Foreign campaign of the Russian army. Foreign campaigns of the Russian army and their significance

1813-14

fighting Russian army to expel Napoleon's troops from Western Europe. After the defeat of Napoleonic army in Patriotic War 1812 (See Patriotic War of 1812) the Russian government decided to transfer military operations to Western Europe in order to achieve a final victory over Napoleon. Despite the defeat in Russia, Napoleon still had significant forces. The Russian command began military operations already in December 1812, and by February 1813, Russian troops under the command of Field Marshal M.I. Kutuzov (over 100 thousand people) cleared the territory of Poland up to the Vistula from the remnants of the Napoleonic army (80 thousand people). Then the main forces moved to Kalisz, and the corps of P.H. Wittgenstein and F.W. Sacken - to Berlin and to the Austrian border. On December 18 (30), the commander of the Prussian corps, General L. York, signed the Tauroggen Convention of 1812 (See Tauroggen Convention of 1812), according to which the Prussian troops ceased hostilities and retreated to East Prussia. On February 16 (28), the Treaty of Kalisz Union of 1813 was concluded with Prussia , which laid the foundation for the 6th anti-French coalition, which was an alliance of reactionary monarchies, but it was supported by the peoples of Europe who fought for liberation from the Napoleonic yoke.

At the end of March, Russian-Prussian troops resumed their offensive. Behind French lines in Germany, things unfolded partisan movement, the German population greeted the Russian troops as their liberators. On February 20 (March 4), Berlin was liberated by a Russian detachment. By mid-April, Napoleon managed to concentrate 200 thousand people. against 92 thousand Russian-Prussian troops, which after the death of Kutuzov were commanded by Wittgenstein, and from May 17 (29) by General M. B. Barclay de Tolly. Napoleon defeated the allies on April 20 (May 2) at Lutzen and May 8-9 (20-21) at Bautzen , after which a truce was concluded on May 23 (June 4), which lasted until July 29 (August 10). Austria mediated negotiations with Napoleon, which ended in failure, after which Austria broke off relations with France. Sweden, bound with Russia by the treaty of alliance of 1812, opposed France. Great Britain signed conventions with Russia and Prussia on providing them with subsidies. On August 28 (September 9) the Teplitskys were concluded alliance treaties 1813 between Russia, Austria and Prussia, soon joined by Great Britain.

By the fall of 1813, the allied troops numbered 492 thousand people. (including Russians - 173 thousand), united in 3 armies: Bohemian (about 237 thousand) of the Austrian field marshal K. Schwarzenberg, Silesian (about 100 thousand) of the Prussian field marshal G. Blucher and Northern (over 150 thousand). ) Swedish Crown Prince J. Bernadotte. A separate corps (about 30 thousand) was advanced to Hamburg. Napoleon had 440 thousand. army, the bulk of which was in Saxony. In August the Allies launched a concentric offensive. Napoleon threw his main forces against the Bohemian army and inflicted defeat on August 14-15 (26-27) in the Battle of Dresden 1813 (See Battle of Dresden 1813). French troops tried to pursue, but the Russian rearguard on August 17-18 (29-30) in the battle of Kulm threw them away. The Silesian army defeated the troops of J. Macdonald, and Northern Army- to the troops of Ch. Oudinot. The Allies launched a general offensive and on October 4-7 (16-19) in the Battle of Leipzig 1813 (See Battle of Leipzig 1813) defeated Napoleon's army.

Its remnants retreated across the river. Rhine. L. Davout's corps was surrounded in Hamburg. The successes of the Allies forced Denmark to abandon the alliance with Napoleon, on January 2 (14) to sign the Kiel Peace Treaties 1814 with Sweden and Great Britain and undertake to enter the war against France. Allied forces began expelling Napoleonic troops from the Netherlands. The most important result of the 1813 campaign was the liberation of Germany from the Napoleonic yoke. But it, as V.I. Lenin noted, happened “... not without the help of the robber states, which were waging with Napoleon not a liberation war, but an imperialist war...” (Poln. sobr. soch., 5th ed., vol. 35, p. 382).

By the beginning of the 1814 campaign, the allied troops numbered 900 thousand people, of which 453 thousand (including 153 thousand Russians) were located along the right bank of the Rhine; the remaining forces were in Spain, Italy and in reserve. Napoleon could oppose them with only 300 thousand people, of which 160 thousand deployed along the left bank of the Rhine. In December 1813 - January 1814, the allied forces crossed the Rhine and began an offensive deep into France. The Allied command acted very indecisively, and Napoleon even managed to achieve a number of partial successes. Serious contradictions emerged between the Allied powers. In order to strengthen the coalition, the Chaumont Treaty of 1814 was signed on February 26 (March 10), in which the allies pledged not to conclude either peace or truce with France without general consent. Secret articles determined the post-war structure of Europe. At the Congress of Chatillon in 1814, the allies once again tried to resolve the conflict with Napoleon peacefully, but he rejected their conditions for the return of France to the borders of 1792. In March, the allied forces defeated Napoleon's army in a series of battles and launched an attack on Paris, which, after stubborn resistance, capitulated 18 (30 ) March. On March 25 (April 6), Napoleon signed his abdication from the throne at Fontainebleau and was exiled to Fr. Elbe. Louis XVIII, brother of the executed King Louis XVI, was elevated to the throne. On May 18 (30), the Peace of Paris of 1814 was signed between the Allies and France.

During the campaigns of 1813-14, the Russian army provided enormous assistance to the peoples of Western Europe in their liberation from Napoleonic rule. It was the main core around which the troops of other coalition members were grouped. However, the reactionary goals pursued by the ruling circles of the Allied powers gave the war with Napoleon a contradictory character. K. Marx pointed out: “All wars of independence that were fought against France are characterized by a combination of the spirit of revival with the spirit of reaction ...” (Marx K. and Engels F., Works, 2nd ed., vol. 10, p. 436 ).

Lit.: The march of the Russian army in 1813 and the liberation of Germany. Sat. documents, M., 1964; Andrianov P., From the Neman to the Rhine. War of 1813. The struggle for the liberation of Europe from the yoke of Napoleon, Od., 1913; his own. War of 1814. From the Rhine to Paris. 1814-1914, [Od., 1914]; Bogdanovich M., History of the war of 1813 for the independence of Germany..., t, 1-2, St. Petersburg, 1863; his, History of the War of 1814 in France and the Deposition of Napoleon I..., vol. 1-2, St. Petersburg, 1865; Liberation war of 1813 against Napoleonic rule, M., 1965.

I. I. Rostunov.

Foreign campaigns of the Russian army in 1813-14.

Great Soviet Encyclopedia. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. 1969-1978 .

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Russian military operations. armies for expulsion from Western countries. Europe of Napoleon's troops. After the defeat of Napoleonic army in the Patriotic War of 1812, Rus. the government decided to postpone the military operations to Europe to achieve completion. victory over Napoleon... ...

Foreign campaigns of the Russian army 1813-1814- Foreign campaigns of the Russian army in 1813-1814 - military operations of the Russian army together with Prussian, Swedish and Austrian troops to complete the defeat of the army of Napoleon I and the liberation of the countries of Western Europe from the French conquerors.... ... Encyclopedia of Newsmakers

Military operations of the Russian army together with the Prussian, Swedish and, from August 1813, Austrian armies against Napoleonic troops in Germany and France. The campaign of 1813 ended with the defeat of the troops of the French Emperor Napoleon I in Leipzig... ... Encyclopedic Dictionary

1813 14 military operations of the Russian army together with the Prussian, Swedish and, from August 1813, Austrian armies against Napoleonic troops in Germany and France. The campaign of 1813 ended with the defeat of Napoleon's troops in the Battle of Leipzig and their expulsion... ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

1813 1815, military operations of Russian troops together with allies against Napoleonic army in Western Europe. Political and strategic situation in 1813 After the catastrophic defeat of Napoleon (see NAPOLEON I Bonaparte) in Russia, military... ... Encyclopedic Dictionary

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Foreign campaigns of the Russian army- FOREIGN CAMPAIGNS OF THE RUSSIAN ARMY, the name adopted in the literature for the military actions of the Russian army together with the Prussian, Swedish and Austrian armies in 1813 14 against Napoleonic troops in Germany and France, as well as the campaign of the 1st Russian army... ... Illustrated Encyclopedic Dictionary

Foreign campaigns of the Russian army - (1813–1814) … Spelling dictionary of the Russian language

In Germany, the war for the liberation of Germany from the rule of Napoleonic France. The most important prerequisite for O.'s deployment. was the victory of the peoples of Russia and the Russians. army in the Patriotic War of 1812. In conditions of rapid advancement of the Russians. troops on... ... Soviet historical encyclopedia

In the 1st half of the 1st millennium AD. e. among the peoples of the Northern Black Sea region, the Caucasus and Central Asia, the slave system was in decline. It was replaced by a new socio-economic formation, Feudalism. Feudal relations... ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia

Books

• 1812 in the life of A. S. Pushkin, Nikolaev Pavel Fedorovich. The conscious life of A. S. Pushkin fell on a series of continuous wars waged by Russia: the Patriotic War of 1812, the foreign campaigns of the Russian army of 1813-1814, the Russian-Iranian...

