is fundamentally incorrect. Since wars never started for a reason different religions or infringement of some interests of fellow believers. These arguments are only a reason for conflict. The reason is always economic interests sides

Türkiye by that time was the “sick link of Europe.” It became clear that it would not last long and would soon collapse, so the question of who would inherit its territories became increasingly relevant. Russia wanted to annex Moldavia and Wallachia with its Orthodox population, and also in the future to capture the Bosporus and Dardanelles straits.

The beginning and end of the Crimean War

The following stages can be distinguished in the Crimean War of 1853-1855:

1. Danube campaign. On June 14, 1853, the emperor issued a decree on the start of a military operation. On June 21, the troops crossed the border with Turkey and on July 3 entered Bucharest without firing a single shot. At the same time, minor military skirmishes began at sea and on land.

1. Battle of Sinop. On November 18, 1953, a huge Turkish squadron was completely destroyed. This was the most major victory Russia in the Crimean War.

1. Entry of the Allies into the war. In March 1854, France and England declared war on Russia. Realizing that he could not cope with the leading powers alone, the emperor withdrew his troops from Moldavia and Wallachia.

1. Sea blockade. In June-July 1854, a Russian squadron of 14 battleships and 12 frigates was completely blocked in the Sevastopol Bay by the Allied fleet, numbering 34 battleships and 55 frigates.

1. Allied landing in Crimea. On September 2, 1854, the allies began to land in Yevpatoria, and already on the 8th of the same month they inflicted a rather large defeat Russian army(a division of 33,000 people), which tried to stop the movement of troops towards Sevastopol. The losses were small, but they had to retreat.

1. Destruction of part of the fleet. On September 9, 5 battleships and 2 frigates (30% of the total number) were sunk at the entrance to Sevastopol Bay to prevent the Allied squadron from breaking into it.

1. Attempts to release the blockade. On October 13 and November 5, 1854, Russian troops made 2 attempts to lift the blockade of Sevastopol. Both were unsuccessful, but without major losses.

1. Battle for Sevastopol. From March to September 1855 there were 5 bombings of the city. There was another attempt by Russian troops to break the blockade, but it failed. On September 8, Malakhov Kurgan, a strategic height, was taken. Because of this, Russian troops left southern part cities, blew up rocks with ammunition and weapons, and also sank the entire fleet.

1. The surrender of half the city and the sinking of the Black Sea squadron produced a strong shock in all circles of society. For this reason, Emperor Nicholas I agreed to a truce.

War participants

One of the reasons for Russia's defeat is the numerical superiority of the allies. But in reality this is not the case. The ratio of the ground part of the army is shown in the table.

As you can see, although the allies had an overall numerical superiority, this did not affect every battle. Moreover, even when the ratio was approximately parity or in our favor, Russian troops still could not achieve success. However, the main question remains not why Russia did not win, not having numerical superiority, but why the state was unable to deliver more soldier.

Important! In addition, the British and French contracted dysentery during the march, which greatly affected the combat effectiveness of the units .

The balance of fleet forces in the Black Sea is shown in the table:

The main naval force was battleships - heavy ships with a huge number of guns. Frigates were used as fast and well-armed hunters that hunted transport ships. Russia's large number of small boats and gunboats did not provide superiority at sea, since their combat potential was extremely small.

Heroes of the Crimean War

Another reason is called command errors. However, most of these opinions are expressed after the fact, that is, when the critic already knows what decision should have been taken.

1. Nakhimov, Pavel Stepanovich. He showed himself most at sea during the Battle of Sinop, when he sank a Turkish squadron. He did not participate in land battles, since he did not have the relevant experience (he was still a naval admiral). During the defense, he served as governor, that is, he was involved in equipping the troops.

1. Kornilov, Vladimir Alekseevich. He proved himself to be a brave and active commander. In fact, he invented the tactics of active defense with tactical attacks, staging minefields, mutual assistance between land and naval artillery.

1. Menshikov, Alexander Sergeevich. It is he who receives all the blame for the lost war. However, firstly, Menshikov personally led only 2 operations. In one he retreated for completely objective reasons (numerical superiority of the enemy). In another he lost due to his miscalculation, but at that moment his front was no longer decisive, but auxiliary. Secondly, Menshikov also gave quite rational orders (sinking ships in the bay), which helped the city survive longer.

