The main reasons for the start of the Crimean War. Crimean War
The causes of the war lay in the contradictions between European powers in the Middle East, in the struggle of European states for influence on the weakening Ottoman Empire, which was engulfed in the national liberation movement. Nicholas I said that Turkey’s inheritance can and should be divided. In the coming conflict Russian Emperor counted on the neutrality of Great Britain, to which he promised, after the defeat of Turkey, new territorial acquisitions of Crete and Egypt, as well as the support of Austria, as gratitude for Russia's participation in the suppression of the Hungarian revolution. However, Nikolai’s calculations turned out to be wrong: England itself was pushing Turkey towards war, thus trying to weaken Russia’s position. Austria also did not want Russia to strengthen in the Balkans.
The reason for the war was a dispute between the Catholic and Orthodox clergy in Palestine about who would be the guardian of the Church of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem and the temple in Bethlehem. At the same time, there was no talk about access to holy places, since all pilgrims enjoyed them on equal rights. The dispute over the Holy Places cannot be called a far-fetched reason for starting a war.
STEPS
During the Crimean War there are two stages:
Stage I of the war: November 1853 - April 1854. Turkey was Russia's enemy, and military operations took place on the Danube and Caucasus fronts. In 1853, Russian troops entered the territory of Moldavia and Wallachia and military operations on land were sluggish. In the Caucasus, the Turks were defeated at Kars.
Stage II of the war: April 1854 - February 1856 Concerned that Russia would completely defeat Turkey, England and France, in the person of Austria, delivered an ultimatum to Russia. They demanded that Russia refuse to patronize the Orthodox population of the Ottoman Empire. Nicholas I could not accept such conditions. Türkiye, France, England and Sardinia united against Russia.
RESULTS
Results of the war:
On February 13 (25), 1856, the Paris Congress began, and on March 18 (30) a peace treaty was signed.
Russia returned the city of Kars with a fortress to the Ottomans, receiving in exchange Sevastopol, Balaklava and other Crimean cities captured from it.
The Black Sea was declared neutral (that is, open to commercial and closed to military vessels in Peaceful time), with a ban on Russia and the Ottoman Empire to have military fleets and arsenals there.
Navigation along the Danube was declared free, for which the Russian borders were moved away from the river and part of Russian Bessarabia with the mouth of the Danube was annexed to Moldova.
Russia was deprived of the protectorate over Moldavia and Wallachia granted to it by the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi Peace of 1774 and the exclusive protection of Russia over the Christian subjects of the Ottoman Empire.
Russia pledged not to build fortifications on the Åland Islands.
During the war, the participants in the anti-Russian coalition failed to achieve all their goals, but managed to prevent Russia from strengthening in the Balkans and deprive it of the Black Sea Fleet.
Mid 19th century for Russian Empire was marked by an intense diplomatic struggle for the Black Sea straits. Attempts to resolve the issue diplomatically failed and even led to conflict. In 1853, the Russian Empire went to war against the Ottoman Empire for dominance in the Black Sea straits. 1853-1856, in short, was a clash of interests of European states in the Middle East and the Balkans. Leading European states formed an anti-Russian coalition, which included Türkiye, Sardinia and Great Britain. The Crimean War of 1853-1856 covered large territories and stretched for many kilometers. Active fighting were carried out in several directions at once. The Russian Empire was forced to fight not only directly in the Crimea, but also in the Balkans, the Caucasus and Far East. The clashes on the seas - the Black, White and Baltic - were also significant.
Causes of the conflict
Historians define the causes of the Crimean War of 1853-1856 in different ways. So, British scientists main reason The war is considered an unprecedented increase in the aggressiveness of Nicholas Russia, which the emperor led to in the Middle East and the Balkans. Turkish historians identify the main cause of the war as Russia’s desire to establish its dominance over the Black Sea straits, which would make the Black Sea an internal reservoir of the empire. The dominant causes of the Crimean War of 1853-1856 are illuminated by Russian historiography, which argues that the conflict was prompted by Russia's desire to improve its shaky position in the international arena. According to most historians, a whole complex of cause-and-effect events led to the war, and each of the participating countries had its own prerequisites for the war. Therefore, until now, scientists in the current conflict of interests have not come to a common definition of the cause of the Crimean War of 1853-1856.
Conflict of interests
Having examined the causes of the Crimean War of 1853-1856, let us move on to the beginning of hostilities. The reason for this was the conflict between Orthodox and Catholics over control of the Church of the Holy Sepulcher, which was under the jurisdiction of the Ottoman Empire. Russia's ultimatum to hand over the keys to the temple caused a protest from the Ottomans, actively supported by France and Great Britain. Russia, not accepting the failure of its plans in the Middle East, decided to switch to the Balkans and introduced its units into the Danube principalities.
Progress of the Crimean War 1853-1856.
It would be advisable to divide the conflict into two periods. The first stage (November 1953 - April 1854) was the Russian-Turkish conflict itself, during which Russia’s hopes for support from Great Britain and Austria were not justified. Two fronts were formed - in Transcaucasia and Crimea. Russia's only significant victory was the Sinop naval battle in November 1853, during which the Turkish Black Sea fleet was defeated.
and the battle of Inkerman
The second period lasted until February 1856 and was marked by the struggle of the alliance of European states with Turkey. The landing of Allied troops in Crimea forced Russian troops move deeper into the peninsula. The only impregnable citadel was Sevastopol. In the fall of 1854, the brave defense of Sevastopol began. The incompetent command of the Russian army hindered rather than helped the city’s defenders. For 11 months, sailors under the leadership of Nakhimov P., Istomin V., Kornilov V. repelled enemy attacks. And only after it became impractical to hold the city, the defenders, leaving, blew up weapons warehouses and burned everything that could burn, thereby thwarting the plans of the allied forces to take possession of the naval base.