Here recently, in the comments, they quipped that Russia has always been afraid of Europe....

The grandiose Russian campaign of 1812 ended in complete defeat for Napoleon Bonaparte. Of the approximately 600 thousand army, only about 60 thousand people returned, and more than half were Austrian, Prussian and Saxon troops that did not invade deep into Russia. The great commander himself was forced on the evening of November 23, 1812 to abandon the remnants of the army, transferring them under the command of Murat and after 12 days of non-stop “gallop” across Western Europe, by midnight of December 6 (18) he was already in the French capital. The news that the Grand Army no longer existed shocked all of Europe. Many politicians already guessed that things in Russia were not going as smoothly as they wanted and said, but they did not think that the defeat would be so crushing. In Europe, behind-the-scenes negotiations began on the creation of a new, already sixth anti-French coalition.

Beginning of the 1813 campaign

The Russian army under the command of Mikhail Kutuzov wintered near Vilna, where the Russian emperor visited it. The corps of General Peter Wittgenstein - up to 30 thousand soldiers and Admiral Pavel Chichagov - up to 14 thousand people, together with Cossack regiments - up to 7 thousand people, drove out the remnants of Napoleonic troops from Lithuania. Wittgenstein's corps was given the task of blocking the escape routes of the Prussian-French corps of Marshal MacDonald through the mouth of the Neman.

MacDonald's troops retreating from the Riga area split up, and the Prussian units under Lieutenant General York were separated from MacDonald's French division by the actions of a detachment under the command of General Ivan Dibich. On December 18 (30), 1812, Russian envoys persuaded York to a separate truce - the Taurogen Convention. General York, at his own peril and risk, he did not have the authority to do so from the king, concluded an agreement on mutual neutrality. York went with an army to a neutral region in East Prussia (between Tilsit and Memel), essentially opening the way for the Russian army to Prussia. York pledged not to fight the Russians until March 1, 1813, if the Prussian king decided to remain loyal to the alliance with France.

There was a French garrison in Berlin at that time, and the Prussian king officially announced that York would be brought before a military court. He even sent General Hatzfeld to Paris with an official apology. At the same time, the Prussian king, faithful to the principle of a dual policy (he also gave instructions to York that were open to broad interpretation), began secret negotiations with Russia and Austria. He was also forced to do this by the broad patriotic movement in the country; the public demanded a renunciation of the shameful alliance with France, which led to the occupation of part of Prussia by French troops. Unrest began in the army, thousands of volunteers enrolled in it, troops began to leave their obedience to the king. Thus, the Taurogen Agreement, concluded against the will of the Prussian king, led to Prussia falling away from the alliance with France and entering into a coalition with Russia against Napoleon.

Wittgenstein, after an agreement with York, had the opportunity to pursue the remnants of MacDonald's corps across East Prussia. On December 23, 1812 (January 4, 1813), Russian troops approached Konigsberg, which was occupied the next day without a battle. In the city, up to 10 thousand people, sick, wounded and French stragglers were captured.

In the southern direction, the Austrians, like the Prussians, also tried to maintain neutrality. Russian commanders had instructions to solve problems with the Austrians through negotiations. On December 13 (25), 1812, the Austrian corps of Schwarzenberg retreated to Poland to Pułtusk. The Russian vanguard of General Illarion Vasilchikov moved behind the Austrians. On January 1 (13), 1813, the Main Russian Army under the command of Field Marshal Mikhail Kutuzov crossed the Neman, the border Russian Empire, and entered the territory of the Duchy of Warsaw. Thus began the Foreign Campaign of the Russian Army, which ended in 1814 with the occupation of Paris and the abdication of Napoleon. But before that there were still many bloody battles, including lost ones, thousands of Russian soldiers would lay down their lives far from their homeland.

40 thousand The Austro-Saxon-Polish group under Schwarzenberg did not defend Warsaw. On January 27 (February 8), 1813, Russian troops occupied the Polish capital without a fight. The Austrians retreated south to Krakow, effectively stopping fighting on Napoleon's side. With Schwarzenberg, Poniatowski's 15,000-strong Polish corps also retreated; the Poles would then unite with the French and continue the war on Napoleon's side. The remnants of Rainier's Saxon corps will retreat westward, to Kalisz. Duchy of Warsaw, as public education and an ally of Napoleon, will cease to exist. Thus, the Russian army will quite easily and without much effort break through the first line of defense of Napoleon's empire along the Vistula. The main prerequisites for successful start The foreign campaign of the Russian army will be facilitated by the benevolent neutrality of the Prussian troops, the actual refusal of the Austrian Empire from a military alliance with France and Napoleon’s lack of significant French contingents on the Vistula line. Murat will not be able to stop the advance of the Russian army.

Beginning of the liberation of Germany

At the beginning of 1813, Berlin officially maintained allied relations with Paris. The entry of Russian troops into East Prussia radically changed the political situation in the country. The Prussian king, in order to retain his throne, was forced to break with France.

At this time, York's troops settled in Königsberg, where the former Prussian minister Stein, now in Russian service, arrived from the Russian Empire as a representative of Emperor Alexander I. The Diet of East Prussia was convened, which issued a decree calling up reservists and militias. As a result of this recruitment, 60 thousand were formed. an army under York, which immediately began military operations against the French occupiers. The throne under the Prussian king began to shake, because he supported the invaders. Frederick William III fled from French-occupied Berlin to Silesia. He secretly sent Field Marshal Knesebeck to Alexander I's headquarters in Kalisz to negotiate a military alliance against Napoleon. On February 9, universal conscription was introduced in Prussia.

The actions of the Prussian troops in alliance with the Russians led to the failure of the French attempt to organize a second line of defense along the Oder. Russian troops, after occupying Warsaw, moved west to Kalisz. February 13 Russian 16-thousand The vanguard under Ferdinand Wintzingerode defeated the retreating 10 thousand troops near Kalisz. Rainier's Saxon corps, the Saxons lost 3 thousand people in the battle. Kalisz became a support base for the Russian army, from which Russian troops, with the support of the Prussians, carried out raids across Germany. The main Russian army stopped on the western borders of the Duchy of Warsaw for almost a month. Kutuzov believed that the campaign should be stopped here, since the liberation of Germany and the battles with the French in Western Europe were not in the interests of Russia, but in the interests of the German states themselves and England.

On February 28, 1813, Field Marshal Kutuzov and the Prussian military leader Scharngorst signed a military agreement in Kalisz directed against France. Under the Treaty of Kalisz, Russia and Prussia pledged not to enter into separate agreements with France. After the end of the war, Prussia was to be restored to its 1806 borders. All German states were to gain independence. By March 4, thanks to mobilization, the Prussian army already numbered 120 thousand soldiers.

On March 27, 1813, the Prussian government declared war on France. By this time, the entire Prussian territory, with the exception of several blocked fortresses on the Vistula and Oder (so Danzig at the mouth of the Vistula capitulated only on December 24, 1813), up to the Elbe, was liberated from the French. In particular, Berlin was occupied by Alexander Chernyshev’s detachment on March 4 (the French garrison left the Prussian capital without a fight). On March 11, Wittgenstein's troops entered Berlin in triumph, and on March 17, York's Prussian corps. Beyond the Elbe River and to the south of it were the territories of the German states of the Rhine Confederation, which continued to remain loyal to Napoleon. On March 27, the united Russian-Prussian army occupied Dresden, and on April 3, advanced units entered Leipzig.

Creation of a new army. The question of continuing the war

Napoleon himself was safe, healthy and showed great energy to create a new army and continue the fight. As always on the clock mortal danger, he experienced a surge of mental strength, energy, and an elevated state of mind. In Paris, he became aware of the details of the case of General Malet, who on October 23, 1812 carried out a successful coup d'etat, arresting the Minister of Police and the Prefect of the Parisian Police. Male announced the death of the emperor, the creation of a provisional government and proclaimed a republic led by President J. Moreau. True, the Parisian authorities soon woke up and arrested a few conspirators. Claude-François Malet and 14 of his comrades were shot. This event showed how fragile Napoleon's empire was. In fact, it existed only due to the powerful will of one person. Believing Male's fiction about Napoleon's death, none of the emperor's highest dignitaries raised the question of the rightful heir to the throne - the Roman king.

