11. Deepening the process of formation of the Russian centralized state after the Battle of Kulikovo. Internecine war of the second quarter of the 15th century.

12. Completion of the process of centralization of Russian lands at the end of the 15th and beginning of the 16th centuries.

13. The main stages of the domestic policy of Ivan IV the Terrible. Transformations and repressions. The meaning of oprichnina.

14.Russian foreign policy during the reign of Ivan IV the Terrible.

15. Russian culture XIV–XVI centuries.

16. Russia during the time of troubles at the turn of the XVI-XVII centuries.

17. Development of Russia in the 19th century. After the accession of the Romanov dynasty. New phenomena in the economy and political sphere.

18. Popular movements in Russia in the 19th century. Peasant war led by Stepan Razin.

19. Russian foreign policy in the 16th century. Relations with Poland, Sweden, Crimea. Reunification of Ukraine with Russia.

20. Culture of Russia in the 16th century.

21. Economic and military reforms in Russia during the reign of Peter I.

22. Reforms of Peter I in the socio-political sphere and in the field of government in Russia

23. Russian foreign policy in the first quarter of the 17th century.

24.Transformations in the field of culture and enlightenment in Russia in the first quarter of the 17th century.

25. The era of palace coups in Russia (1725-1762)

26.The policy of enlightened absolutism in Russia. Catherine II.

27. Peasant war in Russia led by Emelyan Pugachev.

31. Political development of Russia in the first quarter of the 19th century. Conservative and liberal tendencies.

32. Patriotic War of 1812 And the foreign campaign of the Russian army in 1813-1814. International status of Russia following the results of the Napoleonic wars.

33. Formation of socio-political opposition in Russia in the first quarter of the 19th century. Decembrist uprising

34. Domestic and foreign policy of the Russian government in the second quarter of the 19th century.

35. The crisis of serfdom in Russia in the 30-50s. XiX century The beginning, features and consequences of the industrial revolution.

36. Social movements in Russia in the 30-50s of the 19th century. Westerners and Slavophiles. The ideology of utopian socialism.

37. Culture of Russia in the first half of the 19th century.

38. Crimean War 1853-1856. Causes, course and consequences.

39. Economic, socio-political development of Russia at the turn of the 50-60s. XiX century Peasant reform of 1861, its content and significance.

40. Reforms of the 60s - early 70s. XiX century In Russia (zemstvo, city, judicial, military, etc.)

41. Russian foreign policy 1860 – 70s. Russian-Turkish War 1877-1878 Annexation of Central Asia and the Amur region.

42. Socio-political movements in Russia in the 60s and 70s. XiX century

43. Culture of Russia after the abolition of serfdom (60-80s of the 19th century)

44.The policy of counter-reforms of Alexander III.

45. Features of the development of Russia at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries.

46. ​​Russian-Japanese War 1904-1905.

47. Revolutionary events of 1905-1907. In Russia: reasons, progress, results.

48. Political parties in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century. : programs and tactics of struggle. Left Social Democrats (Russian Social Democratic Labor Party)

Social Revolutionaries (Socialist Revolutionary Party)

Anarchists

Black Hundreds (“Union of the Russian People”, monarchists)

50. Culture of Russia at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century.

51. Russia’s participation in the World War of 1914-1918.

52. February revolutionary events of 1917

53. Russia during the period of dual power (1917). Crises of the Provisional Government.

54. The struggle for power in Russia in July-September 1917.

55. October 1917 In Russia.

56. Bolshevik policy at the end of 1917 - beginning of 1918.

57. Civil war and intervention (October 1917 - autumn 1922) Main fronts. The alignment of political forces of revolution and counter-revolution. Results.

58. War communism: ideology and practice.

59. Soviet society in 1921-1927. New economic policy: its significance, difficulties and contradictions.

60. Nation-state building in the 1920s. Formation of the USSR

61. International position of the Soviet country in the 20s of the XX century.

62. Formation of a totalitarian system in the USSR.

63. The policy of collectivization of agriculture in the USSR: goals, methods and consequences.

64.Industrialization. USSR during the first five-year plans.

65. Strengthening the foreign policy positions of the USSR in 1931 - 1939.

66. Culture of Soviet Russia in the 20-30s. XX century

67. Foreign policy of the Soviet government at the beginning of World War II (1939-1941)

68. The beginning of the Great Patriotic War. The reasons for the initial defeats of the Red Army. Transformation of the USSR into a single military camp.

69. Battle of Moscow, its significance. Failures of the Red Army in the spring-summer of 1942. Defensive stage of the Battle of Stalingrad.

70. A radical change during the Great Patriotic War.

71. Foreign policy of the USSR during the Great Patriotic War. Anti-Hitler coalition.

1. Formation of the anti-Hitler coalition

2. The problem of the “second front”

3. What will the world be like after the war?

72. The final stage of the Great Patriotic War.

73. The end of the Second World War. Military operations in the Far East. The role of the USSR in the defeat of imperialist Japan.

74. Soviet rear during the war. Partisan movement.

76. Socio-political and cultural life of Soviet society in the post-war period. (1946-1953)

77. Restoration and development of the national economy of the USSR in the first post-war years (mid-1940s - early 1950s)

78. Post-war world. Beginning of the Cold War (1946-1953)

79. Internal political development of the USSR (1953-1964). De-Stalinization policy. Successes and difficulties of socio-economic development.

80. Foreign policy of the USSR during the Thaw

81. Foreign policy and international position of the USSR in the late 1960s - early 1980s.

82. An attempt at economic reforms in the USSR in the mid-60s. XX century

83. Socio-political development of the USSR and the internal policy of the Soviet leadership in 1964 - 1985.

84. Features of the development of Soviet culture in 1950 - 1980. Advances in science and technology.

85. Policy of Perestroika in the USSR. Essence, goals, contradictions.

86. International relations in 1985 – 1991. New political thinking and the end of the Cold War.

87. Collapse of the USSR. Formation of sovereign independent states.

88. Economic and political reforms in Russia in the 1990s.

89. Russia at the beginning of the 21st century. Successes and contradictions of socio-economic and political development.

2. Russia - West

2.1. Political and military relations.

2.2. Economic cooperation with foreign countries.

3. Russia and neighboring countries

4. Results

38. Crimean War 1853-1856. Causes, course and consequences.

Crimean War.

Causes of the war: in 1850, a conflict began between France, the Ottoman Empire and Russia, the reason for which was disputes between the Catholic and Orthodox clergy regarding the rights to the Holy Places in Jerusalem and Bethlehem. Nicholas I was counting on the support of England and Austria, but he miscalculated.

Progress of the war: in 1853, Russian troops were introduced into Moldova and Wallachia, met with a negative reaction from Austria, which took a position of unfriendly neutrality, demanded the withdrawal of Russian troops and moved its army to the border with Russia. In October 1853, the Turkish Sultan declared war on Russia.