Causes of defeat

Many sources indicate that Russian troops lost because of the fittings, which large quantities the Allied armies had. This is an erroneous point of view, which is duplicated even on Wikipedia, so it needs to be analyzed in detail:

1. The Russian army also had fittings, and there were enough of them too.
2. The rifle was fired at 1200 meters - it’s just a myth. Really long range rifles were adopted much later. On average, the rifles were fired at 400-450 meters.
3. The rifles were shot very accurately - also a myth. Yes, their accuracy was more accurate, but only by 30-50% and only at 100 meters. As the distance increased, the superiority dropped to 20-30% or lower. In addition, the rate of fire was 3-4 times lower.
4. During major battles in the first half of the 19th century, the smoke from gunpowder was so thick that visibility was reduced to 20-30 meters.
5. The accuracy of a weapon does not mean the accuracy of a fighter. A person even from modern rifle It is extremely difficult to teach how to hit a target from 100 meters. And from a rifle that did not have today’s aiming devices, it was even more difficult to shoot at a target.
6. During combat stress targeted shooting only 5% of soldiers think.
7. The main losses were always caused by artillery. Namely, 80-90% of all killed and wounded soldiers were from cannon fire with grapeshot.

Despite the numerical disadvantage of guns, we had an overwhelming superiority in artillery, which was determined by the following factors:

• our guns were more powerful and more accurate;
• Russia had the best artillerymen in the world;
• the batteries stood in prepared high positions, which gave them an advantage in firing range;
• The Russians were fighting on their territory, which is why all positions were targeted, meaning we could immediately start hitting without missing a beat.

So what were the reasons for the loss? First, we have completely lost the diplomatic game. France, which supplied the bulk of its troops to the theater of operations, could be persuaded to stand up for us. Napoleon III did not have any real economic goals, which means there was an opportunity to lure him to his side. Nicholas I hoped that the allies would keep their word. He did not request any official papers, which was a big mistake. This can be deciphered as “dizziness with success.”

Secondly, the feudal system of troop control was significantly inferior to the capitalist military machine. First of all, this manifests itself in discipline. A living example: when Menshikov gave the order to scuttle the ship in the bay, Kornilov... refused to carry it out. This situation is the norm for the feudal paradigm of military thinking, where there is not a commander and a subordinate, but a suzerain and a vassal.

However main reason The loss is Russia's huge economic lag. For example, the table below shows the main economic indicators:

This was precisely the reason for the lack of modern ships, weapons, as well as the inability to supply ammunition, ammunition and medicines on time. By the way, cargo from France and England reached Crimea faster than from the central regions of Russia to Crimea. And another striking example - Russian Empire, seeing the deplorable situation in Crimea, was never able to deliver new troops to the theater of operations, while the allies were transporting reserves across several seas.

Consequences of the Crimean War

Despite the local nature of the hostilities, Russia suffered greatly in this war. First of all, a huge public debt appeared - over a billion rubles. The money supply (assignations) increased from 311 to 735 million. The ruble has fallen in price several times. By the end of the war, market sellers simply refused to change silver coins for paper money.

Such instability led to a rapid rise in the price of bread, meat and other food products, which led to peasant revolts. The schedule of peasant performances is as follows:

• 1855 – 63;
• 1856 – 71;
• 1857 – 121;
• 1858 – 423 (this is already the scale of Pugachevism);
• 1859 – 182;
• 1860 – 212;
• 1861 - 1340 (and this is already a civil war).

Russia lost the right to have warships in the Black Sea and gave up some lands, but all this was quickly returned during the subsequent Russian-Turkish wars. Therefore, the main consequence of the war for the empire can be considered the abolition of serfdom. However, this “abolition” was only a transfer of peasants from feudal slavery to mortgage slavery, as clearly evidenced by the number of uprisings in 1861 (indicated above).

Results for Russia

What conclusions can be drawn? In a war after the 19th century, the main and only means of victory is not modern rockets, tanks and ships, and the economy. In case of mass military clashes, it is extremely important that the weapons are not only high-tech, but that the state economy can constantly update all weapons in the conditions of the rapid destruction of human resources and military equipment.

Crimean War 1853-1856 (briefly)

Causes of the Crimean War

The Eastern question has always been relevant for Russia. After the Turks captured Byzantium and established Ottoman rule, Russia remained the most powerful Orthodox state in the world. Nicholas 1, Russian emperor, sought to strengthen Russian influence in the Middle East and the Balkans, supporting the national liberation struggle of the Balkan peoples for liberation from Muslim rule. But these plans threatened Great Britain and France, who also sought to increase their influence in the Middle East region. Among other things, Napoleon 3, the then Emperor of France, simply needed to switch the attention of his people from his own unpopular person to the more popular war with Russia at that time.

