Nuclear weapons damaging factors of a nuclear explosion. The main damaging factors of nuclear weapons and the consequences of nuclear explosions

A nuclear explosion is accompanied by the release of a huge amount of energy and can almost instantly disable unprotected people, openly located equipment, structures and various material assets at a considerable distance. The main damaging factors of a nuclear explosion are: shock wave (seismic explosion waves), light radiation, penetrating radiation, electromagnetic pulse, and radioactive contamination of the area.

Shock wave. The shock wave is the main damaging factor of a nuclear explosion. It is a region of strong compression of the medium (air, water), spreading in all directions from the point of explosion at supersonic speed. At the very beginning of the explosion the front boundary shock wave is the surface of the fireball. Then, as it moves away from the center of the explosion, the front boundary (front) of the shock wave breaks away from the fireball, stops glowing and becomes invisible.

The main parameters of the shock wave are excess pressure in the front of the shock wave, the duration of its action and the velocity pressure. When a shock wave approaches any point in space, the pressure and temperature instantly increases in it, and the air begins to move in the direction of propagation of the shock wave. With distance from the center of the explosion, the pressure in the shock wave front decreases. Then it becomes less than atmospheric (rarefaction occurs). At this time, the air begins to move in the direction opposite to the direction of propagation of the shock wave. Once atmospheric pressure is established, air movement stops.

The shock wave travels the first 1000 m in 2 seconds, 2000 m in 5 seconds, 3000 m in 8 seconds.

During this time, a person who sees a flash can take cover and thereby reduce the likelihood of being hit by a wave or avoid it altogether.

The shock wave can injure people, destroy or damage equipment, weapons, engineering structures and property. Lesions, destruction and damage are caused both by the direct impact of the shock wave, and indirectly by the debris of destroyed buildings, structures, trees, etc.

The degree of damage to people and various objects depends on the distance from the explosion site and in what position they are located. Objects located on the surface of the earth are damaged more than those buried.

Light radiation. The light radiation of a nuclear explosion is a stream of radiant energy, the source of which is a luminous area consisting of hot products of the explosion and hot air. The size of the luminous area is proportional to the power of the explosion. Light radiation travels almost instantly (at a speed of 300,000 km / sec) and lasts, depending on the power of the explosion, from one to several seconds. The intensity of light radiation and its damaging effect decrease with increasing distance from the center of the explosion; when the distance increases by 2 and 3 times, the intensity of light radiation decreases by 4 and 9 times.

The effect of light radiation during a nuclear explosion is to damage people and animals with ultraviolet, visible and infrared (heat) rays in the form of burns of varying degrees, as well as charring or ignition of flammable parts and parts of structures, buildings, weapons, military equipment, rubber rollers of tanks and cars, covers, tarpaulins and other types of property and materials. When directly observing an explosion at close range, the light radiation causes damage to the retina of the eyes and can cause loss of vision (totally or partially).

Penetrating radiation. Penetrating radiation is a stream of gamma rays and neutrons emitted into the environment from the zone and cloud of a nuclear explosion. The duration of action of penetrating radiation is only a few seconds, however, it is capable of causing severe damage to personnel in the form of radiation sickness, especially if they are located openly. The main source of gamma radiation is fission fragments of the charge substance located in the explosion zone and radioactive cloud. Gamma rays and neutrons are able to penetrate significant thicknesses various materials. When passing through various materials, the flow of gamma rays is weakened, and the denser the substance, the greater the attenuation of gamma rays. For example, in air gamma rays spread over many hundreds of meters, but in lead only a few centimeters. The neutron flux is most strongly weakened by substances that include light elements (hydrogen, carbon). The ability of materials to attenuate gamma radiation and neutron flux can be characterized by the size of the half-attenuation layer.

The half-attenuation layer is the thickness of the material passing through which gamma rays and neutrons are attenuated by 2 times. When the thickness of the material increases to two layers of half attenuation, the radiation dose decreases by 4 times, to three layers - by 8 times, etc.

Half attenuation layer value for some materials

The attenuation coefficient of penetrating radiation during a ground explosion with a power of 10 thousand tons for a closed armored personnel carrier is 1.1. For a tank - 6, for a full-profile trench - 5. Under-parapet niches and blocked cracks weaken radiation by 25-50 times; The dugout coating attenuates radiation by 200-400 times, and the shelter coating by 2000-3000 times. A 1 m thick wall of a reinforced concrete structure attenuates radiation by approximately 1000 times; tank armor weakens radiation by 5-8 times.

Radioactive contamination of the area. Radioactive contamination of the area, atmosphere and various objects during nuclear explosions is caused by fission fragments, induced activity and the unreacted part of the charge.