Russian troops attempted to divert the attention of the allies from Sevastopol. But they all turned out to be unsuccessful. The clash near Inkerman, the offensive operation in the Evpatoria region, and the battle on the Black River did not bring glory to the Russian army, but showed its backwardness, outdated weapons and inability to properly conduct military operations. All these actions brought Russia's defeat in the war closer. But it is worth noting that the allied forces also suffered. By the end of 1855, the forces of England and France were exhausted, and there was no point in transferring new forces to the Crimea.
Caucasian and Balkan fronts
The Crimean War of 1853-1856, which we tried to briefly describe, also covered the Caucasian front, where events developed somewhat differently. The situation there was more favorable for Russia. Attempts to invade Transcaucasia were unsuccessful. And Russian troops were even able to advance deep into the Ottoman Empire and capture the Turkish fortresses of Bayazet in 1854 and Kara in 1855. The Allied actions in the Baltic and White Seas and in the Far East did not have significant strategic success. And they rather depleted the military forces of both the allies and the Russian Empire. Therefore, the end of 1855 was marked by the virtual cessation of hostilities on all fronts. The warring parties sat down at the negotiating table to sum up the results of the Crimean War of 1853-1856.
Completion and results
Negotiations between Russia and the allies in Paris ended with the conclusion of a peace treaty. Under the pressure of internal problems and the hostile attitude of Prussia, Austria and Sweden, Russia was forced to accept the demands of the allies to neutralize the Black Sea. The ban on establishing naval bases and fleets deprived Russia of all the achievements of previous wars with Turkey. In addition, Russia pledged not to build fortifications on the Åland Islands and was forced to give control of the Danube principalities to the allies. Bessarabia was transferred to the Ottoman Empire.
In general, the results of the Crimean War of 1853-1856. were ambiguous. The conflict pushed the European world towards a total rearmament of its armies. And this meant that the production of new weapons was intensifying and the strategy and tactics of combat operations were radically changing.
Having spent millions of pounds sterling on the Crimean War, it led the country's budget to complete bankruptcy. Debts to England forced the Turkish Sultan to agree to freedom of religious worship and equality of all, regardless of nationality. Great Britain dismissed the Aberdeen cabinet and formed a new one led by Palmerston, which abolished the sale of officer ranks.
The results of the Crimean War of 1853-1856 forced Russia to turn to reforms. Otherwise she could fall into the abyss social problems, which, in turn, would lead to a popular revolt, the result of which no one would undertake to predict. The experience of the war was used to carry out military reform.
The Crimean War (1853-1856), the defense of Sevastopol and other events of this conflict left significant trace in history, literature and painting. Writers, poets and artists in their works tried to reflect all the heroism of the soldiers who defended the Sevastopol citadel, and the great significance of the war for the Russian Empire.
The Crimean War, called in the West Eastern War(1853-1856) - a military clash between Russia and a coalition of European states that came out in defense of Turkey. had little influence on external position Russian Empire, but significantly - on its domestic policy. The defeat forced the autocracy to begin reforms of everything government controlled which ultimately led to the abolition of serfdom and the transformation of Russia into a powerful capitalist powerCauses of the Crimean War
Objective
***
Rivalry between European states and Russia in the matter of control over the numerous possessions of the weak, collapsing Ottoman Empire (Turkey)
On January 9, 14, February 20, 21, 1853, at meetings with the British Ambassador G. Seymour, Emperor Nicholas I proposed that England share the Turkish Empire together with Russia (History of Diplomacy, Volume One pp. 433 - 437. Edited by V. P. Potemkin)
*** Russia's desire for primacy in managing the system of straits (Bosphorus and Dardanelles) from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean
“If England is thinking of settling in Constantinople in the near future, then I will not allow it... For my part, I am equally disposed to accept the obligation not to settle there, of course, as an owner; as a temporary guardian is a different matter" (from the statement of Nicholas the First to the British Ambassador Seymour on January 9, 1853)
*** Russia's desire to include in the sphere of its national interests affairs in the Balkans and among the southern Slavs
“Let Moldova, Wallachia, Serbia, Bulgaria come under Russian protectorate. As for Egypt, I fully understand the importance of this territory for England. Here I can only say that if, during the distribution of the Ottoman inheritance after the fall of the empire, you take possession of Egypt, then I will have no objection to this. I will say the same about Candia (the island of Crete). This island may suit you, and I don’t see why it shouldn’t become an English possession” (conversation between Nicholas I and British Ambassador Seymour on January 9, 1853 at an evening with Grand Duchess Elena Pavlovna)
Subjective