The reason was found quite easily. In 1853, another dispute arose between Catholics and Orthodox Christians over the right to repair the dome of the Bethlehem Church on the site of the Nativity of Christ. The decision had to be made by the Sultan, who, at the instigation of France, decided the issue in favor of the Catholics. The demands of Prince A.S. Menshikov, the Ambassador Extraordinary of Russia about the right of the Russian Emperor to patronize the Orthodox subjects of the Turkish Sultan were rejected, after which Russian troops occupied Wallachia and Moldavia, and the Turks responded to the protest by refusing to leave these principalities, citing their actions as a protectorate over them according to the Treaty of Adrianople.

After some political manipulations on the part of European states in alliance with Turkey, the latter declared war on Russia on October 4 (16), 1853.

At the first stage, while Russia was dealing with only the Ottoman Empire, it was victorious: in the Caucasus (battle of Bashkadiklyar), Turkish troops suffered a crushing defeat, and the destruction of 14 ships of the Turkish fleet near Sinop became one of the brightest victories of the Russian fleet.

Entry of England and France into the Crimean War

And then “Christian” France and England intervened, declaring war on Russia on March 15 (27), 1854 and capturing Evpatoria in early September. The Parisian Cardinal Cibourg described their seemingly impossible alliance as follows: “The war into which France entered into with Russia is not a political war, but a holy war, ... a religious one. ... the need to drive away the heresy of Photius... This is the avowed purpose of this new crusade...“Russia could not resist the united forces of such powers. Both internal contradictions and insufficient technical equipment of the army played a role. In addition, the Crimean War moved to other directions. Turkey's allies in the North Caucasus - Shamil's troops - were stabbed in the back, Kokand opposed the Russians in Central Asia(however, they were unlucky here - the battle for Fort Perovsky, where there were 10 enemies or more for every Russian, led to the defeat of the Kokand troops).

There were also battles in the Baltic Sea - on the Alan Islands and the Finnish coast, and in the White Sea - for Kola, the Solovetsky Monastery and Arkhangelsk, there was an attempt to take Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky. However, all these battles were won by the Russians, which forced England and France to see Russia as a more serious opponent and take the most decisive actions.

Defense of Sevastopol in 1854-1855

The outcome of the war was decided by the defeat of Russian troops in the defense of Sevastopol, the siege of which by coalition forces lasted almost a year (349 days). During this time, too many unfavorable events for Russia occurred: the talented military leaders Kornilov, Istomin, Totleben, Nakhimov died, and on February 18 (March 2), 1855, the All-Russian Emperor, the Tsar of Poland and Grand Duke Finnish Nicholas 1. On August 27 (September 8), 1855, Malakhov Kurgan was taken, the defense of Sevastopol became meaningless, the next day the Russians left the city.

Defeat of Russia in the Crimean War of 1853-1856

After the capture of Kinburn by the French in October and the note from Austria, which had hitherto observed armed neutrality together with Prussia, further waging the war by a weakened Russia made no sense.

On March 18 (30), 1856, a peace treaty was signed in Paris, which imposed on Russia the will of the European states and Turkey, which prohibited the Russian state from having a navy, took away the Black Sea bases, prohibited the strengthening of the Åland Islands, abolished the protectorate over Serbia, Wallachia and Moldova, and forced an exchange Kars to Sevastopol and Balaklava, and stipulated the transfer of Southern Bessarabia to the Moldavian Principality (pushing back the Russian borders along the Danube). Russia was exhausted by the Crimean War, its economy was in great disarray.

Crimean War (briefly)

Brief description of the Crimean War of 1853-1856.

The main reason for the Crimean War was the clash of interests in the Balkans and the Middle East of such powers as Austria, France, England and Russia. Leading European states sought to open up Turkish possessions to increase the sales market. At the same time, Türkiye wanted in every possible way to take revenge after defeats in the wars with Russia.

The trigger for the war was the problem of revising the legal regime for ship navigation Russian fleet the Dardanelles and Bosphorus straits, which was recorded in 1840 at the London Convention.

And the reason for the outbreak of hostilities was a dispute between the Catholic and Orthodox clergy about the correct ownership of the shrines (the Holy Sepulcher and the Church of Bethlehem), which were located on the territory at that moment Ottoman Empire. In 1851, Türkiye, instigated by France, handed over the keys to the shrines to the Catholics. In 1853, Emperor Nicholas I put forward an ultimatum excluding a peaceful resolution of the issue. At the same time, Russia occupies the Danube principalities, which leads to war. Here are its main points:

· In November 1853, the Black Sea squadron of Admiral Nakhimov defeated the Turkish fleet in the bay of Sinop, and a Russian ground operation was able to push back the enemy troops by crossing the Danube.