The first stage of the war - November 1853 - April 1854: Russian-Turkish campaign. November 1853 – Battle of Sinop. Admiral Nakhimov defeated the Turkish fleet, and in parallel there were Russian actions in the Caucasus. England and France declared war on Russia. The Anglo-French squadron bombarded Russian territories (Kronstadt, Sveaborg, Solovetsky Monastery, Kamchatka).

Second stage: April 1854 - February 1856 Russia against the coalition of European powers. September 1854 - the allies began landing in the Evpatoria area. Battles on the river Alma in September 1854, the Russians lost. Under the command of Menshikov, the Russians approach Bakhchisarai. Sevastopol (Kornilov and Nakhimov) was preparing for defense. October 1854 - the defense of Sevastopol began. The main part of the Russian army undertook diversionary operations (the battle of Inkerman in November 1854, the offensive at Yevpatoriya in February 1855, the battle on the Black River in August 1855), but they were not successful. August 1855 - Sevastopol was captured. At the same time, in Transcaucasia, Russian troops managed to take the strong Turkish fortress of Kars. Negotiations began. March 1856 - Paris peace. Part of Bessarabia was torn away from Russia; it lost the right to patronize Serbia, Moldova and Wallachia. The most important thing is the neutralization of the Black Sea: both Russia and Turkey were prohibited from keeping a navy in the Black Sea.

There is an acute internal political crisis in Russia, due to which reforms have begun.

39. Economic, socio-political development of Russia at the turn of the 50-60s. XiX century Peasant reform of 1861, its content and significance.

In the 50s, the need and hardships of the masses noticeably worsened, this happened under the influence of the consequences of the Crimean War, the increasing frequency of natural disasters (epidemics, crop failures and, as a consequence, famine), as well as the increasing oppression from the landowners and the state in the pre-reform period. Recruitment, which reduced the number of workers by 10%, and requisitions of food, horses and fodder had a particularly severe impact on the economy of the Russian countryside. The situation was aggravated by the arbitrariness of the landowners, who systematically reduced the size of peasant plots, transferred peasants to households (and thus deprived them of land), and resettled serfs to worse lands. These acts assumed such proportions that the government, shortly before the reform, was forced to impose a ban on such actions by special decrees.

The response to the worsening situation of the masses was the peasant movement, which in its intensity, scale and forms was noticeably different from the protests of previous decades and caused great concern in St. Petersburg.

This period was characterized by mass escapes of landowner peasants who wanted to enlist in the militia and thus hoped to gain freedom (1854-1855), unauthorized resettlement to war-ravaged Crimea (1856), a “sober” movement directed against the feudal system of wine farming (1858-1859 ), unrest and escapes of workers during the construction of railways (Moscow-Nizhny Novgorod, Volga-Don, 1859-1860). It was also restless on the outskirts of the empire. In 1858, Estonian peasants took up arms in their hands (“Machtra War”). Major peasant unrest broke out in 1857 in Western Georgia.

After the defeat in the Crimean War, in the context of a growing revolutionary upsurge, the crisis at the top intensified, manifested, in particular, in the intensification of the liberal opposition movement among part of the nobility, dissatisfied with military failures, the backwardness of Russia, who understood the need for political and social change. “Sevastopol hit stagnant minds,” wrote the famous Russian historian V.O. Klyuchevsky about this time. The “censorship terror” introduced by Emperor Nicholas I after his death in February 1855 was virtually swept away by a wave of glasnost, which made it possible to openly discuss the most pressing problems facing the country.

There was no unity in government circles on the issue of the future fate of Russia. Two opposing groups formed here: the old conservative bureaucratic elite (head of the III department V.A. Dolgorukov, Minister of State Property M.N. Muravyov, etc.), which actively opposed the implementation of bourgeois reforms, and supporters of reforms (Minister of Internal Affairs S.S. Lanskoy, Ya.I. Rostovtsev, brothers N.A. and D.A. Milyutin).

The interests of the Russian peasantry were reflected in the ideology of the new generation of revolutionary intelligentsia.

In the 50s, two centers were formed that led the revolutionary democratic movement in the country. The first (emigrant) was headed by A.I. Herzen, who founded the “Free Russian Printing House” in London (1853). Since 1855, he began publishing the non-periodical collection “Polar Star”, and since 1857, together with N.P. Ogarev, the newspaper “Bell”, which enjoyed enormous popularity. Herzen's publications formulated a program of social transformation in Russia, which included the liberation of peasants from serfdom with land and for ransom. Initially, the publishers of Kolokol believed in the liberal intentions of the new Emperor Alexander II (1855-1881) and placed certain hopes on wisely carried out reforms “from above.” However, as projects for the abolition of serfdom were being prepared, illusions dissipated, and a call to fight for land and democracy was heard loudly on the pages of London publications.

The second center arose in St. Petersburg. It was headed by leading employees of the Sovremennik magazine N.G. Chernyshevsky and N.A. Dobrolyubov, around whom like-minded people from the revolutionary democratic camp rallied (M.L. Mikhailov, N.A. Serno-Solovyevich, N.V. Shelgunov and others). The censored articles of N.G. Chernyshevsky were not as frank as the publications of A.I. Herzen, but they were distinguished by their consistency. N.G. Chernyshevsky believed that when the peasants were liberated, the land should be transferred to them without ransom; the elimination of autocracy in Russia would occur through revolutionary means.

On the eve of the abolition of serfdom, a demarcation emerged between the revolutionary-democratic and liberal camps. Liberals, who recognized the need for reforms “from above,” saw in them, first of all, an opportunity to prevent a revolutionary explosion in the country.

The Crimean War presented the government with a choice: either to preserve the serfdom that existed in the country and, as a consequence of this, ultimately, as a result of a political, financial and economic catastrophe, lose not only the prestige and position of a great power, but also threaten the existence of the autocracy in Russia, or to carry out bourgeois reforms, the primary of which was the abolition of serfdom.

Having chosen the second path, the government of Alexander II in January 1857 created a Secret Committee “to discuss measures to organize the life of the landowner peasants.” Somewhat earlier, in the summer of 1856, in the Ministry of Internal Affairs, comrade (deputy) minister A.I. Levshin developed a government program for peasant reform, which, although it gave serfs civil rights, retained all the land in the ownership of the landowner and provided the latter with patrimonial power on the estate. In this case, the peasants would receive allotment land for use, for which they would have to perform fixed duties. This program was set out in imperial rescripts (instructions), first addressed to the Vilna and St. Petersburg governors-general, and then sent to other provinces. In accordance with the rescripts, special committees began to be created in the provinces to consider the case locally, and the preparation of the reform became public. The Secret Committee was renamed the Main Committee for Peasant Affairs. The Zemstvo Department under the Ministry of Internal Affairs (N.A. Milyutin) began to play a significant role in preparing the reform.

