Give examples of social change - is there always change? Changes in social life and social thought in Russia in the second half of the 19th century

World History. Volume 1

The decomposition of the primitive communal system and the most ancient slave states in the Nile Valley and Mesopotamia

General features period

Changes in public life tribes

The development of copper smelting techniques, which occurred during the 4th millennium BC. e. gave ancient farmers more advanced tools. With the help of these tools, the production of wooden products has significantly improved. A copper hoe with a wooden handle, a shovel and other tools made it possible to create irrigation canals. Already at the beginning and middle of the 3rd millennium, in some places, for example, in Mesopotamia, in Egypt, and somewhat later on the Iranian Plateau (Tepe-Gissar settlement), wooden plows were made; The domestication of the donkey and cow, which occurred even earlier, made it possible to harness animals to the plow, which significantly increased labor productivity. Craft production has now also developed - weaving, foundry, and pottery. It was invented, although not received everywhere yet wide application, potter's wheel. They begin to set sails on the boats, and in some places carts with solid wheels appear. Increasing complexity of production required greater specialization; specialist craftsmen begin to emerge in communities; The second great social division of labor begins - the separation of crafts from agriculture.

This circumstance caused the development of exchange - first between individual communities and tribes that specialized in one or another production. Items produced by individual tribes that found themselves in more favorable conditions natural conditions for the manufacture of certain products, passing from hand to hand, they are now distributed over long distances. For example, Caucasian obsidian and Iranian copper fall into the Euphrates and Tigris valleys; in Egypt, copper imported from neighboring Sinai is used. Connections with remote areas are discovered when studying the archaeological monuments of the agricultural tribes of Iran, the south of Central Asia, and the valley of the great Chinese Yellow River. But exchange is probably beginning to arise within communities - between specialist craftsmen and farmers. In all cases, it was still an exchange of products, without the mediation of money.

The accumulation of products and the increase in wealth, which, of course, occurred unevenly in different communities, lead to the emergence of intercommunal and intertribal wars for the purpose of robbery. Copper weapons increased military force its owners; clashes between tribes that had already passed into the Chalcolithic Age turned into real wars. War, in turn, becomes a means of enrichment; military leaders are gaining more and more power, and by seizing the most booty for themselves, they are gaining greater economic advantages over their fellow tribesmen.

According to ethnography, at the earliest stages of the development of agriculture, collective digging of fields with wooden sticks was used. However, hoe and especially plow farming gradually became, even within the community, the business of individual families. Agricultural labor, since the development of plow farming, passed from the hands of women to the hands of men, and the man - the farmer and warrior - became the head of the family. Accumulation in different families was created unequally, and each of them, accumulating property, tried to keep it in the family. The product gradually ceases to be divided among the members of the community, and property begins to pass from the father to his children; the foundations of private ownership of the means of production are laid. From the calculation of kinship on the maternal side they move to the calculation of kinship on the father's side - patriarchy takes shape. Accordingly, the form of family relationships changes; a patriarchal family based on private property arises. The subordinate position of women is reflected, in particular, in the fact that mandatory monogamy is established only for women, while polygamy (polygamy) is allowed for men. The most ancient documents of Egypt and Mesopotamia depict this situation as having developed by the end of IV - beginning of III millennium BC e. Among the tribes of the foothills of Western Asia, China, etc., the same picture is found the most ancient monuments writing, which appeared among some of them in the 2nd millennium BC. e.

The growth of labor productivity, increased exchange, constant wars - all this led to the emergence of property stratification among agricultural tribes. Property inequality gave rise to social inequality. The top of the family aristocracy was emerging, in whose hands the management of all affairs was actually located. Noble members of the community sat on the tribal council, were in charge of the cult of the gods, and selected military leaders and priests from their midst.

Along with property and social differentiation within the clan community, differentiation also occurs within the tribe between individual clans. On the one hand, strong and rich clans are distinguished, and on the other, weak and impoverished ones. Accordingly, the first of them gradually turn into dominant ones, and the second into subordinate ones. As a result of wars, entire tribes or even groups of tribes could find themselves in a subordinate position.