*** Turkey's weakness
“Türkiye is a “sick man”. Nicholas did not change his terminology all his life when he spoke about the Turkish Empire" ((History of Diplomacy, Volume One pp. 433 - 437)
*** Nicholas I's confidence in his impunity
“I want to speak to you as a gentleman, if we manage to come to an agreement - me and England - the rest doesn’t matter to me, I don’t care what others do or will do” (from a conversation between Nicholas the First and British Ambassador Hamilton Seymour on January 9, 1853 at the evening at Grand Duchess Elena Pavlovna)
***
Nicholas's suggestion that Europe is unable to present a united front
“the tsar was confident that Austria and France would not join England (in a possible confrontation with Russia), and England would not dare to fight him without allies” (History of Diplomacy, Volume One pp. 433 - 437. OGIZ, Moscow, 1941)
*** Autocracy, the result of which was the wrong relationship between the emperor and his advisers
“... Russian ambassadors in Paris, London, Vienna, Berlin, ... Chancellor Nesselrode ... in their reports distorted the state of affairs before the Tsar. They almost always wrote not about what they saw, but about what the king would like to know from them. When one day Andrei Rosen convinced Prince Lieven to finally open the Tsar’s eyes, Lieven answered literally: “So that I would say this to the Emperor?!” But I'm not a fool! If I wanted to tell him the truth, he would throw me out the door, and nothing else would come of it" (History of Diplomacy, Volume One)
*** The problem of "Palestinian shrines":
It became apparent back in 1850, continued and intensified in 1851, weakened in the beginning and middle of 1852, and again unusually worsened just at the very end of 1852 - beginning of 1853. Louis Napoleon, while still president, told the Turkish government that he wanted to preserve and restore all the rights and benefits of the Catholic Church confirmed by Turkey back in 1740 in the so-called holy places, that is, in the churches of Jerusalem and Bethlehem. The Sultan agreed; but a sharp protest followed from Russian diplomacy in Constantinople, pointing out the advantages of the Orthodox Church over the Catholic Church based on the conditions of the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi Peace. After all, Nicholas I considered himself the patron saint of the Orthodox
*** France's desire to split the continental union of Austria, England, Prussia and Russia, which arose during the Napoleonic wars n
“Subsequently, the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Napoleon III, Drouey de Luis, very frankly stated: “The question of holy places and everything that relates to it has no real significance for France. This whole eastern question, which is causing so much noise, served the imperial government only as a means of disrupting the continental union, which had paralyzed France for almost half a century. Finally, the opportunity presented itself to sow discord in a powerful coalition, and Emperor Napoleon grabbed it with both hands." (History of Diplomacy)
Events preceding the Crimean War of 1853-1856
During his short stay in London, the Emperor charmed everyone with his knightly courtesy and royal grandeur, and charmed Queen Victoria, her husband and the most prominent statesmen the then Great Britain, with whom he tried to get closer and enter into an exchange of thoughts.
Nicholas’s aggressive policy in 1853 was due, among other things, to Victoria’s friendly attitude towards him and the fact that the head of the cabinet in England at that moment was the same Lord Aberdeen, who listened to him so kindly at Windsor in 1844
Menshikov was greeted with extraordinary honor. The Turkish police did not even dare to disperse the crowd of Greeks, who gave the prince an enthusiastic meeting. Menshikov behaved with defiant arrogance. In Europe, they paid a lot of attention even to Menshikov’s purely external provocative antics: they wrote about how he paid a visit to the Grand Vizier without taking off his coat, how he spoke sharply to Sultan Abdul-Mecid. From Menshikov’s very first steps, it became clear that he would never give in on two central points: first, he wants to achieve recognition of Russia’s right to patronage not only of the Orthodox Church, but also of the Sultan’s Orthodox subjects; secondly, he demands that Turkey’s consent be approved by the Sultan’s Sened, and not by a firman, i.e., that it be in the nature of a foreign policy agreement with the king, and not be a simple decree
However, Nicholas issued a manifesto that he, like his ancestors, must defend the Orthodox Church in Turkey, and that in order to ensure that the Turks fulfill previous treaties with Russia, which were violated by the Sultan, the Tsar was forced to occupy the Danube principalities (Moldova and Wallachia)
The 4th and 5th infantry corps, numbering 81,541 people, were prepared to occupy Moldova and Wallachia. On May 24, the 4th Corps moved from Podolsk and Volyn provinces to Leovo. The 15th Division of the 5th Infantry Corps arrived there at the beginning of June and merged with the 4th Corps. The command was entrusted to Prince Mikhail Dmitrievich Gorchakov
But Stratford-Radcliffe forced Sultan Abdul-Mecid to reject the Vienna Note, and even before that he hastened to draw up, ostensibly on behalf of Turkey, another note, with some reservations against the Vienna Note. The king, in turn, rejected her. At this time, Nicholas received news from the ambassador in France about the impossibility of a joint military action by England and France.