Napoleon developed vigorous activity to create a new army. He resembled himself in his younger years. While still in Russia, the French emperor very prudently ordered the 1813 conscription to be called up ahead of schedule, and now there were about 140 thousand recruits under his command in France. Then, by decree on January 11, another 80 thousand people from the National Guard joined the army. Thus, there were already more than 200 thousand people in the army. In addition, he had thousands of officers who were saved in the Russian campaign, they became the backbone of the new army. It is also necessary to take into account the fact that French garrisons were stationed in Germany and Italy, and the French ruler was counting on both the 1814 conscription and the troops of the German allies. This could give a total of another 200-250 thousand soldiers. The entire French army fought on the Iberian Peninsula - up to 300 thousand people, several regiments were also recalled from it. Day and night, the French emperor worked with amazing energy to restore artillery and cavalry, replenish troops with weapons and create food reserves. He also used non-standard solutions to find human resources for manning the army: he canceled a number of deferments, called up older citizens, drafted young men into the auxiliary troops, transferred sailors to the infantry - 12 thousand gunners and 24 battalions of sailors were transferred from the French fleet to the infantry. In just a few weeks, new regiments and divisions were formed, and by the beginning of 1813, Napoleon had a new army of 500 thousand people. But the price of this success was great, France was literally depopulated, they were going to throw young people into battle, the recruits of future years.

In lengthy letters sent to the allied German monarchs - the rulers of Westphalia, Bavaria, Württemberg and others, Napoleon explained that the rumors of defeat were false, everything was going well, of course the French army and allies suffered losses, but the “grand army” was still a powerful force, numbering 200 thousand fighters. Although from a message from his chief of staff, Marshal Berthier, he knew that the “grand army” no longer existed. He further reported that 260 thousand people were already ready to march and another 300 thousand remained in Spain. But Napoleon asked the allies to take all measures to increase their armies. Thus, in his letters he combined the truth with lies, desired with the present.

On April 15, 1813, Napoleon left Paris for the location of his troops in Mainz on the French border. “I will conduct this campaign,” said Napoleon, “as General Bonaparte, and not as Emperor.” At the end of April, he set out for Saxony towards Leipzig, where he intended to unite with Beauharnais. He planned to push back the Russian troops and re-subdue Prussia. It should be noted that at this time there was still the possibility of establishing peace in Europe (for how long? - that was another question). The Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Austrian Empire, Clemens von Metternich, persistently offered his mediation in achieving peace. Both the Russian Emperor Alexander I, the Prussian king and the Austrian government were afraid of the unstable situation in Europe and the growth of national liberation tendencies. Therefore, a temporary compromise with Napoleon was possible. In general, such a respite was beneficial for Napoleon.

However, Napoleon himself did not want to make concessions. He still believed that the god of war was on his side and believed in a military solution to the problem of power over Europe. The French emperor believed in brilliant revenge. Napoleon made mistake after mistake, not noticing that the enemies had changed - the Russian army was the winner, and the Austrian army carried out a set of reforms that strengthened its combat effectiveness. I didn’t notice that the forces of the enemies were uniting, and it would no longer be possible to beat the enemies piece by piece. And the French battalions were no longer what they were before. There was also an increase in the liberation struggle in Germany, Italy, Holland and Spain, which diverted additional forces and resources from Napoleon’s empire.

True, it should be noted that Napoleon more than once expressed his readiness to make peace only with the Russian Empire. Already in the spring of 1813, in Erfurt, when he was already at the head of a strong army, the French emperor said: “Sending to the Russian main apartment would divide the whole world in half." But the Russian ruler Alexander, passionate about cosmopolitan ideals and the “pan-European mission” of Russia, rejected all his attempts to compromise.

Should Russia have continued the war with Napoleon?

After the destruction of the French army in Russia, the question arose about continuing the offensive beyond the borders of Russia, about the need for a war with the goal of completely overthrowing Napoleon and liberating him from his power European peoples. This was a question between expediency, national interests and “internationalism”, cosmopolitanism. From the point of view of expediency and national interests, it was not worth fighting against Napoleon after the capture of the Duchy of Warsaw. The final defeat of Napoleon was in the interests of the German states, Prussia, Austria and England. Russia could be satisfied with the absorption of the Duchy of Warsaw and a peace treaty with Napoleon (it could also include the inclusion of the Bosporus and Dardanelles straits in the sphere of Russia’s interests). Russia benefited from the existence of a weakened French Empire led by Napoleon to contain Austria, Prussia and, most importantly, England.

There was no longer a serious military threat from Napoleon. Napoleon now had to strain all his strength in order to retain what he had already conquered in Western Europe; he had no time for Russia. The war with him did not bring territorial benefits. The war brought only losses - loss of people, money, resources and time. The Duchy of Warsaw, which Russia received after the defeat of Napoleon, could have been taken this way.

The Russian emperor, who actually predetermined the course for the continuation of the war, stood for the fact that weapons should not be laid down until Napoleon was overthrown from the throne. “I or he,” said Alexander Pavlovich, “he or I, but together we cannot reign.” Thus, the foreign campaign of the Russian army was not the implementation of the military-strategic tasks of Russia, but the product of the personal initiative of the emperor. Naturally, in London and Vienna, he was mentally applauded.

It must be said that no one in all of Russia was as annoyed that Napoleon was able to escape from the trap near Berezino as Alexander. At the beginning of December 1812, when all of Russia rejoiced at the victory, the emperor demanded that Kutuzov continue the offensive. The field marshal, however, saw the deplorable state of the army, 120 thousand army left the Tarutino camp (plus regular reinforcements), and only a third of it reached the Neman; in the artillery park of the army, out of 622 guns, only 200 remained. Kutuzov was against continuing the offensive, well understanding the strength Napoleon's art and the future price of victory over him. Napoleon's power at this moment was still enormous. He commanded not only France, which had significantly expanded its lands, but also Italy, Holland, and the German states of the Rhineland. He was able to win over Denmark, which was hostile to Sweden, to his side with a promise to return Norway. Thanks to indemnities from previous wars, the financial position of his empire was stable. Prussia and Austria were still just thinking about breaking with France.

Only England was on Russia’s side, but one could not count on its army. The British fought on the Iberian Peninsula and were ready to support Russia with money, because in the interests of London it was the complete destruction of Napoleon, who challenged British Empire. The British acted on the principle of “divide and conquer”, the clash of great continental powers served to benefit their geopolitical interests. Prussia will take the side of Russia, but it needed the war to restore independence, expel the French from its territory and establish Berlin's control over the German states. The Austrians wanted to regain lost positions in Italy and Germany by defeating France.

After the Patriotic War ended, Alexander I decided to win a complete victory over Napoleon and France, finishing off the enemy. For this purpose, a foreign campaign of the Russian army was organized in 1813-1814. The overseas campaign of the Russian Empire was generally successful, not counting the defeats at Lützen and Bautzen. Russia gradually liberated all European countries captured by Napoleon, thereby attracting new allies. The allies - participants in the Sixth Anti-French Coalition - won the general battle - the Battle of Leipzig, defeating the French troops. Napoleon was exiled to the island of Elba, and the victorious countries gathered in Vienna to solve post-war problems. However, Napoleon escaped from exile, reassembled his troops and seized power for 100 days, but then was again defeated by the allies at the Battle of Waterloo, finally, and was exiled to the distant island of St. Helena. The monarchs eventually created the Holy Alliance, which set its main function to protect Europe from revolutions and wars. You will learn about all this in more detail from this lesson.

Rice. 2. Napoleon I Bonaparte - Emperor of France ()

In April 1813, the commander-in-chief of the Russian army, Field Marshal General M.I., died. Kutuzov (Fig. 3). His death dealt a heavy blow to the Russian army. At the same time, Napoleon gathered new troops around him in order to fight his enemy. In two major battles at Lützen (April 20, 1813) (Fig. 4) and Bautzen (May 20-21, 1813) (Fig. 5), the Russians were defeated, but this could no longer significantly change the balance of power in Europe. More and more allies came to the Russian Empire. A new Anti-French coalition was created, which included, in addition to Russia and Prussia, such states as England, Austria, and Sweden. This made it possible for the coalition forces to achieve a significant numerical superiority over the French. Both sides dreamed of a general battle in order to quickly decide the course of the military campaign.

Rice. 3. M.I. Kutuzov - Commander-in-Chief of the Russian Army ()

The general battle between the countries of the Anti-French Coalition and France took place in October 1813 near Leipzig (Fig. 6). In this battle, also called the "Battle of the Nations", Napoleon had 170,000 men in his army against the Allied army of 200,000. The Allies attacked the French, but their attacks were unsuccessful. Moreover, French troops were able to launch a counterattack and break through the Allied front. However, soon reinforcements approached the Allies - about 100,000 more people. After this, the Allies went on the offensive again, and Napoleon’s attacks failed. In addition, the French army began to fall apart - its units fled from the battlefield. Thus, in the general battle between Russia and its allies and France, Napoleon was defeated and retreated with 60,000 people across the Rhine. However, Allied losses were also very high.