However for a long time Along with the council - the body of the clan nobility - the meeting of all adult community warriors continues to play a major role. Despite the property and social stratification of the community, the top of the clan nobility must still take into account the opinion of the entire community. Usually the council meeting took place in the presence of all the warriors, who, as the epic songs of the ancient inhabitants of Mesopotamia depict, actively expressed their approval or disapproval of the decisions of the leader and the council. Military successes still to a certain extent enriched the entire community, but mainly its elite. Such orders at the last stage of development of the primitive communal system are usually called military democracy.

Internal ties in the community during this period were not yet destroyed. Monuments of the last stage of the primitive communal system everywhere testify to the power of collective labor. When the increasing frequency of wars required strengthening the defense of settlements, powerful fortresses were created, the walls of which were made of huge unprocessed blocks of stone (the so-called Cyclopean masonry), which could only be cut down and delivered to their place by the collective labor of many people. Where there was no stone, thick walls of raw brick were erected. The construction of irrigation canals also required the coordinated work of the entire team of community members. Community members still participate in the public affairs of their collective, being members of the national assembly. But increasingly, the labor of the collective is being abused in its own interests by the clan elite, with whose power ordinary community members can no longer argue.

The social activity of the tribal masses is reflected in the described time and in artistic creativity. Many remarkable epic monuments of folk poetry of the ancient East ultimately go back to this period. One of the main areas of artistic creativity was also crafts, which we know well from the example of pottery production. Throughout the zone of agricultural centers in the 4th and 3rd millennia BC. e. Magnificent painted dishes, decorated with single-color or multi-color ornaments and stylized images of animals and symbols of agricultural deities - the sun, water, ears of corn - became widespread. According to these products, distributed over a huge distance from the shores of the Black and Mediterranean seas to China, through Iran and Central Asia, the Eneolithic cultures of these territories were called the painted ceramic cultures. The same stylistic features were manifested in the art of stone carving and, presumably, in weaving products, which are clearly imitated by many paintings on dishes.

“Society in the Middle Ages” - Consequences of the campaigns. 1096 - 1099 The heaviest blow was dealt to Byzantium. Crusades. Some Crusaders remained in Palestine and founded states along European lines. 1202-1204. Trade ties between East and West strengthened. Leisure activities: tournaments, hunting. 1188-1192. Chivalry. The Catholic West failed to retain Christian shrines.

“Clothing of the Middle Ages” - Attention is paid to jewelry. Compare. Casual and festive wear. Armor. Women's medieval dresses. Fabric armor. Clothing style. The trend is towards tight-fitting clothing. Gothic period. Clothing of the Middle Ages. Plate armor. Chain mail armor. The armor provided fairly good protection.

“The Emergence of Medieval Cities” - The Emergence of Cities. Butcher. Changes in the economy. The soil became less depleted. Feudal lords and townspeople. Economic development and its consequences. The emergence of medieval cities. Separation of crafts from agriculture. Money. Traders and artisans. European cities. Give the correct answer.

"Europe in the Middle Ages" - Kings. The role of the church in the Middle Ages. Absolute monarchy. Corporation. Early feudal monarchy. Vassals. Seniors. The structure of medieval society. Relations between feudal lords and peasants. Estate-representative monarchy. The concept of the Middle Ages. Feudalism, its main features. Subsistence farming.

“Quiz “Middle Ages”” - Townspeople are people from the village. Discoveries, inventions. Peasant revolt in France. Medieval city. Participants of the Crusades. The lords sought to attract to the city more people. What's happened crusades. Military campaigns. The Church owned enormous territorial wealth. The struggle of the Czech people.

"Medieval Society" - Estate. Economic dependence. Social system. Owner of the estate. Lock. Compulsory duties. Village residents. Peasant house. Peasant cattle. Life of a Medieval Village. Delivery of a judicial verdict. Medieval village. Feudal lord. Peasants. Village church. Manor of duty.

There are a total of 15 presentations in the topic

The second half of the 19th century began in Russia with serious social changes that took place in an atmosphere of rapid fermentation of minds. From a historiographical point of view, these changes should be counted from 1861, when serfdom was finally abolished, although this was only the most noticeable event in the goal of long-overdue reforms. In the 60-70s, during the reign Alexandra II(1818-1881), also passed zemstvo, city, judicial, military reform. Although half-hearted, they still significantly expanded freedom in the economic, political, and spiritual spheres.