The course of the Crimean War of 1853-1856. Briefly
headed by admirals Kornilov, Nakhimov, Istomin, who died during the siege
Peace terms
The return of Kars to Turkey in exchange for Sevastopol, the transformation of the Black Sea into neutral: Russia and Turkey are deprived of the opportunity to have a navy and coastal fortifications here, the concession of Bessarabia (the abolition of the exclusive Russian protectorate over Wallachia, Moldova and Serbia)
Reasons for Russia's defeat in the Crimean War
-
Russia's military-technical lag behind leading European powers
-
Underdevelopment of communications
-
Embezzlement, corruption in the rear of the army
“Due to the nature of his activity, Golitsyn had to learn the war as if from scratch. Then he will see heroism, holy self-sacrifice, selfless courage and patience of the defenders of Sevastopol, but, hanging around in the rear on militia affairs, at every step he was faced with God knows what: collapse, indifference, cold-blooded mediocrity and monstrous theft. They stole everything that other - higher - thieves did not have time to steal on the way to Crimea: bread, hay, oats, horses, ammunition. The mechanics of the robbery were simple: suppliers provided rotten goods, which were accepted (as a bribe, of course) by the main commissariat in St. Petersburg. Then - also for a bribe - the army commissariat, then the regimental commissariat, and so on until the last spoke in the chariot. And the soldiers ate rotten stuff, wore rotten stuff, slept on rotten stuff, shot rotten stuff. Military units themselves had to purchase fodder from the local population with money issued by a special financial department. Golitsyn once went there and witnessed such a scene. An officer arrived from the front line in a faded, shabby uniform. The feed has run out, the hungry horses are eating sawdust, shavings. An elderly quartermaster with major's shoulder straps adjusted his glasses on his nose and said in a casual voice:
- We'll give you money, eight percent is fine.
- Why on earth? — the officer was indignant. - We are shedding blood!..
“They sent a newbie again,” the quartermaster sighed. - Just small children! I remember that captain Onishchenko came from your brigade. Why wasn't he sent?
- Onishchenko died...
- May the kingdom of heaven be upon him! - The quartermaster crossed himself. - It's a pity. The man was understanding. We respected him, and he respected us. We won't ask for too much.
The quartermaster was not embarrassed even by the presence of an outsider. Prince Golitsyn approached him, grabbed him by the soul, pulled him out from behind the table and lifted him into the air.
- I’ll kill you, you bastard!..
“Kill,” the quartermaster wheezed, “I still won’t give it without interest.”
“Do you think I’m joking?..” The prince squeezed him with his paw.
“I can’t... the chain will break...” the quartermaster croaked with the last of his strength. - Then I won’t live anyway... The Petersburgers will strangle me...
“People are dying there, you son of a bitch!” - the prince cried out in tears and disgustedly threw away the half-strangled military official.
He touched his wrinkled throat, like a condor’s, and croaked with unexpected dignity:
“If we had been there... we would have died no worse... And please, please,” he turned to the officer, “comply with the rules: for artillerymen - six percent, for all other branches of the military - eight.”
The officer twitched his cold nose pathetically, as if he was sobbing:
“They’re eating sawdust... shavings... to hell with you!.. I can’t come back without hay.”
- Poor troop control
“Golitsyn was amazed by the commander-in-chief himself, to whom he introduced himself. Gorchakov was not that old, a little over sixty, but he gave the impression of some kind of rottenness, it seemed that if you poked a finger at him, he would crumble like a completely rotten mushroom. The wandering gaze could not concentrate on anything, and when the old man released Golitsyn with a weak wave of his hand, he heard him humming in French:
I'm poor, poor poilu,
And I'm not in a hurry...
- What else is that! - the colonel of the quartermaster service said to Golitsyn when they left the commander-in-chief. “At least he goes to positions, but Prince Menshikov didn’t remember at all that the war is on. He just made it all witty, and I must admit, it was caustic. He spoke about the Minister of War as follows: “Prince Dolgorukov has a threefold relationship with gunpowder - he did not invent it, did not smell it and does not send it to Sevastopol.” About commander Dmitry Erofeevich Osten-Sacken: “Erofeich has not become strong. I'm exhausted." Sarcasm at least! - the colonel added thoughtfully. “But he allowed a psalmist to be appointed over the great Nakhimov.” For some reason, Prince Golitsyn did not find it funny. In general, he was unpleasantly surprised by the tone of cynical mockery that reigned at headquarters. It seemed that these people had lost all self-respect, and with it any respect for anything. They didn’t talk about the tragic situation of Sevastopol, but they relished ridiculing the commander of the Sevastopol garrison, Count Osten-Sacken, who only knows what to do with priests, read akathists and argue about divine scripture. “He has one good quality,” the colonel added. “He doesn’t interfere in anything” (Yu. Nagibin “Stronger than all other commands”)
Results of the Crimean War
The Crimean War showed
- exacerbation " Eastern Question“, i.e. the struggle of leading countries for the division of the “Turkish inheritance”;
- the growth of the national liberation movement in the Balkans, the acute internal crisis in Turkey and the conviction of Nicholas I of the inevitability of the collapse of the Ottoman Empire;
- miscalculations in the diplomacy of Nicholas 1, which manifested itself in the hope that Austria, in gratitude for its salvation in 1848-1849, would support Russia, and that it would be possible to agree with England on the division of Turkey; as well as disbelief in the possibility of an agreement between the eternal enemies - England and France, directed against Russia,"
- the desire of England, France, Austria and Prussia to oust Russia from the East, to the desire to prevent its penetration into the Balkans
The reason for the Crimean War of 1853 - 1856:
Dispute between Orthodox and Catholic churches for the right to control Christian shrines in Palestine. Behind Orthodox Church Russia stood, and France stood behind the Catholic one.