Rice. 6. Battle of Leipzig ()

If in January 1813 Napoleon still controlled almost all of Europe, then in October of the same year he only had France left. The victory of the Russians and allies over the Napoleonic army was won, but AlexanderIdrove his troops further towards their cherished goal - Paris. In the spring of 1814,In Napoleon's absence, the French Senate surrendered Paris without a fight. AlexanderIpersonally rode into the conquered city on horseback (Fig. 7).

Rice. 7. Alexander I enters Paris ()

After his defeat, Napoleon was forced to surrender and abdicate the throne (Fig. 8). The Allies sent him into exile on the small island of Elba off the Italian coast.

Rice. 8. Napoleon after abdication ()

In September 1814, the congress of the countries that won Napoleonic France, the Congress of Vienna, was opened in Vienna (Fig. 9). They decided how the fate of post-war Europe would develop without Napoleon. At the congress it was decided that the borders of states would be restored to the form in which they were before the start of the Napoleonic wars, but with reservations. Thus, Russia received a significant part of the Duchy of Warsaw founded by Napoleon - the Kingdom of Poland. In addition, England received Malta and the Ionian Islands. Austria and Prussia had small acquisitions. In France, the power of the Bourbons was restored, although limited by the Constitution at the insistence of Alexander.

Rice. 9. Congress of Vienna 1814 ()

However, the Allies had to decide one more big problem. In the winter of 1815, Napoleon fled from the island of Elba, landed in France and began to gather troops around him, and then marched on Paris. Thus began the famous “100 days of Napoleon” - his temporary return to power. The former emperor managed to capture most of France, including Paris, and again proclaim himself ruler of the country. However, his time has already passed.

The Allied forces were quickly assembled and had a great advantage over the French. On June 18, 1815, at the Battle of Waterloo (Fig. 10), the French led by Napoleon suffered a crushing defeat. Napoleon surrendered to the British, who again sent him into exile, this time much further - to the island of St. Helena, located in the south Atlantic Ocean. Napoleon was no longer able to get out of this place - he died in 1821 on this island. The Napoleonic wars, which tormented Europe for fifteen years, are over.

Rice. 10. Battle of Waterloo ()

The war with Napoleon was over, but the fear of it still dominated the hearts of Europeans. That's why on the initiative of AlexanderI at the end of the Congress of Vienna, an organization was created called the Holy Alliance (Fig. 11). It initially included three countries: Russia, Prussia and Austria. This union was supposed to preserve the monarchy and peace in post-war Europe. The Holy Alliance was endowed with great powers. Including members of the Holy Alliance, in the event of a revolution in any European state, they could send their troops into that country and suppress the riots. Thus, the countries participating in the Holy Alliance were given the right to invade foreign territory without any consequences. Almost all European countries with the exception of England soon joined the Holy Alliance, Ottoman Empire and the Papal State.

Rice. 11. Emperors of the Holy Alliance ()

It would seem that the conflicts have ended and Europe has entered a new peaceful phase of its existence. However, in reality this was not the case. Many conflicts between the victorious countries themselves still persisted and were not resolved. The revolutionary movement, which all monarchs feared, was gradually growing, and the rulers did not know how to stop it. In addition, European states gradually began to unite against the new leader of Europe - the Russian Empire.

References

1. Kersnovsky A.A. History of the Russian army. - M.: Eksmo, 2006. - T. 1.
2. Lazukova N.N., Zhuravleva O.N. History of Russia. 8th grade. - M.: “Ventana-Graf”, 2013.
3. Lyapin V.A., Sitnikov I.V. // The Holy Alliance in the plans of Alexander I. Ekaterinburg: Ural Publishing House. University, 2003.
4. Lyashenko L.M. History of Russia. 8th grade. - M.: “Drofa”, 2012.
5. Mogilevsky N.A. From the Neman to the Seine: The foreign campaign of the Russian army in 1813-1814. - M.: Kuchkovo pole, 2012.
6. Raevsky A.F. Memories of the campaigns of 1813 and 1814. - M.: Kuchkovo pole, 2013.

1. Studopedia.ru ().
2. Rusempire.ru ().
3. Scepsis.net().

Homework

1. Tell us about how Russia's foreign campaign took place in 1813. What were the difficulties and victories of the Russian Empire?
2. Describe the Battle of Leipzig. How did it happen and what was its significance?
3. Formulate the decisions regarding the post-war structure of Europe adopted at the Congress of Vienna in 1814.
4. What is "100 days of Napoleon"?
5. For what purpose was the Holy Alliance created and what was its significance?

Detailed solution to paragraph § 5 on history for 9th grade students, authors N.M. Arsentiev, A.A. Danilov, A.A. Levandovsky. 2016

Question for paragraph VI. List the main points of Russia's relations with the Ottoman Empire during the reigns of Catherine II and Paul I.

In the 18th century, these empires often fought. Under Catherine II, Russia was clearly winning. As a result of the conflicts of 1768-1774 and 1787-1791, the Ottoman Empire ceded vast territories, including part Black Sea coast. In addition, in 1783, the former vassal of the Ottomans, the Crimean Khanate, was annexed to Russia.

Under Paul I east direction faded into the background foreign policy, the main enemy was revolutionary France. The Ottoman Empire, together with the Russian Empire, entered the Second Anti-French Coalition, fighting the army of General Bonaparte in the Middle East.

Question for working with the text of paragraph No. 1. Name the main goals of the Sussian army’s foreign campaigns. What happened main reason Russia's continuation of military actions against France?

Main goals:

Prevent a new invasion;

Destroy French hegemony in Europe;

Restore legitimate monarchs to their thrones;

Create a system in Europe that would prevent new revolutions and the coming to power of another aggressive and ambitious usurper like Bonaparte.

Question for working with the text of paragraph No. 2. Formulate a general assessment of the results of the Vienna Congress (for Russia; for other countries).

The main results of the Congress of Vienna and the Treaty of Paris for most European countries:

France retained all its lands that belonged to it before 1792 (with the exception of some colonies), but agreed to 700 million francs indemnity, and as a guarantee of their payment, it was divided into occupation zones in which the Allied troops were located;

The thrones were returned to the monarchs who had lost them during the wars and revolutions of the turn of the century (in addition, the Netherlands, which had no kings, became a kingdom from the 16th century);

The borders were largely returned to the state of 1792, although sometimes with significant restrictions (for example, all of Norway passed from the possessions of Denmark to Sweden);

However, some states from the time of Bonaparte have survived, for example, on the territory of the former Holy Roman Empire of the German nation;

The Vienna System of International Relations was created;

The Holy Alliance was created as part of the Vienna System.

The main results of the Vienna Congress and the Paris Peace Treaty for Russia:

Russia became the initiator and main player of the Holy Alliance and for a time became a key player in European international politics;

Russia received some new lands of the former Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth as a result of their redistribution, which is sometimes called the "Fourth Partition of Poland";

The destruction of the Republic of the 7 Islands in the Ionian Sea, which was actually under the protectorate of Russia, was officially recognized (most of its islands were captured by the British fleet back in 1809-1810, a French garrison dug in on Corfu), it was transformed into the Ionian Republic under the protectorate of Great Britain;

Russia received 100 million francs from the indemnity paid by France;

Russian troops remained in their occupation zone of France.

Question for working with the text of paragraph No. 3. What were the reasons for the formation of the Holy Alliance? When and for what purposes was it created?

The main reasons were the Revolution in France (as well as the Batavian Revolution in the Netherlands) and the Napoleonic Wars. The creation of an alliance was directly prompted by the 100 days of Napoleon, when the usurper almost regained the throne with the support of a significant part of the people and the army.

The Holy Alliance was created in September 1815 with the purpose of opposing any revolutions and supporting all legitimate monarchies by any means, including military assistance.

Question for working with the text of paragraph No. 4. What was Russia's role in the Holy Alliance?

Alexander I became the initiator of the creation of the Holy Alliance and its most active participant; until his death, he actually led it.

Question for working with the text of paragraph No. 5. What was it like? Eastern question? What role did he play in the foreign policy of the Russian Empire?

The Eastern Question is a dispute between European powers over the division of the territory of the Ottoman Empire, which was clearly weakening and disintegrating, for which it was nicknamed the sick man of Europe.

We think, compare, reflect: question No. 1. Using additional literature, write a biographical message about M.I. Kutuzov.

Mikhail Illarionovich Golenishchev-Kutuzov came from a noble family with military traditions: his father Illarion Matveevich rose to the rank of lieutenant general, his mother was the daughter of a retired captain. On the grave, 1745 is indicated as the date of birth of the commander, but recent research comparing some formal lists has made it possible to shift it two years forward.

Mikhail began his military training in 1759 at the Noble Artillery and Engineering School, where his father taught.