It was during this period that the concepts of “thaw” and “glasnost” were first used, again used already in Soviet era. There were serious relaxations in the field of censorship, and the “publicness” of public life began to be allowed, that is, the opportunity to discuss state issues in the press, open discussions and public meetings. Since 1856, censors have been lost between instructions for “rigor” and “flexibility,” “avoidance” and “discretion.” Educational publishing houses arose, one of which, F. F. Pavlenkova, along with entertaining books on geography and history (the “Life of Remarkable People” series - 180 books, “Popular Science Library for the People” - 40 books, “Illustrated Pushkin Library” - 35 books) published a translation of the 1st volume of “Capital” » Marx with a circulation of 3 thousand copies. “Thick magazines” began to appear - “ Contemporary" N. Nekrasova, " Russian Herald" M. Katkova, " Russian word» D. Pisareva.

During this period, there was an increasing impression that in Russia the ground had already been completely prepared for its inclusion in the “single chain of universal human development” and its transformation into a rule-of-law state. They believed it protective liberals, who, hotly discussing the teachings about civil society, natural human rights, and the value of the human person that came from Europe, assigned a special role in their implementation intelligentsia. This is a concept coined by the writer P. D. Boborykin, acquired in Russia (until 1917) a meaning that went far beyond the literal, original (from the Latin inellectus), that is, mental activity. Russian intellectual He was a highly cultured man in the broadest and noblest sense, highly moral, conscientious, responsible for his actions, for the people who trusted him, a man of his word, devoted to the people and fatherland. They grew up mainly from poor nobles and commoners.

An example of a Russian intellectual was the publicist and teacher D himself, who came from this environment . I. Pisarev(1841-1868). Calling for “free education”, the formation of personality, he wrote: “By raising our children, we squeeze young life into those ugly forms that weighed down on us... The sooner a young person becomes skeptical of his mentors, the better.” However, in a polemical frenzy, Pisarev argued: “What can be broken must be broken, what can withstand a blow is good, what shatters into pieces is rubbish.” Nihilistic moods were generally characteristic of Russian society 60-70s XIX century. “In the present time, denial is most useful - we deny,” said Turgenev’s Bazarov, “a typical hero in typical circumstances.”

Often, nihilism (from the Latin nihil - nothing) took the form of not just denial, but also direct calls for destruction, for revolutionary struggle. Oppositional liberalism, as lawyer and historian B. N. Chicherin noted, “understands freedom from a purely negative side... Abolish, destroy, destroy - this is his whole system... To him, the height of well-being seems to be liberation from all laws, all restrictions. He carries this ideal, unrealizable in the present, into the future.” What it will lead to in the “future” has already been shown by the next century. In the meantime, his most ardent supporters were revolutionary democrats 1869-70s The most prominent of them, N. G. Chernyshevsky(1828-1889) and N. A. Dobrolyubov(1836-1861) literally became the rulers of the thoughts of the youth of all classes.

Collaborating in Nekrasov’s Sovremennik, Chernyshevsky, according to V.I. Lenin, “was able to influence all the political events of his era in a revolutionary spirit, carrying through the obstacles and slingshots of censorship - the idea of ​​​​a peasant revolution, the idea of ​​​​the struggle of the masses to overthrow all the old authorities” . Chernyshevsky was one of the founders of " peasant socialism" And populism, to a large extent he inspired and directed the activities secret society « Land and freedom" In 1862, Chernyshevsky was imprisoned in the Shlisselburg fortress and sentenced to death, which in 1864 was replaced by “civil execution” and hard labor. In the novel “What to do?” he created an image of heroes who are ready to make any sacrifice in the name of the revolutionary struggle, sleep on nails to strengthen their will, and wear blue stockings to shock society. Future terrorists, members of revolutionary circles, associated mutual guarantee who knew no doubt, fear or compassion. N.A. Dobrolyubov, with the same goals, nevertheless took a much more moderate position. Putting love for the Motherland above personal interests and attachments, he at the same time saw it in “the closest connection with love for humanity.” Calling the autocracy “internal Turks,” he still considered the passionate pen of a publicist to be the main weapon against him.