Stages of military operations of the Crimean War:
1. Russo-Turkish War(May - December 1853). The Russian army, after the Turkish Sultan rejected the ultimatum to grant the Russian Tsar the right to patronize the Orthodox subjects of the Ottoman Empire, occupied Moldavia, Wallachia and moved to the Danube. The Caucasian Corps went on the offensive. The Black Sea squadron achieved enormous success, which in November 1853, under the command of Pavel Nakhimov, destroyed the Turkish fleet in the battle of Sinop.
2. The beginning of the war between Russia and the coalition of European countries (spring - summer 1854). The threat of defeat hanging over Turkey pushed European countries to take active anti-Russian actions, which led from a local war to a pan-European war.
March. England and France sided with Turkey (Sardinian). Allied squadrons fired at Russian troops; fortification on the Alan Islands in the Baltic, on Solovki, in the White Sea, on Kola Peninsula, in Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky, Odessa, Nikolaev, Kerch. Austria, threatening war with Russia, moved troops to the borders of the Danube principalities, which forced the Russian armies to leave Moldavia and Wallachia.
3. Defense of Sevastopol and the end of the war. In September 1854, the Anglo-French The army landed in Crimea, which turned into the main “theater” of the war. This is the last stage of the Crimean War of 1853 - 1856.
The Russian army led by Menshikov was defeated on the river. Alma left Sevastopol defenseless. The defense of the sea fortress, after the sinking of the sailing fleet in the Sevastopol Bay, was taken over by sailors led by admirals Kornilov, Nakhimov Istomin (all died). In early October 1854, the defense of the city began and was captured only on August 27, 1855.
In the Caucasus, successful actions in November 1855, the capture of the Kars fortress. However, with the fall of Sevastopol, the outcome of the war was predetermined: March 1856. peace talks in Paris.
Terms of the Paris Peace Treaty (1856)
Russia lost Southern Bessarabia at the mouth of the Danube, and Kars was returned to Turkey in exchange for Sevastopol.
- Russia was deprived of the right to patronize Christians of the Ottoman Empire
- The Black Sea was declared neutral and Russia lost the right to have a navy and fortifications there
- Freedom of navigation on the Danube was established, which opened the Baltic Peninsula to Western powers
Reasons for Russia's defeat in the Crimean War.
- Economic and technical backwardness (weapons and transport support for Russian armies)
- The mediocrity of the Russian high ground command, which achieved ranks and titles through intrigue and flattery
- Diplomatic miscalculations that led Russia to isolation in the war with the coalition of England, France, Turkey, with the hostility of Austria and Prussia.
- Clear inequality of power
Thus, the Crimean War of 1853 - 1856,
1) at the beginning of the reign of Nicholas 1, Russia managed to acquire a number of territories in the East and expand its spheres of influence
2) the suppression of the revolutionary movement in the West brought Russia the title of “gendarme of Europe”, but did not correspond to its nationality. interests
3) the defeat in the Crimean War revealed the backwardness of Russia; the rottenness of its autocratic-serf system. Revealed mistakes in foreign policy, the goals of which did not correspond to the country’s capabilities
4) this defeat became a decisive and direct factor in the preparation and implementation of the abolition of serfdom in Russia
5) the heroism and dedication of Russian soldiers during the Crimean War remained in the memory of the people and influenced the development of the spiritual life of the country.
Lesson objectives:
- Study the causes, course and consequences of the Crimean War.
- Show that the war exposed the weakness of the Russian Empire, influenced Russia's international position, and gave a new impetus to subsequent modernization.
- Work with the main components of the textbook.
- Strengthen the ability to use reference and additional literature, the ability to highlight the main thing, establish cause-and-effect communications.
- Create tables based on the text.
- To cultivate a sense of pride and love for the Motherland through examples of the desperate, courageous defense of their native land by Russian soldiers and the population of Sevastopol, the work of doctors in the most difficult conditions of besieged Sevastopol.
New terms and dates: Crimean War (1853-1856), Battle of Sinop - November 18, 1853, defense of Sevastopol - September 1854 - August 1855.
Materials and equipment: personal computer, multimedia projector, screen, educational board, workbook, map, handouts.
Lesson plan.
- Reasons and reason for the war.
- Balance of forces and military-technical readiness for war
- Progress of military operations.
- Results of the war.
During the classes.
I.Conversation with students. (slide 2)
Remember what the Eastern Question is?
What events foreign policy Are Russia connected with its resolution?
II. New material.
Lesson assignment: Saratov journalist I. Gorizontov, recalling the Crimean War, wrote: “ It was felt that Europe defeated us not by courage, not by personal valor, but through mental development.”How do you understand this phrase? (slide 3)
Today in the lesson, in the process of work, we will have to learn the goals of the parties and the mechanism for unleashing the Crimean War, the balance of forces and the course of military operations, get acquainted with the significance of the technical and economic potential of Russia in the war, find out the consequences of the Crimean War for Russia and its further development .
The Crimean War changed the balance of power in Europe, had a huge impact on the internal development of Russia, and became one of the main prerequisites for the abolition of serfdom and the reforms of the 1860-1870s. Participation in it is considered the main foreign policy mistake of Nicholas I. What were the causes of the Crimean War?