Within the provincial committees there was a struggle between liberals and conservatives over the forms and extent of concessions to the peasantry. Reform projects prepared by K.D. Kavelin, A.I. Koshelev, M.P. Posen. Yu.F. Samarin, A.M. Unkovsky, differed in the political views of the authors and economic conditions. Thus, the landowners of the black earth provinces, who owned expensive land and kept peasants in corvee labor, wanted to retain the maximum possible amount of land and retain workers. In the industrial non-black earth obroch provinces, during the reform, landowners wanted to receive significant funds to rebuild their farms in a bourgeois manner.

The prepared proposals and programs were submitted for discussion to the so-called Editorial Commissions. The struggle over these proposals took place both in these commissions and during the consideration of the project in the Main Committee and in the State Council. But, despite the existing differences of opinion, in all these projects it was about carrying out peasant reform in the interests of the landowners by maintaining landownership and political dominance in the hands of the Russian nobility, “Everything that could be done to protect the benefits of the landowners has been done,” - Alexander II stated in the State Council. The final version of the reform project, which had undergone a number of changes, was signed by the emperor on February 19, 1861, and on March 5, the most important documents regulating the implementation of the reform were published: “Manifesto” and “General Provisions on Peasants Emerging from Serfdom.”

In accordance with these documents, peasants received personal freedom and could now freely dispose of their property, engage in commercial and industrial activities, buy and sell real estate, enter the service, receive an education, and conduct their family affairs.

The landowner still owned all the land, but part of it, usually a reduced land plot and the so-called “estate settlement” (a plot with a hut, outbuildings, vegetable gardens, etc.), he was obliged to transfer to the peasants for use. Thus, Russian peasants received liberation with land, but they could use this land for a certain fixed rent or serving corvee. The peasants could not give up these plots for 9 years. For complete liberation, they could buy the estate and, by agreement with the landowner, the allotment, after which they became peasant owners. Until this time, a “temporarily obligated position” was established.

The new sizes of allotments and payments of peasants were recorded in special documents, “statutory charters”. which were compiled for each village over a two-year period. The amounts of these duties and allotment land were determined by “Local Regulations”. Thus, according to the “Great Russian” local situation, the territory of 35 provinces was distributed into 3 stripes: non-chernozem, chernozem and steppe, which were divided into “localities”. In the first two stripes, depending on local conditions, “higher” and “lower” (1/3 of the “highest”) allotment sizes were established, and in the steppe zone - one “decreed” allotment. If the pre-reform size of the allotment exceeded the “highest” one, then pieces of land could be produced, but if the allotment was less than the “lowest” one, then the landowner had to either cut off the land or reduce duties. Cut-offs were also made in some other cases, for example, when the owner, as a result of allocating land to the peasants, had less than 1/3 of the total land of the estate left. Among the cut-off lands there were often the most valuable areas (forest, meadows, arable land); in some cases, landowners could demand that peasant estates be moved to new locations. As a result of post-reform land management, striped stripes became characteristic of the Russian village.

Charters were usually concluded with an entire rural society, the “world” (community), which was supposed to ensure mutual responsibility for the payment of duties.

The “temporarily obligated” position of the peasants ceased after the transfer to redemption, which became mandatory only 20 years later (from 1883). The ransom was carried out with the assistance of the government. The basis for calculating redemption payments was not the market price of land, but the assessment of duties that were feudal in nature. When the deal was concluded, the peasants paid 20% of the amount, and the remaining 80% was paid to the landowners by the state. The peasants had to repay the loan provided by the state annually in the form of redemption payments for 49 years, while, of course, accrued interest was taken into account. Redemption payments placed a heavy burden on peasant farms. The cost of the purchased land significantly exceeded its market price. During the redemption operation, the government also tried to get back the huge sums that were provided to landowners in the pre-reform years on the security of land. If the estate was mortgaged, then the amount of the debt was deducted from the amounts provided to the landowner. The landowners received only a small part of the redemption amount in cash; special interest notes were issued for the rest.

It should be borne in mind that in modern historical literature, issues related to the implementation of the reform are not fully developed. There are different points of view about the degree of transformation during the reform of the system of peasant plots and payments (these studies are currently being carried out on a large scale using computers).

The reform of 1861 in the internal provinces was followed by the abolition of serfdom on the outskirts of the empire - in Georgia (1864-1871), Armenia and Azerbaijan (1870-1883), which was often carried out with even less consistency and with greater preservation of feudal remnants. Appanage peasants (belonging to the royal family) received personal freedom based on decrees of 1858 and 1859. “By the Regulations of June 26, 1863.” the land structure and conditions for the transition to redemption in the appanage village were determined, which was carried out during 1863-1865. In 1866, a reform was carried out in the state village. The purchase of land by state peasants was completed only in 1886.

Thus, peasant reforms in Russia actually abolished serfdom and marked the beginning of the development of the capitalist formation in Russia. However, while maintaining landownership and feudal remnants in the countryside, they were unable to resolve all the contradictions, which ultimately led to a further intensification of the class struggle.

The response of the peasantry to the publication of the “Manifesto” was a massive explosion of discontent in the spring of 1861. The peasants protested against the continuation of the corvee system and the payment of quitrents and plots of land. The peasant movement acquired a particularly large scale in the Volga region, Ukraine and the central black earth provinces.

Russian society was shocked by the events in the villages of Bezdna (Kazan province) and Kandeevka (Penza province) that took place in April 1863. Peasants outraged by the reform were shot there by military teams. In total, over 1,100 peasant unrest occurred in 1861. Only by drowning the protests in blood did the government manage to reduce the intensity of the struggle. The disunited, spontaneous and devoid of political consciousness protest of the peasants was doomed to failure. Already in 1862-1863. the scope of the movement was significantly reduced. In the following years it declined sharply (in 1864 there were fewer than 100 performances).

In 1861-1863 During the period of intensification of the class struggle in the countryside, the activity of democratic forces in the country intensified. After the suppression of peasant uprisings, the government, feeling more confident, attacked the democratic camp with repression.

Peasant reform of 1861, its content and significance.

The peasant reform of 1861, which abolished serfdom, marked the beginning of the capitalist formation in the country.

Main reason Peasant reform resulted in a crisis of the feudal-serf system. Crimean War 1853–1856 revealed the rottenness and impotence of serf Russia. In the context of peasant unrest, which especially intensified during the war, tsarism moved to abolish serfdom.

In January 1857 A Secret Committee was formed under the chairmanship of Emperor Alexander II “to discuss measures to organize the life of the landowner peasants,” which at the beginning of 1858. was reorganized into the Main Committee for Peasant Affairs. At the same time, provincial committees were formed, which began developing projects for peasant reform, considered by the Editorial Commissions.

February 19, 1861 In St. Petersburg, Alexander II signed the Manifesto on the abolition of serfdom and the “Regulations on peasants emerging from serfdom,” consisting of 17 legislative acts.