The main source of radioactive contamination during nuclear explosions are radioactive products of nuclear reactions - fission fragments of uranium or plutonium nuclei. The radioactive products of a nuclear explosion that settle on the surface of the earth emit gamma rays, beta and alpha particles (radioactive radiation).

Radioactive particles fall out of the cloud and contaminate the area, creating a radioactive trail (Fig. 6) at distances of tens and hundreds of kilometers from the center of the explosion.

Rice. 6. Contamination zones in the wake of a nuclear explosion

According to the degree of danger, the contaminated area following the cloud of a nuclear explosion is divided into four zones.

Zone A – moderate infestation. The radiation dose until the complete decay of radioactive substances at the outer boundary of the zone is 40 rad, at the inner boundary - 400 rad.

Zone B – severe infection – 400-1200 rad.

Zone B – dangerous contamination – 1200-4000 rad.

Zone D – extremely dangerous contamination – 4000-7000 rad.

In contaminated areas, people are exposed to radioactive radiation, as a result of which they may develop radiation sickness. No less dangerous is the ingress of radioactive substances into the body, as well as onto the skin. Thus, if even small amounts of radioactive substances come into contact with the skin, especially the mucous membranes of the mouth, nose and eyes, radioactive damage can occur.

Weapons and equipment contaminated with radioactive substances pose a certain danger to personnel if handled without protective equipment. In order to prevent damage to personnel from the radioactivity of contaminated equipment, permissible levels contamination with products of nuclear explosions that do not lead to radiation injury. If the infection is higher acceptable standards, then it is necessary to remove radioactive dust from surfaces, i.e., to decontaminate them.

Radioactive contamination, unlike other damaging factors, lasts for a long time (hours, days, years) and over large areas. It doesn't have external signs and is detected only with the help of special dosimetric instruments.

Electromagnetic pulse. The electromagnetic fields accompanying nuclear explosions are called electromagnetic pulses (EMPs).

In ground and low air explosions, the damaging effects of EMP are observed at a distance of several kilometers from the center of the explosion. During a high-altitude nuclear explosion, EMR fields can arise in the explosion zone and at altitudes of 20-40 km from the earth's surface.

The damaging effect of EMR manifests itself, first of all, in relation to radio-electronic and electrical equipment located in weapons and military equipment and other objects. Under the influence of EMR, electric currents and voltages are induced in the specified equipment, which can cause insulation breakdown, damage to transformers, damage to semiconductor devices, burnout of fuse links and other elements of radio engineering devices.

Seismic blast waves in the ground. During air and ground nuclear explosions, seismic explosion waves are formed in the ground, which are mechanical vibrations of the ground. These waves propagate over long distances from the epicenter of the explosion, cause deformation of the soil and are a significant damaging factor for underground, mine and pit structures.

The source of seismic blast waves in an air explosion is an air shock wave acting on the surface of the earth. In a ground explosion, seismic explosion waves are formed both as a result of the action of an air shock wave and as a result of the transfer of energy to the ground directly at the center of the explosion.

Seismic blast waves form dynamic loads on structures, building elements, etc. Structures and their structures undergo oscillatory movements. The stresses arising in them, when reaching certain values, lead to destruction of structural elements. Vibrations transmitted from building structures for weapons placed in buildings, military equipment and internal equipment may cause damage. Personnel may also be affected as a result of overloads and acoustic waves caused by oscillatory movement elements of structures.

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Nuclear weapons are designed to destroy enemy personnel and military facilities. The most important damaging factors for people are shock wave, light radiation and penetrating radiation; the destructive effect on military targets is mainly due to the shock wave and secondary thermal effects.

When conventional explosives detonate, almost all the energy is released in the form kinetic energy, which almost completely transforms into shock wave energy. In nuclear and thermonuclear explosions, the fission reaction converts about 50% of the total energy into shock wave energy, and about 35% into light radiation. The remaining 15% of the energy is released in the form different types penetrating radiation.

During a nuclear explosion, a highly heated, luminous, approximately spherical mass is formed - the so-called fireball. It immediately begins to expand, cool and rise. As it cools, the vapors in the fireball condense to form a cloud containing solid particles of bomb material and water droplets, giving it the appearance of a normal cloud. A strong air draft arises, sucking moving material from the surface of the earth into the atomic cloud. The cloud rises, but after a while it begins to slowly descend. Having dropped to a level at which its density is close to that of the surrounding air, the cloud expands, taking on a characteristic mushroom shape.

As soon as a fireball appears, it begins to emit light radiation, including infrared and ultraviolet. There are two flashes of light emission: an intense but short duration explosion, usually too short to cause significant casualties, and then a second, less intense but longer lasting one. The second outbreak is responsible for almost all human losses caused by light radiation.