During the revolution, the press worked intermittently, and fresh newspapers did not arrive in Kurgan, so information about events in the capital comes to the city with some delay. The first to react to the events in the capital were the soldiers of the 34th reserve Siberian regiment: by March 5, they occupied all socially significant objects in the city, namely, the telephone exchange, railway and postal and telegraph offices. On March 6, a demonstration took place on Trinity Street in Kurgan, supporting the achievements of the revolution and the overthrow of the monarchy. The mayor Fyodor Vasilyevich Shvetov resigns, the police and judicial institutions are dissolved.

The formation of the Soviets was the most important result of the revolution: in early March, the Kurgan Council of Soldiers' Deputies was formed, followed by the Council of Workers' Deputies. On March 12, 1917, they united into a single body - the Kurgan Council of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies.

In Shadrinsk, by mid-March 1917, a Military Committee was created. Its organizer was a group of Bolsheviks of the 139th reserve regiment, led by servicemen A.A. Zhdanov and N.M. Ufimtsev. From the very beginning, the Shadrinsk party group worked under the leadership of the Ural Committee of the Bolsheviks, which was located in Yekaterinburg. Members of the party group carried out active work among the soldiers of the garrison and the workers of the city, ardently promoting resistance and hostility to the domestic and foreign policies of the Provisional Government.

In the first half of April 1917, the military committee included representatives of the workers of Shadrinsk. On May 22, 1917, the Shadrinsky Council of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies was actually formed on the basis of the military committee.

In April-May 1917, Soviets of Workers' Deputies arose in Mishkino, Shumikha, Shchuchye, Chumlyak and other places.

In contrast to the Soviets, on March 7, the officers of the Kurgan garrison create the Committee of Public Safety or KOB, which supports the Provisional Government. KOBs were created throughout the country as actively as the Soviets, and at the first stage of the revolution they collaborated with them. In addition to supporting the Provisional Government, KOBs ensured public safety, monitored the work of printing houses, and suppressed monarchist protests.

Later than others, the Trans-Ural peasantry was organized: the first meeting of the Kurgan Council of Peasant Deputies took place on July 15, an ensign of the 34th Siberian Rifle Reserve Regiment was elected chairman of the Council Konstantin Matveevich Petrov.

Throughout March and April, active work was carried out in the region to create all kinds of congresses and unions. For example, in addition to the Soviets and COBs, a congress of representatives of cooperatives of Western Siberia, a peasant district congress, and a society of female soldiers appeared. There is a revival of trade unions. To protect their interests, the Union of Students, the Union of Carpenters, the Union of Crippled Warriors, Light Cab Drivers, and City Employees are being created in our region. The idea of ​​self-organization captured even those segments of the population that had never previously shown social activity, for example, domestic servants. A meeting of all cooks, watchmen, coachmen, janitors, nannies, laundresses, maids, etc. was scheduled for June 11 in Kurgan to organize their own professional union - the union of domestic servants.

The Provisional Government established local positions of its authorized representatives - commissars. For example, the Kurgan district was supposed to be subordinate to the Commissioner of the Provisional Government for Kurgan and the Kurgan district. He became Joseph Antonovich Mikhailov.

Soon preparations begin for the introduction of zemstvos in the Kurgan district.

During these months, the organs familiar to the local population continued to work. state power: city councils, city and county governments. Both old and various new local authorities acted simultaneously, sometimes finding compromises, sometimes confronting each other. This allows us to call the political system of the region not just dual power, as in the center of the country, but multi-power.

The activity of political parties is revived: multi-party system - characteristic feature socio-political life of the country in 1917. Socialist-Revolutionaries, Social Democrats, Cadets - all these and other parties were represented in the political spectrum of the Southern Trans-Urals.

At the beginning of May, preparations begin for the elections to the Kurgan City Duma, which took place on July 2, 1917. Election campaign was well covered in local newspapers, which published lists of candidates for each district, and detailed information about meetings and campaign work. The interest and response of the population can be judged by data on registration and voter turnout: “According to civilian lists - 12682, according to military lists - 2837. 5150 voters participated in the elections. 40 members from five parties were elected.” Thus, it can be noted that the turnout for the elections was small and amounted to about 33% of registered voters. Perhaps the population's distrust of this local government body had an effect.