· Fearing the defeat of the Ottoman Empire, France and England declared war on Russia in the spring of 1854, attacking the Russian ports of Odessa, the Addan Islands, etc. in August 1854. These blockade attempts were unsuccessful.

· Autumn 1854 – landing of sixty thousand troops in the Crimea to capture Sevastopol. The heroic defense of Sevastopol for 11 months.

· On the twenty-seventh of August, after a series of unsuccessful battles, they were forced to leave the city.

On March 18, 1856, the Paris Peace Treaty was formalized and signed between Sardinia, Prussia, Austria, England, France, Turkey and Russia. The latter lost part of its fleet and some bases, and the Black Sea was recognized as neutral territory. In addition, Russia lost power in the Balkans, which significantly undermined its military power.

According to historians, the basis for the defeat during the Crimean War was the strategic miscalculation of Nicholas the First, who pushed feudal-serfdom and economically backward Russia into a military conflict with powerful European states.

This defeat prompted Alexander II to carry out radical political reforms.

The Crimean War answered the long-standing dream of Nicholas I to gain Russian possession of the Black Sea straits, which Catherine the Great had already dreamed of. This was contrary to the plans of the Great European Powers, who intended to counteract Russia and help the Ottomans in the coming war.

Main causes of the Crimean War

The history of the Russian-Turkish wars is incredibly long and contradictory, however, the Crimean War is perhaps the brightest page in this history. There were many reasons for the Crimean War of 1853-1856, but they all agreed on one thing: Russia sought to destroy the dying empire, and Turkey counteracted this and was going to use fighting in order to suppress liberation movement Balkan peoples. The plans of London and Paris did not include strengthening Russia, so they hoped to weaken it, at best, separating Finland, Poland, the Caucasus and Crimea from Russia. In addition, the French still remembered the humiliating loss of the war with the Russians during the reign of Napoleon.

Rice. 1. Map of the combat operations of the Crimean War.

When Emperor Napoleon III ascended the throne, Nicholas I did not consider him a legitimate ruler, since after Patriotic War And Foreign trip The Bonaparte dynasty was excluded from possible contenders for the throne in France. Russian Emperor in the congratulatory letter he addressed Napoleon as “my friend,” and not “my brother,” as etiquette required. It was a personal slap in the face from one emperor to another.

Rice. 2. Portrait of Nicholas I.

Briefly about the causes of the Crimean War of 1853-1856, we will collect information in the table.

The immediate cause of hostilities was the issue of control of the Church of the Holy Sepulcher in Bethlehem. Turkish Sultan handed over the keys to the Catholics, which offended Nicholas I, which led to the start of hostilities by introducing Russian troops to the territory of Moldova.

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Rice. 3. Portrait of Admiral Nakhimov, a participant in the Crimean War.

Reasons for Russia's defeat in the Crimean War

Russia accepted an unequal battle in the Crimean (or as they printed in Western press- Eastern) war. But this was not the only reason for the future defeat.

The Allied forces greatly outnumbered the Russian soldiers. Russia fought with dignity and was able to achieve the maximum during this war, although it lost it.

Another reason for the defeat was the diplomatic isolation of Nicholas I. He pursued a strong imperialist policy, which caused irritation and hatred from his neighbors.

Despite the heroism of the Russian soldier and some officers, among senior officials there was theft. A striking example A. S. Menshikov, who was nicknamed the “traitor,” speaks out for this.

An important reason is the military-technical backwardness of Russia from European countries. So, when Russia was still in service sailing ships, the French and English fleets had already made full use of the steam fleet, which showed itself to be the best side during calm weather. Allied soldiers used rifled guns, which fired more accurately and farther than Russian smoothbore guns. The situation was similar in artillery.

The classic reason was the low level of infrastructure development. Haven't been taken to Crimea yet railways, and spring thaws killed the road system, which reduced the supply of the army.

The result of the war was the Peace of Paris, according to which Russia did not have the right to have a navy in the Black Sea, and also lost its protectorate over the Danube principalities and returned Southern Bessarabia to Turkey.

What have we learned?

Although the Crimean War was lost, it showed Russia the ways of future development and pointed to weak points in economics, military affairs, and social sphere. There was a patriotic upsurge throughout the country, and the heroes of Sevastopol were made national heroes.

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