The main act - “General Regulations on Peasants Emerging from Serfdom” - contained the main conditions of the peasant reform:

1. peasants received personal freedom and the right to dispose of their property;

2. landowners retained ownership of all the lands they owned, but were obliged to provide the peasants with “homestead residence” and field allotment “to ensure their livelihood and to fulfill their duties to the government and the landowner”;

3. For the use of allotment land, peasants had to serve corvee or pay quitrent and did not have the right to refuse it for 9 years. The size of the field allotment and duties should have been recorded in the statutory charters of 1861, which were drawn up by landowners for each estate and verified by the peace intermediaries;

-peasants were given the right to buy out the estate and, by agreement with the landowner, the field allotment; until this was done, they were called temporarily obligated peasants.

The “general situation” determined the structure, rights and responsibilities of peasant public (rural and volost) government bodies and the court.

4 “Local Regulations” determined the size of land plots and the duties of peasants for their use in 44 provinces of European Russia. The first of them is “Great Russian”, for 29 Great Russian, 3 Novorossiysk (Ekaterinoslav, Tauride and Kherson), 2 Belarusian (Mogilev and part of Vitebsk) and part of Kharkov provinces. This entire territory was divided into three stripes (non-chernozem, chernozem and steppe), each of which consisted of “localities”.

In the first two bands, depending on the “locality,” the highest (from 3 to 7 dessiatines; from 2 3/4 to 6 dessiatines) and the lowest (1/3 of the highest) amounts of per capita taxes were established. For the steppe, one “decreed” allotment was determined (in the Great Russian provinces from 6 to 12 dessiatines; in Novorossiysk, from 3 to 6 1/5 dessiatines). The size of the government tithe was determined to be 1.09 hectares.

Allotment land was provided to the “rural community”, i.e. community, according to the number of souls (men only) at the time of drawing up the charter documents who had the right to the allotment.

From the land that was in the use of peasants before February 19, 1861, sections could be made if the peasants' per capita allotments exceeded the highest size established for a given "locality", or if the landowners, while maintaining the existing peasant allotment, had less than 1/3 of the estate's land left. Allotments could be reduced by special agreements between peasants and landowners, as well as upon receipt of a gift allotment.

If peasants had plots of less than a small size, the landowner was obliged to cut off the missing land or reduce duties. For the highest spiritual allotment, a quitrent was established from 8 to 12 rubles per year or corvee - 40 men's and 30 women's working days per year. If the allotment was less than the highest, then the duties were reduced, but not proportionally.

The remaining “Local Provisions” basically repeated the “Great Russian Provisions”, but taking into account the specifics of their regions.

The features of the peasant reform for certain categories of peasants and specific areas were determined by 8 “Additional rules”: “Arrangement of peasants settled on the estates of small-scale owners, and on benefits to these owners”; “People of the Ministry of Finance assigned to private mining plants”; "Peasants and workers serving work at Perm private mining plants and salt mines"; “Peasant peasants serving work in landowner factories”; "The peasants and courtyard people in the Land of the Don Army"; "Peasant peasants and courtyard people in the Stavropol province"; "Peasant peasants and courtyard people in Siberia"; "People who emerged from serfdom in the Bessarabian region."

The Manifesto and “Regulations” were published on March 5 in Moscow and from March 7 to April 2 in St. Petersburg. Fearing the dissatisfaction of the peasants with the conditions of the reform, the government took a number of precautions: it redeployed troops, sent members of the imperial retinue to places, issued an appeal from the Synod, etc. However, the peasants, dissatisfied with the enslaving conditions of the reform, responded to it with mass unrest. The largest of them were the Bezdnensky and Kandeevsky peasant uprisings of 1861.

As of January 1, 1863, peasants refused to sign about 60% of the charters. The purchase price of land significantly exceeded its market value at that time, in some areas -

2–3 times. In many regions, peasants sought to receive gift plots, thereby reducing allotment land use: in the Saratov province by 42.4%, Samara - 41.3%, Poltava - 37.4%, Ekaterinoslav - by 37.3%, etc. The lands cut off by the landowners were a means of enslaving the peasants, since they were vitally necessary for the peasant economy: watering place, pasture, haymaking, etc.

The peasants' transition to ransom lasted for several decades, on December 28, 1881. a law on compulsory redemption was issued on January 1, 1883, the transfer to which was completed by 1895. In total, by January 1, 1895, 124 thousand redemption transactions were approved, according to which 9,159 thousand souls in areas with communal farming and 110 thousand households in areas with household farming were transferred to redemption. About 80% of buyouts were mandatory.

As a result of the peasant reform (according to 1878), in the provinces of European Russia, 9,860 thousand peasants received an allotment of 33,728 thousand dessiatines of land (on average 3.4 dessiatines per capita). U115 thousand. landowners were left with 69 million dessiatines (an average of 600 dessiatines per owner).

What did these “average” indicators look like after 3.5 decades? The political and economic power of the tsar rested on the nobles and landowners. According to the 1897 census in Russia there were 1 million 220 thousand hereditary nobles and more than 600 thousand personal nobles, to whom the title of nobility was given, but not inherited. All of them were owners of land plots.

Of these: about 60 thousand were small-scale nobles, each had 100 acres; 25.5 thousand - average landowners, had from 100 to 500 acres; 8 thousand large nobles, who had from 500 to 1000 acres: 6.5 thousand - the largest nobles, who had from 1000 to 5000 acres.

At the same time, there were 102 families in Russia: princes Yusupov, Golitsyn, Dolgorukov, counts Bobrinsky, Orlov, etc., whose holdings amounted to more than 50 thousand dessiatines, that is, about 30% of the landowners' land fund in Russia.

The largest owner in Russia was Tsar Nicholas I. He owned huge tracts of so-called cabinet and appanage lands. Gold, silver, lead, copper, and timber were mined there. He rented out a significant part of the land. A special ministry of the imperial court managed the king's property.

When filling out the questionnaire for the census, Nicholas II wrote in the column about profession: “Master of the Russian land.”

As for peasants, the average allotment of a peasant family, according to the census, was 7.5 dessiatines.

The significance of the peasant reform of 1861 was that it abolished feudal ownership of workers and created a market for cheap labor. The peasants were declared personally free, that is, they had the right to buy land, houses in their own name, and enter into various transactions. The reform was based on the principle of gradualism: within two years, statutory charters were to be drawn up, defining the specific conditions for the liberation of peasants, then the peasants were transferred to the position of “temporarily obligated” until the transition to redemption and in the subsequent 49-year period, paying the debt to the state that bought the land for peasants from landowners. Only after this should land plots become the full property of the peasants.

For the liberation of peasants from serfdom, Emperor Alexander II was called the “LIBERER” by the people. Judge for yourself, what was more here - truth or hypocrisy? Note that of the total number of peasant unrest that occurred throughout the country in 1857–1861, 1340 out of 2165 (62%) protests occurred after the announcement of the 1861 reform.