The majority of Kurgan residents entrusted their votes "United Socialists", who received 29 mandates in the City Duma. “Citizen-voters of the 3rd precinct of the city of Kurgan” in the renewed body of self-government were represented by 5 vowels, the “Group of merchants, industrialists and homeowners” – 2 vowels, and the “Labor group of townspeople” – 1 vowel. The social and professional composition of the people's representatives was very diverse: these were teachers and officials, doctors and public figures, priest and depot worker. The Kurgan district commissar of the Provisional Government, Socialist Revolutionary I.A., was elected as members. Mikhailov and the chairman of the Council of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies, Socialist Revolutionary T.P. Belonogov. The Duma included the most respected representatives of the public, many of whom already had extensive experience as deputies: M.K. Sazhin, P.P. Uspensky, G.M. Lungs. Thus, in terms of its political composition, the Duma turned out to be socialist.

On July 13, 1917, the first meeting of the renewed Kurgan City Duma took place. Mikhail Konstantinovich Sazhin was unanimously elected mayor. It was necessary to elect a city government and members of the Food Committee, create Duma commissions for various sectors of the economy, and appoint a chief of police. Only after this could we begin direct activities or, as the vowels themselves called it, to solve the problems of “cultural well-being of the city.”

Almost simultaneously, a new composition of the Shadrinsk Duma is being formed. 55% of voters took part in the elections, which took place on July 9, 1917. The activity of the Shadrinians, therefore, turned out to be slightly higher than that of the Kurgan residents. On July 26, 1917, the first meeting of the Shadrinsk City Duma took place, headed by the socialist N.M. Pritikin.

Changes in the socio-political life of the state. Collapse of the Union

IN In March 1985, M.S. was elected to the post of General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee. Gorbachev. To date, there is no complete clarity regarding the details and circumstances of this election. Versions about alternative candidates discussed in a narrow circle of “party elders” have not yet been confirmed. Be that as it may, the election of Gorbachev, the youngest member of the top political leadership at that time, testified to the desire of part of the party apparatus to somewhat modify the decrepit totalitarian system. Subjective The prerequisite for perestroika was the arrival in the second half of the 70s and early 80s. to the country's leadership of relatively young politicians (M.S. Gorbachev, E.K. Ligachev, E.A. Shevardnadze, N.I. Ryzhkov, A. . N. Yakovlev), who sought not only to strengthen their power, but also advocated the renewal of the state and society.

The beginning of radical reforms in the field of public administration, broad socio-political and economic transformations connected with the decisions of the April Plenum of the CPSU Central Committee, where it was announced, in essence, the beginning perestroika policy . At this party forum, a general analysis of the state of Soviet society was given and a proposal was put forward acceleration strategy economic development as the main economic task, together with the proclamation of the policy of openness as the basis of democratization. At their core, the reforms initiated did not affect the foundations of either the political or economic mechanism, but rather pursued the task of giving them a more liberal character, capable of opening, according to the reformers, a kind of second wind in the existing system.

In the history of perestroika in the broad sense of the term, some researchers distinguish four periods:

1) from March 1985 to January 1987 – held under the slogan “more socialism”;

2) 1987-1988 – “more democracy”;

3) 1989-1991, which became a period of divisions and splits in the perestroika camp;

4) 1990-1991: Gorbachev’s hesitations in the economic sphere, the State Emergency Committee and the collapse of the Union.

Without a specific reform plan, a sufficient understanding of the final goals, and even more so of the ways and methods of transformation, as well as to popularize the idea of ​​perestroika, the country's leadership opens a kind of all-Union discussion on important issues of internal and foreign policy, focusing on “universal human values.” This is how it is formed openness policy.The main manifestations of the policy of openness:

– lifting censorship and allowing the publication of new newspapers;

– the emergence of numerous public associations in support of perestroika;

– widespread discussion of the new government policy at citizen rallies;

– deployment of discussions on the choice of path on the pages of periodicals social development.