He received his baptism of fire in 1764 in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, commanding small detachments in the fight against the Confederates. But he truly distinguished himself in the Turkish War, where he ended up in 1770. He took part in many battles, in which he showed personal courage and talent as a commander, thanks to which he rose to the rank of lieutenant colonel. The most important of them occurred just before the end of the war. In July 1774, Haji Ali Bey landed with troops in Alushta, which posed a great danger to the Russian troops. It was Golenishchev-Kutuzov and his battalion that the grenadier dropped the troops back into the sea.

In this battle, the future field marshal was seriously wounded in the head and wore an eye patch for the rest of his life - the eye was preserved and did not even lose sight, but from exposure to the air it began to water unbearably. The victory was so important that the empress, at the expense of the court, sent him for treatment to Austria, where he spent two years and at the same time deepened his military education.

Golenishchev-Kutuzov gradually rose in rank, but did not surrender to the military routine. So in 1785, with the rank of major general, he not only formed the Burg Jaeger Corps, but taught it new tactics he had developed. He took part in suppressing the uprising in Crimea.

The future winner of Napoleon accepted active participation and in the second Russian-Turkish war during the time of Catherine II - 1787-1791. He spent many battles under the command of Alexander Vasilvevich Suvorov, from whom he learned a lot. He fought in the battle of Kinburn and in the assault on Izmail, who later, as commandant, defended against Turkish attempts to recapture the fortress. In August 1788, during the assault on Ochakov, he was wounded in the head a second time (and the bullet traveled almost the same path as the first time). Chief physician According to legend, Massot then said to the army: “Apparently fate is saving Kutuzov’s head for something extraordinary.”

After the Turkish wars, Golenishchev-Kutuzov took part in other military companies, but advanced in his career mainly thanks to his skills as a courtier. So he gained the trust of Catherine the Great’s last favorite, Platon Zubov, and personally brewed coffee for him in the morning, saying that he had learned this business perfectly from the Turks. He remained in favor with Paul I as well.

After Alexander I came to power, Golenishchev-Kutuzov temporarily fell into disgrace, perhaps because the late emperor had favored him. But in 1804 he was called up again and appointed commander of one of the two armies sent by Russia against France. After Napoleon's victory over the Austrians near Ulm, this army found itself face to face with the superior forces of the great commander, but with the help of successful maneuvers it managed to avoid a collision. However, it, like other allied forces, was defeated at Austerlitz. Today it is believed that the Russian and French emperors did not listen to the advice of Mikhail Illarionovich and therefore were defeated.

After Austerlitz, he served in civilian positions - as Kyiv governor and Lithuanian governor-general. But in 1811, another war with Turkey reached a dead end and the emperor appointed an elderly commander as commander of the troops in this theater of operations. Kutuzov won the major Battle of Rushchuk on June 22 (July 4), 1811, and thereby ensured victory in the war - just in time to free up forces for the war against Napoleon.

It was for his actions in the Patriotic War of 1812 that Mikhail Illarionovich Golenishchev-Kutuzov remained in history. He generally agreed with Barclay de Tolly’s plan and continued his retreat, leaving even Moscow without a fight. But realizing the ideological disadvantage of retreat, he fought the Borodino battle, which wrote one of the most glorious pages in the annals of Russian military history. But most of all, the commander’s talent was revealed during the enemy’s advance from Moscow (this stage was no longer specified in Barclay de Tolly’s plan). The field marshal was able to send the French along the previously ruined road and thereby ensure their defeat without a major battle (the battle in Maloyaroslavets cannot be considered such), mainly through maneuvers alone.

The field marshal was against a foreign campaign, believing that it was more in the hands of Great Britain than Russia, but as commander-in-chief he was forced to submit to the emperor. During the campaign, he caught a cold, given his age and old wounds, this was enough - on April 16 (28), 1813, the winner Napoleon passed away. The treasury paid 300 thousand rubles of the late commander's debt (though only in the next 1814).

We think, compare, reflect: question No. 2. Prepare an electronic presentation about the Kazan Cathedral in St. Petersburg. Particularly highlight places associated with the name of M.I. Kutuzov.

Title: Cathedral of the Kazan Icon of the Mother of God

Image: Kazan Cathedral

Text: The cathedral was built in 1801-1811 according to the design of the architect Andrei Voronikhin in the Empire style. It was Voronikhin who came up with the original solution. The cathedral was oriented according to the canons of Orthodoxy; it had to be placed sideways towards the street. Then a majestic colonnade was added to the temple, which makes its side part look like a facade.

Image: Kazan Icon of the Mother of God

Text: The cathedral was originally built for the icon of the Kazan Mother of God. She was considered miraculous. It was in front of her that Mikhail Kutuzov prayed while passing through Moscow on his way from Bessarabia to the army operating against Napoleon.

Image: Kutuzov's grave in the Kazan Cathedral

Text: It was decided to bury Prince Kutuzov, who died during a campaign abroad, in the Kazan Cathedral, which after that became a temple military glory. In addition to the commander’s grave, 107 banners captured from the enemy were exhibited there in 1813-1814.

Image: monument to Kutuzov in front of the Kazan Cathedral

Text: In 1837, monuments to Mikhail Kutuzov and Mikhail Barclay de Tolly were erected on the square in front of the cathedral, erected according to the design of the architect Vasily Stasov and the sculptor Boris Orlovsky. The monuments further emphasized the importance of the cathedral as a temple of military glory.

We think, compare, reflect: question No. 3. Using additional information, find out how the battle of Leipzig took place, write (in a notebook) a story on the topic “Battle of the Nations” - decisive battle Napoleonic wars?

The Battle of Leipzig took place on October 16-19, 1813. It was the largest in all history until the First World War. Not only the French fought on Napoleon’s side, but also troops from the kingdoms of Saxony, Württemberg and Italy, the Kingdom of Naples, the Duchy of Warsaw and the Union of the Rhine. The troops of the entire VI anti-French coalition, that is, the Russian and Austrian empires, the kingdoms of Sweden and Prussia, opposed him. That is why this battle is also called the Battle of the Nations - regiments from almost all of Europe met there.

Initially, Napoleon occupied a central position between several armies and attacked the nearest Bohemian, consisting of Russian and Prussian troops, hoping to defeat it before the others arrived. The battle unfolded over a large area, with battles taking place simultaneously over several villages. By the end of the day, the Allied battle lines were barely holding. From 3 o'clock in the afternoon they were basically just defending themselves. Napoleon's troops launched fierce attacks, such as an attempt to break through 10 thousand cavalrymen of Marshal Murat in the area of ​​​​the village of Wachau, which was stopped only thanks to a counterattack by the Life Guards Cossack Regiment. Many historians are convinced that Napoleon could have won the battle on the first day, but he did not have enough daylight hours - it became impossible to continue the attacks in the dark.

On October 17, local battles took place only for some villages; the bulk of the troops were inactive. 100 thousand reinforcements were coming to the allies. 54 thousand of them (the so-called Polish Army of General Bennigsen (that is, the Russian army coming from the territory of Poland)) appeared on this day. At the same time, Napoleon could only count on the corps of Marshal von Düben, who never arrived that day. The Emperor of the French sent a proposal for a truce to the allies and therefore conducted almost no military operations that day - he was waiting for an answer. He was never given an answer.

On the night of October 18, Napoleon's troops retreated to new, more fortified positions. There were about 150 thousand of them, considering that at night the troops of the kingdoms of Saxony and Württemburg went over to the enemy’s side. The Allies sent 300 thousand soldiers into the fire in the morning. They attacked all day, but were unable to inflict a decisive defeat on the enemy. They took some villages, but only pushed back, and did not crush or break through the enemy battle formations.

On October 19, Napoleon's remaining troops began to retreat. And then it turned out that the emperor was counting only on victory; there was only one road left for retreat - to Weissenfels. As usually happened in all wars up to the twentieth century, retreat entailed the greatest losses.

Only 40 thousand people and 325 guns (about half) returned to France via the Rhine. True, the Battle of Hanau also played a role in this, when the retreating emperor tried to stop the corps of the Bavarian general Wrede. The battle as a whole was successful for Paris, but also cost heavy losses.

Napoleon for the second time short time gathered a huge army, and the second time he lost almost all of it. Also, as a result of the retreat after the Battle of the Nations, he lost almost all the captured lands outside of France, so he no longer had any hope of putting such a number of people under arms for the third time. That is why this battle was so important - after it, the advantage in both numbers and resources was always on the side of the allies.

We think, compare, reflect: question No. 4. Using the Internet, find out which historical sources You can learn about the foreign campaigns of the Russian army.

The era of the Napoleonic Wars is quite well documented. At that time, many documents were created and that era was relatively recent (by historical standards), therefore, many evidence of that time has reached modern researchers. The main sources are written.