Thus, the peasant reform of 1861 was a bourgeois reform carried out by serf owners. This was a step towards turning Russia into a bourgeois monarchy. However, the peasant reform did not resolve the socio-economic contradictions in Russia, preserved landownership and a number of other feudal-serf remnants, led to a further aggravation of the class struggle, and served as one of the main reasons for the social explosion of 1905–1907. XX century.

"

The spirit in the troops is beyond description. During the times of ancient Greece there was not so much heroism. I was not able to be in action even once, but I thank God that I saw these people and live in this glorious time.

Leo Tolstoy

The wars of the Russian and Ottoman empires were a common phenomenon in international politics in the 18th-19th centuries. In 1853, the Russian Empire of Nicholas 1 entered into another war, which went down in history as the Crimean War of 1853-1856, and ended in the defeat of Russia. In addition, this war showed the strong resistance of the leading countries of Western Europe (France and Great Britain) to the strengthening of Russia's role in Eastern Europe, in particular in the Balkans. The lost war also showed Russia itself problems in domestic politics, which led to many problems. Despite victories in the initial stage of 1853-1854, as well as the capture of the key Turkish fortress of Kars in 1855, Russia lost the most important battles on the territory of the Crimean Peninsula. This article describes the causes, course, main results and historical significance in a short story about the Crimean War of 1853-1856.

Reasons for the aggravation of the Eastern Question

By the Eastern Question, historians understand a number of controversial issues in Russian-Turkish relations, which at any moment could lead to conflict. The main problems of the Eastern Question, which became the basis for the future war, are as follows:

• The loss of Crimea and the northern Black Sea region to the Ottoman Empire at the end of the 18th century constantly stimulated Turkey to start a war in the hope of regaining the territories. Thus began the wars of 1806-1812 and 1828-1829. However, as a result, Türkiye lost Bessarabia and part of the territory in the Caucasus, which further increased the desire for revenge.
• Belonging to the Bosporus and Dardanelles straits. Russia demanded that these straits be opened for the Black Sea Fleet, while the Ottoman Empire (under pressure from Western European countries) ignored these Russian demands.
• The presence in the Balkans, as part of the Ottoman Empire, of Slavic Christian peoples who fought for their independence. Russia provided them with support, thereby causing a wave of indignation among the Turks about Russian interference in the internal affairs of another state.

An additional factor that intensified the conflict was the desire of Western European countries (Britain, France, and Austria) not to allow Russia into the Balkans, as well as to block its access to the straits. For this reason, countries were ready to provide support to Turkey in a potential war with Russia.

The reason for the war and its beginning

These problematic issues were brewing throughout the late 1840s and early 1850s. In 1853, the Turkish Sultan transferred the Temple of Bethlehem in Jerusalem (then the territory of the Ottoman Empire) to the management of the Catholic Church. This caused a wave of indignation among the highest Orthodox hierarchy. Nicholas 1 decided to take advantage of this, using the religious conflict as a reason to attack Turkey. Russia demanded that the temple be transferred to the Orthodox Church, and at the same time also open the straits to the Black Sea Fleet. Türkiye refused. In June 1853, Russian troops crossed the border of the Ottoman Empire and entered the territory of the Danube principalities dependent on it.

Nicholas 1 hoped that France was too weak after the revolution of 1848, and Britain could be appeased by transferring Cyprus and Egypt to it in the future. However, the plan did not work; European countries called on the Ottoman Empire to act, promising it financial and military assistance. In October 1853, Türkiye declared war on Russia. Thus began, in short, the Crimean War of 1853-1856. In the history of Western Europe, this war is called the Eastern War.

Progress of the war and main stages

The Crimean War can be divided into 2 stages according to the number of participants in the events of those years. These are the stages:

1. October 1853 – April 1854. During these six months, the war was between the Ottoman Empire and Russia (without direct intervention from other states). There were three fronts: Crimean (Black Sea), Danube and Caucasian.
2. April 1854 - February 1856. British and French troops enter the war, which expands the theater of operations and also marks a turning point in the course of the war. The Allied forces were technically superior to the Russians, which was the reason for the changes during the war.

As for specific battles, the following key battles can be identified: for Sinop, for Odessa, for the Danube, for the Caucasus, for Sevastopol. There were other battles, but the ones listed above are the most basic. Let's look at them in more detail.

Battle of Sinop (November 1853)

The battle took place in the harbor of the city of Sinop in Crimea. The Russian fleet under the command of Nakhimov completely defeated the Turkish fleet of Osman Pasha. This battle was perhaps the last major world battle on sailing ships. This victory significantly raised the morale of the Russian army and inspired hope for an early victory in the war.

Map of the Sinop naval battle November 18, 1853

Bombing of Odessa (April 1854)

At the beginning of April 1854, the Ottoman Empire sent a squadron of the Franco-British fleet through its straits, which quickly headed for the Russian port and shipbuilding cities: Odessa, Ochakov and Nikolaev.

On April 10, 1854, the bombardment of Odessa, the main southern port of the Russian Empire, began. After a rapid and intense bombardment, it was planned to land troops in the northern Black Sea region, which would force the withdrawal of troops from the Danube principalities, as well as weaken the defense of Crimea. However, the city survived several days of shelling. Moreover, the defenders of Odessa were able to deliver precise strikes on the Allied fleet. The plan of the Anglo-French troops failed. The Allies were forced to retreat towards Crimea and begin battles for the peninsula.

Fighting on the Danube (1853-1856)

It was with the entry of Russian troops into this region that the Crimean War of 1853-1856 began. After success in the Battle of Sinop, another success awaited Russia: the troops completely crossed over to the right bank of the Danube, an attack was opened on Silistria and further on Bucharest. However, the entry of England and France into the war complicated the Russian offensive. On June 9, 1854, the siege of Silistria was lifted, and Russian troops returned to the left bank of the Danube. By the way, Austria also entered the war against Russia on this front, which was worried about the rapid advance of the Romanov Empire into Wallachia and Moldavia.

In July 1854, a huge landing of the British and French armies (according to various sources, from 30 to 50 thousand) landed near the city of Varna (modern Bulgaria). The troops were supposed to enter the territory of Bessarabia, displacing Russia from this region. However, a cholera epidemic broke out in the French army, and the British public demanded that the army leadership give priority to the Black Sea Fleet in the Crimea.

Fighting in the Caucasus (1853-1856)

An important battle took place in July 1854 near the village of Kyuryuk-Dara (Western Armenia). The combined Turkish-British forces were defeated. At this stage, the Crimean War was still a success for Russia.

Another important battle in this region took place in June–November 1855. Russian troops decided to attack the eastern part of the Ottoman Empire, the Karsu fortress, so that the Allies would send some troops to this region, thereby slightly weakening the siege of Sevastopol. Russia won the Battle of Kars, but this happened after the news of the fall of Sevastopol, so this battle had little impact on the outcome of the war. Moreover, according to the results of the “peace” signed later, the Kars fortress was returned to the Ottoman Empire. However, as the peace negotiations showed, the capture of Kars still played a role. But more on that later.