Some of the most significant steps of restructuring are:

1) change of part of the party and Soviet leaders to ensure the implementation of restructuring tasks;

2) b fight against violations of industrial discipline and corruption(1985-1986). A number of former statesmen;

3) critical motives sounded timidly at first, and then more and more powerfully in the press and other media mass media. In 1987, the “Yeltsin phenomenon” first appeared - the first secretary of the Moscow City Committee of the CPSU, who criticized the indecisiveness of the renovation processes. Yeltsin's resignation and the widespread spread of rumors around this event led to muted, but already clearly audible demands for expanding the glasnost policy;

4) a commission headed by A.N. was created under the Politburo of the CPSU Central Committee. Yakovlev for the purpose of additional study of documents of those repressed in the 30s and early 50s. citizens. Rehabilitated many innocently convicted people. As a result, a powerful breakthrough was made into the past, unknown pages of the history of Soviet Russia were opened. All this, naturally, changed assessments and approaches to propaganda. Many people had difficulty overcoming stereotypes in the perception of history and modernity;

5) new Law “On Freedom of Conscience” consolidated the course towards liberalizing the state's attitude towards religion. Several meetings took place with M.S. Gorbachev with the Russian Patriarch Orthodox Church Pimen and representatives of other religious denominations. New religious communities have been registered and religious educational institutions have been opened. The circulation of published religious literature has increased. The religious buildings that had previously been taken from them were returned to the believers. The authorities gave permission for the construction of new churches;

6) conducting campaigns the fight against drunkenness and alcoholism and the fight against unearned income. Having determined that this had a detrimental effect on the situation in the country, on the socio-psychological state of society, the political leadership did not take into account that the bureaucratic style of carrying out planned activities could lead to side consequences. Indeed, a sharp reduction in the sale of alcoholic beverages and an increase in their prices led to an increase in speculation in alcohol, moonshine, and, as a consequence, a “sugar” boom. In the fight against unearned income, the layer of people who had grown closely with the apparatus was actually affected; small speculators suffered, while the tycoons of the shadow business continued to flourish;

7) in the late 80s. transformations affected structures of state power. She started them XIX All-Union Party Conference (June 1988). It witnessed a sharp struggle of opinions between supporters and opponents of perestroika on the issue of the country's development tasks. Supporters of the administrative-command system expressed the opinion that “publicity should not harm the interests of the state, society and human rights.” The majority of delegates supported the point of view of M.S. Gorbachev on the urgent need for economic reform and transformation political system society. The essence political reform was in a clear division of responsibilities of party bodies and Soviets, in the transfer of power from hands Communist Party To the Soviets. Constitutional reform played an important role in democratizing the political system by redistributing higher authority in favor of a democratic body – Congress of People's Deputies And Supreme Council;

8) at the end of 1988, the Supreme Soviet of the USSR adopted Law on changing the system of elections to the Soviets. From now on, the election of people's deputies was to be carried out on an alternative basis. Elections to the highest body of power on new electoral principles took place in the spring of 1989. The deputy corps included many supporters of continuing radical reforms, including B.N. Yeltsin, N. X . Popov, A.D. Sakharov, A.A. Sobchak, Yu.N. Afanasyev, Yu. Chernichenko. Congress of People's Deputies (1989) formed the Supreme Soviet of the USSR. M.S. was elected its Chairman. Gorbachev;

9) integral part reform of the political system aimed at creating a democratic state was the introduction of the presidential post in the country (the first President of the USSR in March 1990 III The Congress of People's Deputies elected M.S. Gorbachev);

10) in March 1990 there was Article 6 of the USSR Constitution on the leading role of the CPSU was repealed in society. By this time, numerous political organizations. The repeal of Article 6 stimulated the emergence of new parties and movements. After the law was passed “On public associations” Since March 1991, registration of new parties began. The existence of many parties turned out to be short; they disintegrated and merged with other organizations. New political groups and blocs emerged, and all of them actively participated in the public life of the USSR;

The far right direction was introduced "Democratic Union" who advocated a sharp and unconditional change in the model of social development, and parties of Christian-democratic orientation (RKhDD, HDSS, LDPR).

The liberal direction was presented "Democratic Party of the Soviet Union" later transformed into "Conservative Party", "Democratic Party of Russia" and other democratic parties (DP, RPRF, three parties of constitutional democrats) who came up with the idea of ​​​​creating a rule of law state in Russia. In October 1990, most of them united into the mass socio-political movement “Democratic Russia”.