1. The causes and occasion of the Crimean War.
The guys read the text and name the reasons and reason for the war.(slide 4, 5)
(The reasons for the war were the contradictions between the European powers in the Middle East, the struggle of European states for influence on the weakening Ottoman Empire, which was engulfed in the national liberation movement. Nicholas I said that Turkey is a sick person and its inheritance can and should be divided. In the upcoming conflict The Russian emperor counted on the neutrality of Great Britain, to whom he promised new territorial acquisitions of Crete and Egypt after the defeat of Turkey, as well as the support of Austria, as gratitude for Russia’s participation in the suppression of the Hungarian revolution. However, Nicholas’s calculations turned out to be wrong: England itself pushed Turkey to war, In an effort to weaken Russia's position in this way, Austria also did not want Russia to strengthen in the Balkans.
The reason for the war was a dispute between the Catholic and Orthodox clergy in Palestine about who would be the guardian of the Church of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem and the temple in Bethlehem. At the same time, there was no talk about access to holy places, since all pilgrims enjoyed them on equal rights. The dispute over the Holy Places cannot be called a far-fetched reason for starting a war. Historians sometimes cite this dispute as one of the reasons for the war, given the "deeply religious mentality of the people of the time<...>. The defense of the privileges of the Orthodox community of Palestine formed part of the general task of Russian protection of the entire Christian population in Turkey." (Russian historyXIX - startedXX century: Textbook for history departments of universities. M., 1998. P. 172.)
2. The goals of the countries participating in the war
Students work with the textbook, paragraph 14, pp. 84-85 and fill out the table. (slide 6)
Checking the completion of the table. (slide 7)
3. Puzzle game “Correlation of forces and military-technical readiness for war.”
Students are given cards from which they must make blocks based on the presence of statements written on the cards. Correctly assembled puzzles should depict one of the moments of the Crimean War. At the end of the lesson, students determine which event of the Crimean War is depicted on their puzzles.
Question to the class: Based on the data provided, draw a conclusion about the balance of forces and Russia’s readiness for war . (slide 8)
4. Crimean War 1853-1856
Turkey was Russia's enemy, and military operations took place on the Danube and Caucasus fronts. 1853 Russian troops entered the territory of Moldova and Wallachia and military operations on land were sluggish. In the Caucasus, the Turks were defeated at Kars.
- Battle of Sinop November 1853
Students read the text “The Battle of Sinop” and name the reasons for the victory of the Russians and the defeat of the Turks in the Battle of Sinop. ( slides 10-12)
Sinopskythe battle
The event to which we must now turn is written in golden letters in the history of the glory of the Russian people<...>
Nakhimov, as soon as reinforcements arrived, decided to immediately enter Sinop harbor and attack the Turkish fleet.
In essence, by deciding to attack the Turkish fleet, Nakhimov took a very serious risk. The Gurks' coastal batteries in Sinop were good, and the guns on the ships were also in good working order. But for a long time, since the end of the 16th century, the Turkish fleet, once one of the most formidable and capable in the world, did not have any capable admirals at the decisive moments of its existence. This turned out to be the case on the fatal day of Sinop for Turkey. Osman Pasha positioned his fleet, as if in a fan, at the very embankment of the city: the embankment ran in a concave arc, and the line of the fleet turned out to be a concave arc, covering, if not all, then many of the coastal batteries. And the location of the ships was, naturally, such that they could meet Nakhimov with only one side: the other was facing not the sea, but the city of Sinop. The genius of the Russian naval commander and the first-class crew of his squadron in terms of combat morale and training would have coped with all the obstacles, even if the Turkish command had turned out to be more capable <...>
At dawn on November 18 (30), 1853, the Russian squadron found itself fifteen kilometers from the Sinop roadstead<...>
The Turkish fleet, caught by Nakhimov, was completely destroyed; not a single ship survived, and he died with almost his entire crew. Four frigates, one corvette and one steamship Erekli were blown up and turned into a heap of bloody debris. who could also leave. Before the start of the battle, the Turks were so confident of victory that they had already boarded troops in advance, which were supposed to board the Russian ships at the end of the battle.
The Turkish artillery in the Battle of Sinop was weaker than ours, if you count only the guns on ships (472 guns against the Russian 716), but it acted energetically. The most absurd arrangement of the ships of the Turkish fleet neutralized, fortunately for Nakhimov, some of the very strong coastal Turkish batteries, but still two batteries caused great harm to the Russian ships. Some ships left the battle in serious condition, but none sank<...>
Here is the picture that appeared before the eyes of the crew of the Kornilov squadron when it entered the Sinop Bay: “Most of the city was burning, the ancient battlements with towers from the Middle Ages stood out sharply against the background of a sea of flames. Most of the Turkish frigates were still burning, and when the flames reached the loaded guns, shots fired themselves and the cannonballs flew over us, which was very unpleasant. We saw the frigates take off one after another. It was terrible to see how the people on board were running and thrashing about on the burning decks, probably not daring to throw themselves into the water. Some, it was clear, sat motionless and awaited death with the resignation of fatalism. We spotted flocks of seabirds and pigeons standing out against the crimson background of the fire-lit clouds. The entire raid And our ships were so brightly illuminated by the fire that our sailors worked to repair the ships without needing lanterns. At the same time, the entire sky to the east of Sinop seemed completely black."<...>
Among the prisoners was the flagship of the Turkish squadron, Osman Pasha, whose leg was broken. The wound was very serious. The old Turkish admiral had no shortage of personal courage, just like his subordinates. But this quality alone was not enough to resist Nakhimov’s attack.