At that time, people wrote a lot and with pleasure. From the era of the Napoleonic Wars we have many memories of participants in the events. Many of them have been published today. These are sometimes very colorful and emotional stories. Such memoirs are interesting to read, but they cannot be trusted blindly. Not many participants in something large-scale see the whole picture of what is happening as a whole. Besides, who writes the whole truth about themselves, without embellishing anything? Especially if the memories are created immediately for publication?

A somewhat more objective, although equally emotional source is letters. Officers and other participants in the events large quantities they sent them to relatives, patrons, etc. The addressees often kept the letters they received for a long time as a cherished memory - so many of them were preserved in private homes until they ended up in archives and museum collections. The letter is usually addressed to one addressee. It is assumed that no one else will read it, so a person can be more frank there than in official memoirs. But people, even without any intention, are not always objective. In addition, human memory is a complex thing, sometimes distorting even recent memories. Today there is a lot of research on this topic. Therefore, the letters are interesting in themselves, but they, like memoirs, cannot be blindly trusted.

The state archives of different countries contain all the international documents of this era - peace treaties, notes of sovereigns and ambassadors, etc. Also in the archives are preserved many reports of officers to their superiors. The most interesting thing is the reports of the commanders to the monarchs - there the most knowledgeable participants in the events briefly described these events.

But the reports of both commanders and officers of lower ranks were written in order to justify those who wrote them, or to emphasize their merits. Much more objective is current documentation from orders to various units to quartermaster accounts, which give an idea of ​​supplies. Putting together a complete picture from such small pieces of a mosaic is incomparably more difficult than reading the commander’s report, but such a picture is much more truthful: after all, if something is written inaccurately in the order, nothing but problems will result, because no one embellishes anything in such documents.

A separate group consists of material monuments. The vast collections of museums can tell a lot. In addition, the earth still preserves much, and new discoveries are constantly being made. He will tell you a lot about foreign campaigns, from weapons to the simplest household items, which will tell you about the life of soldiers and officers (and in everyday life you can sometimes find the roots of problems that are otherwise inexplicable). This is perhaps the most objective source, but at the same time the most unemotional.

There are many sources about the foreign campaign of the Russian army, but each group has its own shortcomings. The most objective picture is obtained by those researchers who use data from different groups and properly interrelate the data obtained.

In addition, the Russian forces were seriously weakened during the intense pursuit of Napoleon, when they suffered no less than the French troops from the cold and lack of food. In two months of travel from Tarutin to Neman, Kutuzov’s army lost up to two-thirds of its strength (stragglers, sick, killed, wounded, etc.). But Alexander I wanted to put an end to the source of aggression forever. Actually, thanks to the initiative of the Russian emperor, who took on the noble, but (as further experience showed) thankless role of the savior of Europe, European countries (and especially Germany) were freed from French domination. The failures revealed the fragility of the Napoleonic coalition. Prussia was the first to join victorious Russia, betraying its alliance with Bonaparte. In April 1813, M.I. Kutuzov died. By that time, Napoleon had managed to concentrate 200 thousand people through new mobilizations. against the 92,000-strong Russian-Prussian army. True, in the campaign of 1812 France lost the entire flower of its armed forces. Her army now consisted largely of new recruits. However, the Russian army also lost a considerable part of its veterans in last year’s battles.

Campaign of 1813

First stage

At this stage, the struggle for Germany unfolded, on whose territory the French sought to delay the Allied advance and defeat them. In April 1813, Napoleon went on the offensive at the head of an army of 150,000 and moved towards Leipzig. The French vanguard pushed the allies away from the city. At this time, on April 20, southwest of Leipzig, the main allied army under the command of Peter Wittgenstein (92 thousand people) attacked the corps of Marshal Ney (the vanguard of the southern column) near Lutzen, trying to defeat the French forces in parts.

Battle of Lützen (1813). Ney defended himself steadfastly and held his position. Emperor Alexander I and King Frederick William of Prussia were present on the battlefield. This hampered Wittgenstein’s initiative, who lost a lot of time coordinating his actions with the monarchs. Meanwhile, Napoleon with his main forces arrived in time to help Ney. Personally leading a counterattack, the French emperor managed to split the Allied lines by threatening to outflank them. At night, the Russian and Prussian monarchs gave the order to retreat. The lack of cavalry (which died during the campaign against Russia), as well as the fatigue of recruits exhausted by the long march, deprived Napoleon of the opportunity to effectively pursue the retreating troops. The damage to the Russians and Prussians amounted to 12 thousand people. The French lost 15 thousand people. The Battle of Lützen was Napoleon's first major victory of the 1813 campaign. She raised the morale of the French army and allowed it to retake Saxony.

Battle of Bautzen (1813). Napoleon moved east behind the retreating allied army and on May 8-9 gave it the battle of Bautzen. Napoleon's plan consisted of deep flanking of the allied forces, their encirclement and destruction. To do this, the French emperor sent a significant part of his forces, led by Marshal Ney (60 thousand people), to bypass the allied army from the north. With the rest, Napoleon crossed the Spree in several places on May 8. After a stubborn battle, the French pushed back the Allied army and captured Bautzen. However, the next day, Ney, who reached his initial positions, was unable to complete the coverage of the Allied right flank in time. This was largely due to the persistent defense of Russian units under the command of generals Barclay de Tolly and Lansky. Napoleon was in no hurry to throw his reserve into battle, waiting until Ney reached the rear of the allies. This gave Wittgenstein the opportunity to promptly withdraw his troops across the Lebau River and avoid encirclement. The French lack of cavalry did not allow Napoleon to build on his success. The Allies lost 12 thousand people in this battle, the French - 18 thousand people.

Despite the success at Bautzen, the clouds were gathering over Napoleon. Sweden entered the war against France. Her army moved from the north along with the Prussians towards Berlin. His ally, Austria, was also preparing to move against Napoleon. After Bautzen, the Prague Truce was concluded. Both sides used it to raise reserves and prepare for new battles. This completed the first stage of the 1813 campaigns.

Campaign of 1813

Second stage

During the truce, the Allied forces increased significantly. Having completed mobilization, they were joined by Austria, which sought not to miss the opportunity to divide the Napoleonic empire. This is how the 6th anti-French coalition (England, Austria, Prussia, Russia, Sweden) was finally formed. The total number of its troops by the end of summer reached 492 thousand people. (including 173 thousand Russians). They were divided into three armies: the Bohemian under the command of Field Marshal Schwarzenberg (about 237 thousand people), the Silesian under the command of Field Marshal Blücher (100 thousand people) and the Northern under the command of the former Napoleonic marshal Swedish Crown Prince Bernadotte (150 thousand people) . Napoleon by that time had managed to increase the size of his army to 440 thousand people, the main part of which was in Saxony. The new Allied tactics were to avoid meeting with Napoleon and attack first of all the individual units commanded by his marshals. The situation was unfavorable for Napoleon. He found himself sandwiched between three fires in Saxony. From the north, from Berlin, he was threatened by Bernadotte's Army of the North. From the south, from Austria, - the Bohemian Army of Schwarzenberg, from the southeast, from Silesia, - the Silesian Army of Blucher. Napoleon adopted a defensive-offensive campaign plan. He concentrated the strike group of Marshal Oudinot for the attack on Berlin (70 thousand people). Davout's detached corps (35 thousand people) stationed in Hamburg was intended to strike in the rear of the Berlin Allied group. Napoleon left barriers against the Bohemian and Silesian armies - respectively, Saint-Cyr's corps in Dresden and Ney's corps in Katzbach. The emperor himself, with his main forces, positioned himself in the center of his communications in order to come to the aid of each of the groups at the necessary moment. The French campaign against Berlin failed. Oudinot was defeated by Bernadotte's army. Davout, in view of this failure, retreated to Hamburg. Then Napoleon replaced Oudinot with Ney and ordered him to launch a new attack on Berlin. The corps holding back the Silesian army was led by Marshal MacDonald. Meanwhile, the Silesian and Bohemian armies launched an offensive towards Katzbach and Dresden.

Battle of Katzbach (1813). On August 14, on the banks of the Katzbach River, a battle took place between MacDonald’s corps (65 thousand people) and Blucher’s Silesian army (75 thousand people). The French crossed the Katzbach, but were attacked by the allies and, after a fierce oncoming battle, were thrown back across the river. The Russian corps under the command of generals Saken and Langeron distinguished themselves in the battle. They attacked the flank and rear of the French, who were driven into the river and suffered heavy losses during the crossing. The battle took place in a severe thunderstorm. This made shooting impossible, and the troops fought mainly with melee weapons or hand-to-hand. French losses amounted to 30 thousand people. (including 18 thousand prisoners). The Allies lost about 8 thousand people. The defeat of the French at Katzbach forced Napoleon to move to the aid of Macdonald, which eased the position of the Allies after their defeat at Dresden. However, Blücher did not use the success under Katzbach to go on the offensive. Having learned about the approach of Napoleon's troops, the Prussian commander did not accept a new battle and retreated.