The release of a huge amount of energy that occurs during the fission chain reaction leads to rapid heating of the substance of the explosive device to temperatures of the order of 107 K. At such temperatures, the substance is an intensely emitting ionized plasma. At this stage, about 80% of the explosion energy is released in the form of electromagnetic radiation energy. The maximum energy of this radiation, called primary, falls in the X-ray range of the spectrum. The further course of events during a nuclear explosion is determined mainly by the nature of the interaction of primary thermal radiation with the environment surrounding the epicenter of the explosion, as well as the properties of this environment.

If the explosion is carried out at a low altitude in the atmosphere, the primary radiation of the explosion is absorbed by the air at distances of the order of several meters. Absorption of X-rays results in the formation of an explosion cloud characterized by very high temperatures. In the first stage, this cloud grows in size due to the radiative transfer of energy from the hot interior of the cloud to its cold surroundings. The temperature of the gas in a cloud is approximately constant throughout its volume and decreases as it increases. At the moment when the temperature of the cloud drops to approximately 300 thousand degrees, the speed of the cloud front decreases to values ​​comparable to the speed of sound. At this moment, a shock wave is formed, the front of which “breaks off” from the boundary of the explosion cloud. For a 20 kt explosion, this event occurs approximately 0.1 ms after the explosion. The radius of the explosion cloud at this moment is about 12 meters.

The shock wave, formed in the early stages of the existence of an explosion cloud, is one of the main damaging factors of an atmospheric nuclear explosion. The main characteristics of a shock wave are the peak overpressure and the dynamic pressure at the wave front. The ability of objects to withstand the effects of a shock wave depends on many factors, such as the presence of load-bearing elements, construction material, and orientation relative to the front. An overpressure of 1 atm (15 psi) occurring 2.5 km from a 1 Mt ground explosion could destroy a multi-story reinforced concrete building. To withstand the effects of a shock wave, military installations, especially ballistic missile silos, are designed to withstand excess pressures of hundreds of atmospheres. The radius of the area in which a similar pressure is created during an explosion of 1 Mt is about 200 meters. Accordingly, the accuracy of attacking ballistic missiles plays a special role in hitting fortified targets.

At the initial stages of the existence of a shock wave, its front is a sphere with its center at the point of explosion. After the front reaches the surface, a reflected wave is formed. Since the reflected wave propagates in the medium through which the direct wave has passed, its speed of propagation turns out to be slightly higher. As a result, at some distance from the epicenter, two waves merge near the surface, forming a front characterized by approximately twice the excess pressure values. Since for an explosion of a given power the distance at which such a front is formed depends on the height of the explosion, the height of the explosion can be selected to obtain maximum values ​​of excess pressure at certain area. If the purpose of the explosion is to destroy fortified military installations, the optimal height of the explosion is very low, which inevitably leads to the formation of a significant amount of radioactive fallout.

The shock wave in most cases is the main damaging factor of a nuclear explosion. It is similar in nature to the shock wave of a conventional explosion, but lasts longer and has much greater destructive power. The shock wave of a nuclear explosion can injure people, destroy structures and damage military equipment at a considerable distance from the center of the explosion.

A shock wave is a region of strong air compression propagating with high speed in all directions from the center of the explosion. Its propagation speed depends on the air pressure at the front of the shock wave; near the center of the explosion it is several times higher than the speed of sound, but with increasing distance from the explosion site it drops sharply. In the first 2 seconds, the shock wave travels about 1000 m, in 5 seconds - 2000 m, in 8 seconds - about 3000 m.

The damaging effect of a shock wave on people and the destructive effect on military equipment, engineering structures and materiel are primarily determined by the excess pressure and speed of air movement in its front. Unprotected people can, in addition, be affected by fragments of glass flying at great speed and fragments of destroyed buildings, falling trees, as well as scattered parts of military equipment, clods of earth, stones and other objects set in motion by the high-speed pressure of the shock wave. The greatest indirect damage will be observed in populated areas and forests; in these cases, troop losses may be greater than from the direct action of the shock wave.

The shock wave can also cause damage in enclosed spaces, penetrating through cracks and holes. Damages caused by a shock wave are divided into mild, moderate, severe and extremely severe. Mild lesions are characterized by temporary damage to the hearing organs, general mild contusion, bruises and dislocations of the limbs. Severe lesions are characterized by severe contusion of the entire body; In this case, damage to the brain and abdominal organs, severe bleeding from the nose and ears, severe fractures and dislocations of the limbs may occur. The degree of injury from the shock wave depends primarily on the power and type of nuclear explosion. With an air explosion with a power of 20 kT, minor injuries to people are possible at distances of up to 2.5 km, medium - up to 2 km, severe - up to 1.5 km from the epicenter of the explosion.