Defense of Sevastopol (1854-1855)

The most heroic and tragic event of the Crimean War is, of course, the battle for Sevastopol. In September 1855, French-English troops captured the last point of defense of the city - Malakhov Kurgan. The city survived an 11-month siege, but as a result it was surrendered to the Allied forces (among which the Sardinian kingdom appeared). This defeat was key and served as an impetus for ending the war. From the end of 1855, intensive negotiations began, in which Russia had practically no strong arguments. It was clear that the war was lost.

Other battles in Crimea (1854-1856)

In addition to the siege of Sevastopol, several more battles took place on the territory of Crimea in 1854-1855, which were aimed at “unblocking” Sevastopol:

1. Battle of Alma (September 1854).
2. Battle of Balaklava (October 1854).
3. Battle of Inkerman (November 1854).
4. Attempt to liberate Yevpatoria (February 1855).
5. Battle of the Chernaya River (August 1855).

All these battles ended in unsuccessful attempts to lift the siege of Sevastopol.

"Distant" battles

The main fighting of the war took place near the Crimean Peninsula, which gave the name to the war. There were also battles in the Caucasus, on the territory of modern Moldova, as well as in the Balkans. However, few know that battles between rivals also took place in remote regions of the Russian Empire. Here are some examples:

1. Petropavlovsk defense. The battle that took place on the territory of the Kamchatka Peninsula between the combined Franco-British troops on one side and the Russian ones on the other. The battle took place in August 1854. This battle was a consequence of Britain's victory over China during the Opium Wars. As a result, Britain wanted to increase its influence in eastern Asia by ousting Russia. In total, the Allied troops launched two assaults, both of which ended in failure. Russia withstood the Petropavlovsk defense.
2. Arctic company. The operation of the British fleet to attempt to blockade or capture Arkhangelsk, carried out in 1854-1855. The main battles took place in the Barents Sea. The British also launched a bombardment of the Solovetsky Fortress, as well as the robbery of Russian merchant ships in the White and Barents Seas.

Results and historical significance of the war

Nicholas 1 died in February 1855. The task of the new emperor, Alexander 2, was to end the war, and with minimal damage to Russia. In February 1856, the Paris Congress began its work. Russia was represented there by Alexey Orlov and Philip Brunnov. Since neither side saw the point in continuing the war, the Paris Peace Treaty was signed on March 6, 1856, as a result of which the Crimean War was ended.

The main terms of the Treaty of Paris were as follows:

1. Russia returned the Karsu fortress to Turkey in exchange for Sevastopol and other captured cities of the Crimean peninsula.
2. Russia was prohibited from having a Black Sea fleet. The Black Sea was declared neutral.
3. The Bosporus and Dardanelles straits were declared closed to the Russian Empire.
4. Part of Russian Bessarabia was transferred to the Principality of Moldova, the Danube ceased to be a border river, so navigation was declared free.
5. On the Åland Islands (an archipelago in the Baltic Sea), Russia was prohibited from building military and/or defensive fortifications.

As for losses, the number of Russian citizens who died in the war is 47.5 thousand people. Britain lost 2.8 thousand, France - 10.2, Ottoman Empire - more than 10 thousand. The Sardinian kingdom lost 12 thousand military personnel. The deaths on the Austrian side are unknown, perhaps because it was not officially at war with Russia.

In general, the war showed the backwardness of Russia compared to European countries, especially in terms of the economy (the completion of the industrial revolution, the construction of railways, the use of steamships). After this defeat, the reforms of Alexander 2 began. In addition, the desire for revenge had been brewing in Russia for a long time, which resulted in another war with Turkey in 1877-1878. But this is a completely different story, and the Crimean War of 1853-1856 was completed and Russia was defeated in it.

Crimean War (briefly)

Brief description of the Crimean War of 1853-1856.

The main reason for the Crimean War was the clash of interests in the Balkans and the Middle East of such powers as Austria, France, England and Russia. Leading European states sought to open up Turkish possessions to increase the sales market. At the same time, Türkiye wanted in every possible way to take revenge after defeats in the wars with Russia.

The trigger for the war was the problem of revising the legal regime for the Russian fleet's navigation of the Dardanelles and Bosporus straits, which was fixed in 1840 in the London Convention.

And the reason for the outbreak of hostilities was a dispute between the Catholic and Orthodox clergy about the correct ownership of the shrines (the Holy Sepulcher and the Church of Bethlehem), which were at that moment on the territory of the Ottoman Empire. In 1851, Türkiye, instigated by France, handed over the keys to the shrines to the Catholics. In 1853, Emperor Nicholas I put forward an ultimatum excluding a peaceful resolution of the issue. At the same time, Russia occupies the Danube principalities, which leads to war. Here are its main points:

· In November 1853, the Black Sea squadron of Admiral Nakhimov defeated the Turkish fleet in the bay of Sinop, and a Russian ground operation was able to push back the enemy troops by crossing the Danube.

· Fearing the defeat of the Ottoman Empire, France and England declared war on Russia in the spring of 1854, attacking the Russian ports of Odessa, the Addan Islands, etc. in August 1854. These blockade attempts were unsuccessful.

· Autumn 1854 – landing of sixty thousand troops in the Crimea to capture Sevastopol. The heroic defense of Sevastopol for 11 months.

· On August twenty-seventh, after a series of unsuccessful battles, they were forced to leave the city.

On March 18, 1856, the Paris Peace Treaty was formalized and signed between Sardinia, Prussia, Austria, England, France, Turkey and Russia. The latter lost part of its fleet and some bases, and the Black Sea was recognized as neutral territory. In addition, Russia lost power in the Balkans, which significantly undermined its military power.

According to historians, the basis for the defeat during the Crimean War was the strategic miscalculation of Nicholas the First, who pushed feudal-serfdom and economically backward Russia into a military conflict with powerful European states.

This defeat prompted Alexander II to carry out radical political reforms.

Crimean War 1853-1856 also called the Eastern War because of the so-called “Eastern Question”, which officially served as a pretext for the outbreak of hostilities. What is the “Eastern Question”, as it was understood in Europe in the middleXIXcenturies? This is a set of claims to Turkish possessions, stretching back to the Middle Ages, from the time of the Crusades, to lands associated with the ancient shrines of Christianity. Initially, they meant only Palestine and Syria. After the capture of Constantinople and the Balkans by the Turks, the “Eastern Question” began to be called the plans of European powers to assert their dominion over all the lands of the former Byzantium under the pretext of “liberation of Christians.”

In the middleXIXcentury Russian Emperor NicholasIdeliberately strained relations with Turkey. The pretext for this was the transfer by the Turkish government of jurisdiction over some Christian churches in Jerusalem to the Catholic mission, which was under the patronage of France. For Nicholas, this was a violation of a long-standing tradition, according to which Turkey recognized the Russian autocrat as the patron of all Christians on its territory, and the Orthodox confession enjoyed advantage there over other Christian denominations.