Battle of Dresden (1813). On the day of the Battle of Katzbach, August 14, Schwarzenberg's Bohemian Army (227 thousand people), following new tactics, decided to attack the lonely corps of Saint-Cyr in Dresden with the forces of the Russian vanguard of General Wittgenstein. Meanwhile, Napoleon's army quickly and unexpectedly came to the aid of Saint-Cyr, and the number of French troops near Dresden increased to 167 thousand people. Schwarzenberg, who even in this situation had a numerical superiority, ordered to go on the defensive. Due to poor communication between the allied units, the order for this came to the Russian army when it had already moved to attack. Unsupported by their neighbors, the Russians suffered heavy losses and retreated. On August 15, Napoleon, despite the numerical superiority of the Allies, went on the offensive and struck their left flank, where the Austrians stood. They were separated from the center occupied by the Prussians by the Planensky ravine. The Austrians could not withstand the onslaught and were thrown into a ravine. At the same time, Napoleon attacked the center and right flank of the Allies. Firing was hampered by heavy rain, so the troops fought mainly with melee weapons. The Allies hastily retreated, losing about 37 thousand people killed, wounded and captured in two days of fighting. (two thirds of them are Russian). The damage to the French army did not exceed 10 thousand people. In that battle, the famous French commander Moreau, who went over to the side of the Allies, was mortally wounded by a cannonball fragment. They said that he died from a cannon shot fired by Napoleon himself. The Battle of Dresden was the last major French success in the 1813 campaign. However, its significance was negated by the Allied victories at Kulm and Katzbach.

Battle of Kulm (1813). After Dresden, Napoleon with his main forces rushed to the aid of Macdonald, defeated at Katzbach, and sent the corps of General Vandam (37 thousand people) to the rear of the demoralized Bohemian army retreating through the Ore Mountains. The Bohemian army was saved from a new defeat by the Russian corps led by General Osterman-Tolstoy (17 thousand people), who blocked Vandam’s path at Kulm. All day on August 17, the Russians heroically repelled the attacks of superior French forces. In that battle, the Russian corps lost about a thousand people. Osterman-Tolstoy himself was seriously wounded, losing his left arm in the battle. In response to condolences, he replied: “Being wounded for the Fatherland is very pleasant, and as for my left hand, I still have my right hand, which I need for the sign of the cross, a sign of faith in God, in whom I place all my hope.” General Ermolov took command of the corps. On August 18, the main forces of the allied army under the command of General Barclay de Tolly (44 thousand people) came to his aid, and the Prussian corps of General Kleist (35 thousand people) struck Vandamu in the rear. The battle on August 18 ended in the complete defeat of the French. They lost 10 thousand killed and wounded. 12 thousand were captured (including Vandam himself). Allied losses that day amounted to 3.5 thousand people. The Battle of Kulm did not allow Napoleon to build on the Dresden success and seize the initiative. For the battle of Kulm, the Russian participants in the battle received a special award from the Prussian king - the Kulm Cross. A week after Kulm, the defeat of Ney's strike group ended the second French offensive on Berlin. After all these battles there was a temporary lull. The Allies again received large reinforcements - the Polish army led by General Bennigsen (60 thousand people). Bavaria, the largest kingdom of the Union of the Rhine created by France, joined the camp of Napoleon's opponents. This forced Napoleon to switch to defensive tactics. He began to gather his troops towards Leipzig, where he soon fought a battle that decided the fate of the campaign.

Battle of Leipzig (1813). On October 4-7, near Leipzig, the largest battle took place between the armies of the allied states: Russia, Austria, Prussia and Sweden (over 300 thousand people, including 127 thousand Russians) and the troops of Emperor Napoleon (about 200 thousand people). entered into history under the name "Battle of the Nations". Russians, French, Germans, Belgians, Austrians, Dutch, Italians, Poles, Swedes, etc. took part in it. At the beginning of October, only Schwarzenberg’s Bohemian Army (133 thousand people) was located south of Leipzig. Napoleon concentrated 122 thousand people against it, covering the northern direction with the corps of Ney and Marmont (50 thousand people). On the morning of October 4, Schwarzenberg attacked Napoleonic troops defending the southern approaches to Leipzig. The Austrian commander threw only 80 thousand people into battle. (Barclay de Tolly's vanguard) against 120 thousand from the French, and he failed to achieve decisive success. Having exhausted the attackers with active defense, Napoleon launched a powerful counter-offensive at 3 pm. The strike group under the command of Marshal Murat overthrew the advanced Russian-Austrian units and broke through the center of the Allied positions. The French soldiers were already 800 steps from the headquarters, where the Russian emperor was watching the battle. Alexander I was saved from possible capture by a timely counterattack by the Life Guards Cossack Regiment under the command of General Orlov-Denisov. The general breakthrough and triumph of the French was prevented only by the entry into battle of the main reserve - the Russian guard and grenadiers, who on that day snatched the much-needed victory from Napoleon's hands. The French also failed to defeat the Bohemian army because at that moment Blucher’s Silesian army (60 thousand people) arrived from the north to Leipzig, which immediately attacked Marmont’s corps. According to the French marshals, the Prussians showed miracles of courage that day. After a fierce oncoming battle, Blucher's warriors still managed to push the French back from the villages of Meckern and Wiederich, which had changed hands more than once in the evening. The Prussians built defensive fortifications from the corpses piled on top of each other and vowed not to retreat a single step from the captured positions. The total losses in the battle on October 4 exceeded 60 thousand people (30 thousand on each side). The day of October 5 passed in inactivity. Both sides received reinforcements and prepared for the decisive battle. But if Napoleon received only 25 thousand new soldiers, then two armies approached the Allies - Northern (58 thousand people) and Polish (54 thousand people). The superiority of the Allies became overwhelming, and they were able to cover Leipzig with a 15-kilometer in a semicircle (from the north, east and south).

The next day (October 6), the largest battle in the history of the Napoleonic wars broke out. Up to 500 thousand people took part in it on both sides. The Allies launched a concentric attack on the French positions, who desperately defended themselves and constantly launched counterattacks. In the middle of the day, on the southern flank, the French even managed to overturn the attacking Austrian chains. It seemed that they would not be able to hold back the fierce onslaught of the Old Guard, which Napoleon himself led into battle. But at this decisive moment, the allies of the French, the Saxon troops, opened the front and went over to the enemy’s side. There could no longer be any talk of any offensive. With incredible efforts, the French troops managed to close the gap and hold their positions until the end of the day. Napoleonic soldiers, who were at the limit of their capabilities, were no longer able to withstand the next such battle. On the night of October 7, Napoleon ordered the withdrawal to the west along the only surviving bridge across the Elster River. The retreat was covered by the Polish and French units of Marshals Poniatowski and MacDonald. They entered the last battle for the city at dawn on October 7. Only by the middle of the day did the Allies manage to drive the French and Poles out of there. At that moment, the sappers, seeing the Russian cavalrymen breaking through to the river, blew up the bridge over the Elster. By that time, another 28 thousand people did not have time to cross. Panic began. Some soldiers rushed to escape by swimming, others fled. Someone else tried to resist. Poniatowski, who the day before received a marshal's baton from Napoleon, gathered combat-ready units and, in a last impulse, attacked the allies, trying to cover the retreat of his comrades. He was wounded, rushed on horseback into the water and drowned in the cold waters of Elster.

MacDonald was luckier. He overcame the stormy river and got out to the other side. The French suffered a crushing defeat. They lost 80 thousand people, including 20 thousand prisoners. Allied damage exceeded 50 thousand people. (of which 22 thousand are Russians). The Battle of Leipzig was Bonaparte's biggest defeat. She decided the outcome of the 1813 campaign. After it, Napoleon lost his conquests in Germany and was forced to retreat to French territory. Nevertheless, the allied command was unable to cut off the path to the west of the defeated French army (about 100 thousand people). She safely passed the territory of the Confederation of the Rhine, defeating the Bavarian army that crossed her path on October 18 near Ganau (Hanau), and then began to cross the Rhine.