On November 23, after a stormy passage through the Black Sea, Nakhimov’s squadron landed in Sevastopol.
The entire population of the city, having already learned about the brilliant victory, greeted the victorious admiral with an endless “Hurray, Nakhimov!” also rushed from all ships anchored in Sevastopol Bay. Jubilant news of the crushing Russian naval victory flew to Moscow, to St. Petersburg, to the Caucasus to Vorontsov, to the Danube to Gorchakov. “You cannot imagine the happiness that everyone in St. Petersburg experienced upon receiving the news of the brilliant Sinope case. This is a truly remarkable feat,” this is how Vasily Dolgorukov, Minister of War, congratulated Prince Menshikov, the commander-in-chief of the fleet in Sevastopol. Nikolai gave Nakhimov George 2nd degree - the rarest military award- and generously rewarded the entire squadron. Slavophiles in Moscow (including even the skeptical Sergei Aksakov) did not hide their delight. The glory of the winner resounded everywhere.
[Tarle E.V. Crimean War.)
Watching the video fragment “Surrender of Osman Pasha” (excerpt from the film “Nakhimov”) (slide 13)
Concerned that Russia would completely defeat Turkey, England and France, in the person of Austria, delivered an ultimatum to Russia. They demanded that Russia refuse to patronize the Orthodox population of the Ottoman Empire. Nicholas I could not accept such conditions.
Türkiye, France, England and Sardinia united against Russia . (slide 14-18)
The following were attacked:
- on the Black Sea - Odessa,
- in the Baltic - Åland Islands,
- on the Barents Sea - Kola Bay,
- on the White Sea - Solovetsky Monastery and Arkhangelsk,
- on Pacific Ocean– Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky.
In September 1854 An allied army of more than 60 thousand landed in the Crimea near Yevpatoria and began an attack on Sevastopol, the main Russian fortress on the Black Sea. The city was invulnerable from the sea, but practically defenseless from land. After the failure of the Russian troops in the battle on the Alma River, Commander-in-Chief Prince A.S. Menshikov (“Izmenshikov”) decided to “maintain contact with the internal provinces,” for which he ordered the army to retreat deep into the Crimea. Essentially, Sevastopol became doomed. Menshikov's attempts to help the city (the Battle of Inkerman and the battle in the Valley of Death near Balaklava) were unsuccessful.
- Defense of Sevastopol(slide 19 - 31)
Working with additional material students answer the questions:
Why is the defense of Sevastopol considered the only bright page for the Russian army? Crimean War?
Why, expressing disagreement with the commander-in-chief’s decision to scuttle the ships, V.A. Kornilov and P.S. Nakhimov not only carried out this order, but also found words for his subordinates that proved the correctness of this decision?
Why were the actions of the main enemy forces directed against Sevastopol?
On October 17, 1854, the first bombardment of Sevastopol began. The enemy hoped to destroy the land fortifications of the fortress with powerful bombardment from sea and land and take it by storm. However, Russian fire coastal batteries caused significant damage to the siege artillery and ships of the French and British, which forced them to postpone the assault on the city. The defenders of Sevastopol suffered an acute need for weapons, ammunition and food. However, in the most difficult conditions, Russian soldiers and sailors maintained high morale and the will to fight. To protect the city, it was decided to flood some of the ships across the entrances to Sevastopol Bay. Vice Admiral V.A. Kornilov was against this decision, But found the strength not only to carry out the order, But and explain to the sailors the necessity of this action. Although one can imagine the horror of the situation when the admiral is told about the sinking of ships, no. In his opinion, opponents are also achieving this. At about 4 a.m. on September 10, 1854, five ships were sunk. The Russian army under the command of A.S. Menshikov tried to provide assistance to the residents of Sevastopol. On October 13 (25), a battle took place in the valley between Sevastopol and Balaklava. The Russians managed to infiltrate the rear and capture several Turkish guns. In this battle, the light artillery cavalry, in which representatives of the most aristocratic families of England served, lost about 1.5 thousand people. This battle raised the morale of the Russian troops. At the same time it served good lesson for the allies, who allocated additional forces to guard their rear. Although the operation did not change the situation of the besieged city. The situation in and around the city was difficult. The defenders were not provided with sufficient quantities of ammunition, water, or food. After death
V.A. Kornilov's defense was led by P. S. Nakhimov, the hero of Sinop.
Despite the difficulties, the defenders of Sevastopol inflicted significant blows on the enemy, carrying out forays into the location of enemy troops. They disabled manpower and equipment, destroyed trenches, and captured prisoners. Even children defended their hometown. For his bravery, the ten-year-old defender of the fifth bastion, Kolya Pishchenko, was awarded a military order. Pyotr Makarovich Koshka became famous for his courage, who participated in eighteen forays into enemy troops, captured ten “tongues” and was awarded the St. George Cross.
Enemy troops stormed the city several times. Sometimes the city was literally bombarded with bombs and rockets. The defenders could not respond with fire of the same force, since there was a catastrophic shortage of ammunition. A bloody struggle took place over one of the important boundaries of Sevastopol - Malakhov Kurgan.
The last forces of the defenders of Sevastopol were exhausted from losses caused by the incessant artillery shelling of the Allies. On July 12, the besieged suffered their most significant loss - Admiral Nakhimov died during the defense of Malakhov Kurgan.