Nicholas's politicsIin relation to Turkey has changed several times. In 1827, the Russian squadron, together with the Anglo-French one, defeated the Turkish fleet in Navarino Bay under the pretext of protecting the rebel Greeks. This event served as a reason for Turkey to declare war on Russia (1828-1829), which once again turned out to be successful for Russian weapons. As a result, Greece gained independence and Serbia gained autonomy. But NikolaiIfeared the collapse of Turkey and in 1833 threatened war with the Egyptian Pasha Muhammad Ali if he did not stop the movement of his army to Istanbul. Thanks to this NikolaiImanaged to conclude a profitable agreement with Turkey (in Uskär-Inkelessi) on the free navigation of Russian ships, including military ones, through the Bosporus and Dardanelles.

However, by the 1850s, Nicholas had matured a plan to divide Turkey with other powers. First of all, he tried to interest the Austrian Empire in this, which in 1849 was saved from collapse by the Russian army, which suppressed the revolution in Hungary, but came across a blank wall. Then NikolaiIturned to England. At a meeting with the British Ambassador to St. Petersburg, Hamilton Seymour, in January 1853, the Tsar expressed a plan for the division of the Ottoman Empire. Moldova, Wallachia and Serbia came under Russian protectorate. Bulgaria stood out from the Balkan possessions of Turkey, which was also supposed to form a state under the protectorate of Russia. England received Egypt and the island of Crete. Constantinople turned to a neutral zone.

NikolayIhe was confident that his proposal would meet with the approval and participation of England, but he cruelly miscalculated. His assessment of the international situation on the eve of the Crimean War turned out to be erroneous, and this was the fault of Russian diplomacy, which for decades had been sending reassuring reports to the Tsar about the constant respect that Russia enjoys in the West. Russian ambassadors in London (Baron F.I. Brunnov), Paris (Count N.D. Kiselyov), Vienna (Baron P.K. Meyendorff) and the Minister of Foreign Affairs, Count K.V., who coordinated them from St. Petersburg. The Nesselrodes managed not to notice the rapprochement between England and France and the growing hostility of Austria towards Russia.

NikolayIhoped for rivalry between England and France. At that time, the tsar considered France his main opponent in the East, who incited Turkey to counteract. French ruler Louis Bonaparte, who in 1852 proclaimed himself emperor under the name of NapoleonIII, dreamed of settling scores with Russia, and not only because of his famous uncle, but also because he considered himself deeply offended by the Russian Tsar, who did not recognize his imperial title for a long time. England's interests in the Middle East brought it closer to France, as opposed to Russia's intentions.

Nevertheless, being confident in the benevolence or cowardice of the Western powers, NicholasIin the spring of 1853 he sent Prince A.S. as Ambassador Extraordinary to Constantinople. Menshikov with the task of negotiating “holy places” and the privileges of the Orthodox Church in Turkey from a position of strength. Menshikov carried out the severance of relations with Turkey desired by the tsar, and in June of the same year NikolaiIbegan to send Russian troops into Moldova and Wallachia, which were under the protectorate of Turkey.

For their part, France and England, being confident in their strength, also looked for a reason for war. Both powers were not at all happy about the strengthening of Russia’s position in the East, and they had no intention of ceding influence to it in Turkey, which was falling apart at the seams. British diplomacy very skillfully showed that it did not want to aggravate relations with Russia. Meanwhile, behind the scenes, the British ambassador in Constantinople, Stretford-Ratcliffe, vigorously incited the Porte to be intransigent to Menshikov in the negotiations (which, however, was easy). When England finally dropped the mask, NikolaiII understood everything, but it was already too late.

The Tsar decided to occupy the Danube principalities to ensure his demands on Turkey, but, as in 1827, he did not yet declare war, leaving it to the Turks to do this (which happened in October 1853). However, unlike the times of the Battle of Navarino, the situation was now completely different. Russia found itself in international isolation. England and France immediately demanded that Russia withdraw its troops from the Danube principalities. The Viennese court was increasingly inclined to accept an ultimatum from Russia regarding the same. Only Prussia remained neutral.

NikolayIbelatedly decided to intensify military action against Turkey. Having abandoned the landing operation near Constantinople at the very beginning, he gave the order to the troops to cross the Danube and transfer the war to the Ottoman Empire itself (to the territory of present-day Bulgaria). At the same time, the Russian Black Sea Fleet destroyed the Turkish fleet in the Sinop roadstead and burned the city. In response to this, England and France sent their fleets into the Black Sea. On March 27, 1854, they declared war on Russia.

The main reason for the Crimean War was the desire of the great European powers to assert themselves at the expense of the decrepit Ottoman Empire and prevent their rivals from doing so. In this regard, Russia, England and France were motivated by similar motives. England and France managed to agree on common interests, but Russia failed to attract any ally. The unsuccessful foreign policy combination for Russia, in which the war began and proceeded for it, was due to an inadequate assessment by its ruling circles of the international situation, as well as the forces and influence of Russia.

Crimean War 1853−1856 (or Eastern War) is a conflict between the Russian Empire and coalitions of countries, the cause of which was the desire of a number of countries to gain a foothold in the Balkan Peninsula and the Black Sea, as well as to reduce the influence of the Russian Empire in this region.

Basics

Participants in the conflict

Almost all leading European countries became participants in the conflict. Against the Russian Empire, on whose side there was only Greece (until 1854) and the vassal Megrelian principality, a coalition consisting of:

• Ottoman Empire;
• French Empire;
• British Empire;
• Kingdom of Sardinia.

Support for the coalition troops was also provided by: the North Caucasian Imamate (until 1955), the Abkhazian Principality (some of the Abkhazians sided with the Russian Empire and waged a guerrilla war against the coalition troops), and the Circassians.

It should also be noted, that the Austrian Empire, Prussia and Sweden showed friendly neutrality to the coalition countries.

Thus, the Russian Empire could not find allies in Europe.

Numerical aspect ratio

The numerical ratio (ground forces and navy) at the start of hostilities was approximately as follows:

• Russian Empire and allies (Bulgarian Legion, Greek Legion and foreign voluntary formations) - 755 thousand people;
• coalition forces - about 700 thousand people.

From a logistical and technical point of view, the army of the Russian Empire was significantly inferior to the armed forces of the coalition, although none of the officials and generals wanted to accept this fact . Moreover, the command staff, was also inferior in its preparedness to the command staff of the combined enemy forces.

Geography of combat operations

Over the course of four years, fighting took place:

• in the Caucasus;
• on the territory of the Danube principalities (Balkans);
• in Crimea;
• on the Black, Azov, Baltic, White and Barents seas;
• in Kamchatka and the Kuril Islands.

This geography is explained, first of all, by the fact that the opponents actively used the navy against each other (a map of military operations is presented below).