The social democratic direction is represented social democratic (SDA, SDPR) and Socialist parties, advocated the modernization of society through a system of social reforms. Parties also gravitated towards this direction. anarchist persuasion (AKRS, KAS), advocated stateless socialism.

The central political force opposing the new parties remained CPSU. In 1990-early 1991, it formed three platforms (democratic, Marxist, Bolshevik), each of which offered its own version and its own direction of reform.

Simultaneously with these processes, there was a process of formation of parties of national-patriotic orientation (National Patriotic Front “Memory”, Russian National Democratic Party), speaking from the position of a right-wing radical reorganization of society and setting the goal of the revival of the Russian nation, a united and indivisible Russia.

A mass exit from the CPSU began, a significant part of the communists stopped paying membership dues. The Komsomol and the Pioneer organization essentially ceased their activities as youth and children's structures of the CPSU.

The crisis of perestroika and the collapse of the Union. In the spring of 1990, the last stage of perestroika began, which can be characterized as its crisis. Gorbachev’s constant hesitation led to conservatives accusing him of being “bourgeois,” “betraying the cause of socialism,” and disrupting perestroika as it was intended, while democrats condemned him for indecisiveness and inconsistency.

There is no doubt that the logic of the democratization process required a redistribution of power and management functions from the frozen administrative and economic system in favor of grassroots government bodies, new independent democratic formations. However, this complex process had serious costs: the growth of separatist tendencies, localism, etc. One of the most dangerous symptoms separatism, In general, what subsequently determined the course, as well as the current low result of the transformations, was the growth of national tension in the republics of the USSR.

In the mid-80s. The USSR included 15 union republics. Over 270 million people lived on their territory - representatives of over a hundred nations and nationalities. Although in the USSR it was decided in principle national question and there was an actual alignment of the republics in terms of the level of political, socio-economic and cultural development, there were numerous contradictions in interethnic relations. Under conditions of glasnost, these contradictions grew into open conflicts. In 1988, hostilities began between Armenia and Azerbaijan due to Nagorno-Karabakh- a territory populated predominantly by Armenians, but located within the AzSSR. An armed conflict between Uzbeks and Meskhetian Turks broke out in Fergana. The center of interethnic clashes became New Uzen (Kazakhstan). The appearance of thousands of refugees was one of the results of the conflicts that took place. In April 1989, mass demonstrations took place over several days in Tbilisi. The main demands of the demonstrators were democratic reforms and independence of Georgia. The Abkhaz population spoke in favor of revising the status of the Abkhaz ASSR and separating it from the Georgian SSR. Public discontent took open forms in the Baltic republics, Ukraine, and Belarus.

In 1988-1990 in the union republics in full height a national movement arose and parties were formed that advocated secession from the USSR (Sajudis in Lithuania, Rukh in Ukraine, Popular Fronts in Latvia and Estonia). Elections to the Supreme Soviets of the republics in a number of places brought them to power. Declarations of state sovereignty were adopted by Estonia, Lithuania, Latvia, the Azerbaijan SSR and others. Following the announcements of sovereignty, the elections of Presidents of the former Soviet republics took place.

June 12, 1990 I The Congress of People's Deputies of the RSFSR adopted the Declaration of State Sovereignty of Russia. It legislated the priority of republican laws over union ones. Became the first President of the Russian Federation B.N. Yeltsin, vice president - A.V. Rutskoy.

The adoption of declarations of sovereignty by the union republics raised the question of the continued existence of the Soviet Union.IVCongress of People's Deputies of the USSR (December 1990) advocated the preservation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and its transformation into a democratic federal state. The congress adopted a resolution "About general concept union agreement and the procedure for its conclusion." The document noted that the basis of the renewed Union would be the principles set out in the republican declarations: equality of all citizens and peoples, the right to self-determination and democratic development, territorial integrity.