On August 5 (17), 1855, the enemy began preparations for a new assault on Sevastopol massive bombing, which lasted until August 24 (September 5). In total, about 200 thousand shells were fired. As a result of this shelling, the city was completely destroyed, almost not a single intact house remained in it. At the same time, the opponents launched a general offensive, directing the main attack on Malakhov Kurgan. But the defenders repelled the attack. At a price big losses The enemy managed to capture the Malakhov Kurgan, which decided the outcome of the defense of Sevastopol. The garrisons of the city, its defenders, having destroyed batteries, powder magazines and sunk some of the remaining ships, crossed to the North side. On August 30 (September 11), the last ships of the Black Sea Fleet were sunk. IN this On the same day, Alexander II, who ascended the throne, gave the order to stop the defense of Sevastopol. The defense of Sevastopol lasted 349 days (1854-1855).
The feat of doctors in the Crimean War
From the very beginning of the Crimean War, women took an active part in helping the wounded. Sisters of mercy communities operated in Odessa, Sevastopol, and Psgropavlovsk-Kamchatsky.
During the defense of Sevastopol, the daily bombing to which the city was subjected to by the enemy, the number of losses increased every day, both among soldiers and among city residents, even more.
there were more wounded.
In 1954, the famous Russian surgeon N.I. Pirogov arrives in besieged Sevastopol with a group of young surgeons. Nikolai Ivanovich Pirogov is the founder of surgery as a scientific medical discipline. He was one of the first to use ether anesthesia in the clinic. And in 1847, for the first time in the world, he used anesthesia in military field surgery.
In Sevastopol, he performed about 400 operations under ether and 300 under chloroform anesthesia. He took the initiative to deploy temporary hospitals for the defenders of Sevastopol. Based on the experience of the Crimean WAR, Pirogov created the doctrine of general principles military field surgery.
In October 1854, on the initiative of N.I. Pirogov and thanks to the assistance Grand Duchess Elena Pavlovna in St. Petersburg established the Holy Cross community of sisters caring for sick and wounded soldiers of Russia. 200 nurses of this community took part in providing care to the sick and wounded during the Sevastopol defense. The direct leadership of the sisters of the Holy Cross community during the Crimean War was carried out by N. I. Pirogov.
Wives, widows and daughters of officers and sailors also volunteered as nurses and nurses. During the war, women competed with men; under a hail of bullets, they carried kvass and water to the hottest places of the battle, often paying for it with their lives and injuries.
From the very beginning, the main functions of the nurses were dressing dressings, assisting during operations, distributing medicines, monitoring the CLEANNESS of clothes and bed linen wounded, for the improvement of hospital wards, distribution of warm drinks and food, feeding the seriously wounded, moral reassurance of the sick. On December 6, 1854, that is, a week after the start of the nursing service, Pirogov wrote about the work of the sisters: “...if they do it as they do now, they will, no doubt, bring a lot of benefit. They alternately visit hospitals day and night, help with dressings, are also present during operations, distribute tea and wine to the sick and watch over the ministers and caretakers and even doctors. The presence of a woman, neatly dressed and helpfully helping, enlivens the deplorable vale of suffering and disasters...”
Among the sisters of mercy there were many who can rightfully be considered war heroes, along with soldiers and officers awarded this title. Dasha Sevastopolskaya (Alexandrova) became especially famous for her selfless, selfless service to the wounded. A seventeen-year-old girl went to the front. She provided assistance to the wounded during the bloody battle on the Alma River, during which the Russian army tried to stop the advance of the Anglo-French-Turkish troops.
And in November 1854, Dasha was transferred as a voluntary nurse to the Main Dressing Station, which was located in the building of the Assembly of the Nobility in Sevastopol. Around THESE days, a reward was delivered from St. Petersburg on behalf of Emperor Nicholas 1 himself. The Central State Military Historical Archive preserves a document entitled “On the presentation of the maiden Daria for an award, for the exemplary diligence rendered to her and caring for the sick and wounded in Sevastopol,” dated November 7, 1854. As follows from the document, at the direction of Nicholas I, Daria was awarded a gold medal with the inscription “For zeal” on the Vladimir ribbon and 500 rubles. silver At the same time, it was announced that after marriage, Daria would be awarded another 1000 rubles. The wounded affectionately called her Dasha of Sevastopol, and she went down in the history of the Crimean War under this name.
4. Results of the war.
Students read the textbook, paragraph 14, page 89 and name the conditions of the Paris Peace Treaty. (slide 32)
- What is the main result of the Crimean War for Russia?
- What is the main result of the Crimean War for England and France? (slide 33)
5. Homework.
- Write a syncwine about the Crimean War.
- Read "Sevastopol Stories." What facts impressed you the most? Is it possible to use this work as a source? Give reasons for your answer.
Similar articles
A glimpse of Bella. Romantic chronicle. A glimpse of genius. Messerer about Akhmadulina Boris Messerer glimpse of Bella romantic chronicle
I dreamed that I was sailing on a boat on the river
How to cook beef entrecote in a frying pan
About the company Foreign language courses at Moscow State University
Which city and why became the main one in Ancient Mesopotamia?
Why Bukhsoft Online is better than a regular accounting program!
Which year is a leap year and how to calculate it
Prayer for lighting a lamp at home
What was their strength and what was their weakness?
Snow, frost, ice in the freezer?