Brief history of the Crimean War of 1853−1856

Political situation on the eve of the war

The political situation on the eve of the war was extremely acute. The main reason for this exacerbation was, first of all, the obvious weakening of the Ottoman Empire and the strengthening of the positions of the Russian Empire in the Balkans and the Black Sea. It was at this time that Greece gained independence (1830), Turkey lost its Janissary corps (1826) and fleet (1827, Battle of Navarino), Algeria ceded to France (1830), Egypt also renounced its historical vassalage (1831).

At the same time, the Russian Empire received the right to freely use the Black Sea straits, achieved autonomy for Serbia and a protectorate over the Danube principalities. Having supported the Ottoman Empire in the war with Egypt, the Russian Empire extracted from Turkey a promise to close the straits to any ships other than Russian ones in the event of any military threat (the secret protocol was in force until 1941).

Naturally, such a strengthening of the Russian Empire instilled some fear in the European powers. In particular, Great Britain did everything, so that the London Convention on the Straits would come into force, which would prevent their closure and open up the possibility for France and England to intervene in the event of a Russian-Turkish conflict. Also, the government of the British Empire achieved “most favored nation treatment” in trade from Turkey. In fact, this meant the complete subordination of the Turkish economy.

At this time, Britain did not want to further weaken the Ottomans, since this eastern empire had become a huge market in which English goods could be sold. Britain was also concerned about the strengthening of Russia in the Caucasus and the Balkans, its advance into Central Asia, and that is why it interfered with Russian foreign policy in every possible way.

France was not particularly interested in affairs in the Balkans, but many in the Empire, especially the new Emperor Napoleon III, thirsted for revenge (after the events of 1812-1814).

Austria, despite the agreements and general work in the Holy Alliance, did not want Russia to strengthen in the Balkans and did not want the formation of new states there, independent of the Ottomans.

Thus, each of the strong European states had its own reasons for starting (or heating up) the conflict, and also pursued its own goals, strictly determined by geopolitics, the solution of which was possible only if Russia was weakened, involved in a military conflict with several opponents at once.

Causes of the Crimean War and the reason for the outbreak of hostilities

So, the reasons for the war are quite clear:

• Great Britain’s desire to preserve the weak and controlled Ottoman Empire and through it to control the operation of the Black Sea straits;
• the desire of Austria-Hungary to prevent a split in the Balkans (which would lead to unrest within the multinational Austria-Hungary) and the strengthening of Russia’s position there;
• the desire of France (or, more precisely, Napoleon III) to distract the French from internal problems and strengthen their rather shaky power.

It is clear that the main desire of all European states was to weaken the Russian Empire. The so-called Palmerston Plan (the leader of British diplomacy) provided for the actual separation of part of the lands from Russia: Finland, the Åland Islands, the Baltic states, Crimea and the Caucasus. According to this plan, the Danube principalities were to go to Austria. The Kingdom of Poland was to be restored, which would serve as a barrier between Prussia and Russia.

Naturally, the Russian Empire also had certain goals. Under Nicholas I, all officials and all the generals wanted to strengthen Russia’s position in the Black Sea and the Balkans. The establishment of a favorable regime for the Black Sea straits was also a priority.

The reason for the war was the conflict around the Church of the Nativity of Christ located in Bethlehem, the keys to which were administered by Orthodox monks. Formally, this gave them the right to “speak” on behalf of Christians all over the world and dispose of the greatest Christian shrines at their own discretion.

The Emperor of France, Napoleon III, demanded that the Turkish Sultan hand over the keys to the hands of Vatican representatives. This offended Nicholas I, who protested and sent His Serene Highness Prince A.S. Menshikov to the Ottoman Empire. Menshikov was unable to achieve a positive solution to the issue. Most likely, this was due to the fact that the leading European powers had already entered into a conspiracy against Russia and in every possible way pushed the Sultan to war, promising him support.

In response to the provocative actions of the Ottomans and European ambassadors, the Russian Empire breaks off diplomatic relations with Turkey and sends troops into the Danube principalities. Nicholas I, understanding the complexity of the situation, was ready to make concessions and sign the so-called Vienna Note, which ordered the withdrawal of troops from the southern borders and the liberation of Wallachia and Moldova, but when Turkey tried to dictate the terms, the conflict became inevitable. After the Emperor of Russia refused to sign the note with the amendments made by the Turkish Sultan, the Ottoman ruler declared the start of war with the Russian Empire. In October 1853 (when Russia was not yet completely ready for hostilities), the war began.

Progress of the Crimean War: fighting

The entire war can be divided into two large stages:

• October 1953 - April 1954 - this is directly a Russian-Turkish company; theater of military operations - the Caucasus and the Danube principalities;
• April 1854 - February 1956 - military operations against the coalition (Crimean, Azov, Baltic, White Sea and Kinburn companies).

The main events of the first stage can be considered the defeat of the Turkish fleet in Sinop Bay by P. S. Nakhimov (November 18 (30), 1853).

The second stage of the war was much more eventful.

It can be said that failures in the Crimean direction led to the fact that the new Russian emperor, Alexander I. I. (Nicholas I died in 1855) decided to begin peace negotiations.

It cannot be said that Russian troops suffered defeats because of their commanders-in-chief. In the Danube direction, the troops were commanded by the talented Prince M. D. Gorchakov, in the Caucasus - N. N. Muravyov, the Black Sea Fleet was led by Vice Admiral P. S. Nakhimov (who also later led the defense of Sevastopol and died in 1855), the defense of Petropavlovsk was led by V. . S. Zavoiko, but even the enthusiasm and tactical genius of these officers did not help in the war, which was fought according to the new rules.

Treaty of Paris

The diplomatic mission was headed by Prince A.F. Orlov. After long negotiations in Paris 18 (30).03. In 1856, a peace treaty was signed between the Russian Empire, on the one hand, and the Ottoman Empire, coalition forces, Austria and Prussia, on the other. The terms of the peace treaty were as follows:

Results of the Crimean War 1853−1856

Reasons for defeat in the war

Even before the conclusion of the Paris Peace The reasons for the defeat in the war were obvious to the emperor and leading politicians of the empire:

• foreign policy isolation of the empire;
• superior enemy forces;
• backwardness of the Russian Empire in socio-economic and military-technical terms.

Foreign policy and domestic political consequences of defeat

The foreign policy and domestic political results of the war were also disastrous, although somewhat mitigated by the efforts of Russian diplomats. It was obvious that

• the international authority of the Russian Empire fell (for the first time since 1812);
• the geopolitical situation and balance of power in Europe have changed;
• Russia's influence in the Balkans, Caucasus and the Middle East has weakened;
• the security of the country's southern borders has been violated;
• positions in the Black Sea and Baltic have been weakened;
• The country's financial system is upset.

Significance of the Crimean War

But, despite the severity of the political situation inside and outside the country after the defeat in the Crimean War, it was precisely this that became the catalyst that led to the reforms of the 60s of the 19th century, including the abolition of serfdom in Russia. you can find out by following the link.