The model of the new union, alternative to the center, and the extreme aggravation of relations between the Russian and union leadership played a role in the beginning of the preparation of the new treaty. In April-May 1991 in Novo-Ogarevo(residence of the President of the USSR near Moscow) negotiations took place with M.S. Gorbachev with the leaders of nine union republics on the issue of a new union treaty. Changes were planned in the structure of government and administration, the adoption of a new Constitution, and changes in the electoral system. The signing of the agreement was scheduled for August 20, 1991. The project was supported by nine republics, with the exception of Armenia, Georgia, Moldova and the Baltic republics.

In August 1991, part of the union leadership attempted a coup. Created State Committee according to the state of emergency of the USSR (GKChP) under the chairmanship of Vice President G. Yanaev, actually removes M. Gorbachev from performing presidential functions, blocking him in the southern residence of Foros. After the suppression of the putsch, the process of the collapse of the USSR becomes irreversible. On December 21, 1991, eleven republics that had previously signed a declaration of intent to join the renewed union announced the dissolution of the USSR. The Baltic countries and Georgia supported this decision. At a meeting in Belovezhskaya Pushcha, B. Yeltsin, L. Kravchuk and V. Shushkevich, and then at a meeting in Alma-Ata, the leaders of the former union republics (except Estonia, Latvia and Georgia) terminated the union treaty of 1922, the USSR ceased to exist, and President Gorbachev resigned. On the territory of the former Union there arose Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS).

Thus, Gorbachev's desire to preserve the foundations of the previous political system and the leadership role of the Communist Party were doomed to failure. Liberal reforms within the framework of a totalitarian state led it to destruction. Perestroika grew into an anti-communist revolution that destroyed the Union.

Economic reforms. The Plenum of the CPSU Central Committee in April 1985 formulated the task “accelerating the country’s socio-economic development.” It was supposed to increase the growth rate of national income and intensify social policy (to solve housing, food and other issues). One of the main tasks was the reconstruction of industrial production, its transfer to new scientific and technological foundations (robotics, creation of powerful production complexes, etc.).

One of the indicators of the state of the economy and the mismanagement that reigned in it was accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant. In April 1986, during a test of a turbogenerator, a nuclear reactor exploded at one of the units nuclear power plant. Information about the accident did not immediately become known to the population and the world community. This was one of the reasons global character consequences of the disaster.

Understanding the importance of economic issues, Gorbachev convened a Plenum of the CPSU Central Committee in June 1987, at which a program of reforms in the economy was proposed. The transition from administrative to economic methods of management was proclaimed national economy.

The two cornerstones of the reform were adopted in 1987. state enterprise laws And about cooperation. However, in conditions when no measures were taken to structurally restructure economic management, ministries were preserved, and the motives of labor did not change, this could not bring the expected results. These laws came into conflict with the remaining unchanged economic practices and only increased the imbalance of the economy. Despite all the measures taken, the planned targets in the national economy were not met for most indicators. Moreover, shortages of food and consumer goods have worsened. The budget deficit increased, partly due to a decline in oil export revenues.

At the end of the 80s. Most economists, business executives, and party leaders recognized the need for widespread development of market relations. I The Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR decided to begin the transition to new model of economic development.

The economic reform (based on the developments of Abalkin, Zaslavskaya, Bunich, etc.) assumed:

– reduction of government intervention in the management of the national economy;

– expanding the independence of enterprises, self-financing, self-financing;

– gradual revival of the private sector;

– abandonment of the foreign trade monopoly;

– integration into the global market;

– expansion of forms of farming in rural areas.

Reform results:

– individual labor activity and the creation of cooperatives for the production of goods are allowed;

– enterprises were given the opportunity to independently sell above-plan products;

– reorganization of the banking system, creation of commercial and cooperative banks;

– attracting foreign investment into the economy, creating joint ventures with foreign companies;

– farms and private peasant farms appeared.

The reform of the economy was not brought to its logical conclusion and had significant socio-economic costs. Since 1988, a general reduction in production in agriculture has been planned, and since 1990 - in industry. The real incomes of the majority of the population have decreased. Many remained unresolved social problems, including housing, food, environmental. The shortage of food products led to their rationed distribution, and increased inflation processes and budget deficits led to the first mass strikes of workers.

Thus, reforming the economy during the perestroika period did not lead to significant positive results. There was a strong influence of the old, traditional relations of the socialist system, as well as inconsistency and caution in the actions of the reformers.