Campaign of 1814

By the beginning of 1814, the Allied forces, ready to attack France across the Rhine, numbered 453 thousand people. (of which 153 thousand are Russian). Napoleon could oppose them along the left bank of the Rhine with only 163 thousand people. On January 1, 1814, on the anniversary of the crossing of the Niemen, the Russian army led by Emperor Alexander I crossed the Rhine. The Allied winter campaign took Napoleon by surprise. Not having time to gather all his forces, he nevertheless hurried towards the allied armies, having only 40 thousand people at hand. Thus began the famous campaign of 1814, which, according to many researchers, became one of Napoleon’s best campaigns. With a small army, a significant part of which were recruits, Bonaparte, skillfully maneuvering, was able to hold back the onslaught of the Allies for two months and win a number of striking victories. The main fighting of this campaign took place in the basin of the Marne and Seine rivers. Napoleon's successful actions in January - February were explained not only by his military leadership talents, but also by the discord in the camp of the allies, who did not have a common opinion on further actions. If Russia and Prussia sought to put an end to Bonaparte, then England and Austria were inclined to compromise. Thus, Austria actually achieved the goals of the war - ousting the French from Germany and Italy. The complete defeat of Napoleon was not part of the plans of the Vienna cabinet, which needed Napoleonic France to curb the growing influence of Prussia and Russia. Dynastic ties also played a role - the daughter of the Austrian emperor, Marie-Louise, was married to Bonaparte. England also did not want France to be crushed, since it was interested in maintaining the balance of power on the continent. London saw Paris as a possible ally in the future struggle against Russia, which was gaining strength. This political alignment predetermined the course of hostilities on the part of the Allies. Thus, the Prussian military leader Blucher acted, albeit not always skillfully, but still decisively. As for the Austrian Field Marshal Schwarzenberg, he showed almost no activity and actually gave Napoleon freedom of maneuver. It is no coincidence that the main battles took place between Napoleon and Blucher. Parallel to the fighting, there was a peace congress in Chatillon, at which the allies tried to persuade the French emperor to a peaceful resolution of the conflict. But he still preferred to seek peace not at the negotiating table, but on the battlefield. In January, Napoleon attacked Blucher's army, which was in the vanguard of the allied forces, and dealt it a sensitive blow at Brienne (January 17). Blücher retreated to join Schwarzenberg. The next day, Napoleon fought at La Rotière with a vastly superior Allied army, and then retreated to Troyes. After these battles, the allies held a council of war, at which they divided their forces. Blucher's army was to advance in the Marne valley. To the south, in the Seine Valley, Schwarzenberg's main army was expected to attack. Napoleon, who had received reinforcements by that time, immediately took advantage of this.

Leaving a 40,000-strong barrier against Schwarzenberg, the French emperor moved with an army of 30,000 against Blucher. Over the course of five days (from January 29 to February 2), Bonaparte won a series of successive brilliant victories (at Champaubert, Montmirail, Château-Thierry and Vauchamp) over the Russian-Prussian corps, which Blücher’s strategic fantasy scattered individually in the Marne valley. Blucher lost a third of his army and was on the verge of complete defeat. This was the peak of Napoleon's success in 1814. According to contemporaries, he outdid himself in a seemingly hopeless situation. Napoleon's success embarrassed the Allies. Schwarzenberg immediately proposed a truce. But inspired by five days of victories, the French emperor rejected the very moderate proposals of the allies. He said that he "found his boots in the Italian campaign." However, his successes were also explained by the inaction of Schwarzenberg, who received secret orders from his emperor not to cross the Seine. Only the persistence of Alexander I forced the Austrian commander to move forward. This saved Blucher from inevitable defeat. Having learned about Schwarzenberg's movement towards Paris, Napoleon left Blucher and immediately set out to meet the main army. Despite his double superiority, Schwarzenberg retreated, ordering Blucher's army to join him. The Austrian field marshal suggested withdrawing beyond the Rhine, and only the persistence of the Russian emperor forced the allies to continue hostilities. On February 26, the allies signed the so-called Treaty of Chaumont, in which they pledged not to conclude either peace or truce with France without general consent. It was decided that now Blucher’s army would become the main one. She again went to the Marne to attack Paris from there. Schwarzenberg's army, which was superior in number, was assigned a secondary role. Having learned about Blucher's movement to the Marne, and then to Paris, Napoleon with an army of 35,000 again moved towards his main enemy. But Bonaparte's second Marne campaign turned out to be less successful than the first. In the fierce Battle of Craon (February 23), Napoleon managed to oust the detachment under the command of Borodin’s hero, General Mikhail Vorontsov. With their persistent resistance, the Russians made it possible for Blücher's main forces to retreat to Lahn. Due to the approaching corps from Bernadotte's army, Blucher was able to increase the number of his troops to 100 thousand people. In the two-day battle of Laon, he was able to repel the onslaught of Napoleon's army three times smaller. While the French emperor was fighting with Blücher, Schwarzenberg took offensive action on February 15, pushing back the corps of Oudinot and MacDonald in the battle of Bar-sur-Aube.

Then Napoleon, leaving Blucher alone, again moved towards Schwarzenberg’s army and gave it a two-day battle near Arcy-sur-Aube (March 8 and 9). Only the caution of the Austrian commander, who did not bring the main forces into battle, allowed Napoleon to avoid a major defeat. Unable to defeat his allies in frontal attacks, Napoleon changed his tactics. He decided to go behind the rear of Schwarzenberg's army and cut off its communication with the Rhine. This plan was based on the experience of past wars with the Austrians, who always reacted painfully to the severance of ties with supply bases. True, the entry of the main French forces behind Schwarzenberg's rear opened up an almost free path for the Allies to Paris, but Napoleon hoped that none of the allied commanders would dare to take such a bold step. Who knows how events would have developed if the Cossacks had not intercepted Napoleon’s letter to his wife, where the French emperor described this plan in detail. After discussing it at the Allied headquarters, the Austrians immediately proposed to retreat to protect their communications and cover the communication with the Rhine. However, the Russians, led by Emperor Alexander I, insisted otherwise. They proposed to set up a small barrier against Napoleon, and to march on Paris with the main forces. This bold move decided the fate of the campaign. Having defeated the corps of Marmont and Mortier in the battle of Fer-Champenoise on March 13, the Russian cavalry cleared the way to the French capital.

Capture of Paris (1814). On March 18, Schwarzenberg's 100,000-strong army approached the walls of Paris. The capital of France was defended by the corps of Marshals Marmont and Mortier, as well as units of the National Guard (about 40 thousand people in total). The Battle of Paris lasted several hours. The most fierce battles took place at the Belleville Gate and at the heights of Montmartre. Here the Russian units distinguished themselves and basically stormed the French capital. Russian Emperor Alexander I also took part in the battle for Paris. He was engaged in the placement of an artillery battery in the area of ​​the Belleville Gate. At 5 pm, after King Joseph (Napoleon's brother) fled the city, Marshal Marmont capitulated.

Peace of Paris (1814). The act of surrender of Paris was drawn up and signed on the part of the Allies by the aide-de-camp of Emperor Alexander I, Colonel M.F. Orlov, who received the rank of general for this. The Allies lost 9 thousand people in this bloodiest battle of the 1814 campaign. (two thirds of them are Russian). The defenders of the French capital lost 4 thousand people. The capture of Paris was a decisive victory for the Allies. In honor of this event, a special medal “For the Capture of Paris” was issued. It was awarded to participants in the Foreign Campaign of the Russian Army. After the fall of the French capital, Napoleon abdicated the throne on March 25 and, by decision of the allies, was exiled to the island of Elba. His empire ceased to exist. On May 18, 1814, the Peace of Paris was concluded between France and members of the anti-French coalition. The combat losses of the Russian army in the Foreign Campaign (1813-1814) exceeded 120 thousand people. The struggle for the liberation of Europe became the bloodiest Russian campaign during the Napoleonic wars.

“Victory, accompanying our banners, hoisted them on the walls of Paris. Our thunder struck at the very gates. The defeated enemy stretches out his hand to reconciliation! No revenge! No enmity! Brave warriors, to you, the first culprits of success, belongs the glory of the world!.. You have earned the right to the gratitude of the Fatherland - I declare it in the name of the Fatherland." These words of Alexander I, spoken after the surrender of France, drew a line under a difficult decade of wars and cruel trials, from which Russia emerged triumphant. “The universe fell silent...” - this is how the poet M.Yu. Lermontov briefly and figuratively described this victory. 1814 was the peak of success for the army created by Peter's reforms.

Congress of Vienna (1815). In 1815, a pan-European congress was held in Vienna to discuss issues of the post-war structure of Europe. On it, Alexander I achieved the annexation of the Duchy of Warsaw, which served as the main springboard for Napoleonic aggression against Russia, to his possessions. Most of this duchy, receiving the name of the Kingdom of Poland, became part of the Russian Empire. In general, Russia’s territorial acquisitions in Europe in the first quarter of the 19th century. ensured the external security of the East Slavic world. The entry into the Finnish Empire moved Swedish possessions away from Russian ones towards the Arctic Circle and the Gulf of Bothnia, which made the north-west of the country practically invulnerable against attack from land. The Polish salient prevented a direct invasion of Russia in the central direction. In the southwest, large water barriers - the Prut and the Dniester - covered the steppe spaces. In fact, under Alexander I, a new “security belt” was created in the west of the empire, which then existed for a whole century.

"From Ancient Rus' to the Russian Empire." Shishkin Sergey Petrovich, Ufa.