As the caliber of a nuclear weapon increases, the radius of shock wave damage increases in proportion to the cube root of the explosion power. During an underground explosion, a shock wave occurs in the ground, and during an underwater explosion, it occurs in water. In addition, with these types of explosions, part of the energy is spent creating a shock wave in the air. The shock wave, propagating in the ground, causes damage to underground structures, sewers, and water pipes; when it spreads in water, damage to the underwater parts of ships located even at a considerable distance from the explosion site is observed.

The intensity of the thermal radiation of the explosion cloud is entirely determined by the apparent temperature of its surface. For some time, the air heated as a result of the passage of the blast wave masks the explosion cloud, absorbing the radiation emitted by it, so that the temperature of the visible surface of the explosion cloud corresponds to the temperature of the air behind the shock wave front, which drops as the size of the front increases. About 10 milliseconds after the start of the explosion, the temperature in the front drops to 3000°C and it again becomes transparent to the radiation of the explosion cloud. The temperature of the visible surface of the explosion cloud begins to rise again and approximately 0.1 seconds after the start of the explosion reaches approximately 8000°C (for an explosion with a power of 20 kt). At this moment, the radiation power of the explosion cloud is maximum. After this, the temperature of the visible surface of the cloud and, accordingly, the energy emitted by it quickly drops. As a result, the bulk of the radiation energy is emitted in less than one second.

The light emitted from a nuclear explosion is a stream of radiant energy, including ultraviolet, visible and infrared radiation. The source of light radiation is a luminous area consisting of hot explosion products and hot air. The brightness of light radiation in the first second is several times greater than the brightness of the Sun.

The absorbed energy of light radiation turns into heat, which leads to heating of the surface layer of the material. The heat can be so intense that it can char or ignite combustible material and crack or melt non-combustible material, which can result in huge fires.

The human skin also absorbs the energy of light radiation, due to which it can heat up to a high temperature and receive burns. First of all, burns occur on open areas of the body facing the direction of the explosion. If you look in the direction of the explosion with unprotected eyes, eye damage may occur, leading to complete loss of vision.

Burns caused by light radiation are no different from ordinary burns caused by fire or boiling water; they are stronger the shorter the distance to the explosion and the greater the power of the ammunition. In an air explosion, the damaging effect of light radiation is greater than in a ground explosion of the same power.

Depending on the perceived light pulse, burns are divided into three degrees. First-degree burns manifest themselves as superficial skin lesions: redness, swelling, and pain. With second degree burns, blisters appear on the skin. With third degree burns, skin necrosis and ulceration occur.

With an air explosion of ammunition with a power of 20 kT and an atmospheric transparency of about 25 km, first-degree burns will be observed within a radius of 4.2 km from the center of the explosion; with the explosion of a charge with a power of 1 MgT, this distance will increase to 22.4 km. second degree burns appear at distances of 2.9 and 14.4 km and third degree burns at distances of 2.4 and 12.8 km, respectively, for ammunition with a power of 20 kT and 1 MgT.

The formation of a pulse of thermal radiation and the formation of a shock wave occurs at the earliest stages of the existence of the explosion cloud. Since the cloud contains the bulk of the radioactive substances formed during the explosion, its further evolution determines the formation of a trace of radioactive fallout. After the explosion cloud cools down so much that it no longer emits in the visible region of the spectrum, the process of increasing its size continues due to thermal expansion and it begins to rise upward. As the cloud rises, it carries with it a significant mass of air and soil. Within a few minutes, the cloud reaches a height of several kilometers and can reach the stratosphere. The rate at which radioactive fallout occurs depends on the size of the solid particles on which it condenses. If, during its formation, the explosion cloud reaches the surface, the amount of soil entrained as the cloud rises will be quite large and radioactive substances will settle mainly on the surface of soil particles, the size of which can reach several millimeters. Such particles fall to the surface in relative proximity to the epicenter of the explosion, and their radioactivity practically does not decrease during the fallout.

If the explosion cloud does not touch the surface, the radioactive substances contained in it condense into much smaller particles with characteristic sizes of 0.01-20 microns. Since such particles can exist for quite a long time in upper layers atmosphere, they are scattered over a very large area and during the time elapsed before they fall to the surface, they manage to lose a significant portion of their radioactivity. In this case, the radioactive trace is practically not observed. Minimum height, the explosion of which does not lead to the formation of a radioactive trace, depends on the power of the explosion and is approximately 200 meters for an explosion with a power of 20 kt and about 1 km for an explosion with a power of 1 Mt.

Another damaging factor of nuclear weapons is penetrating radiation, which is a stream of high-energy neutrons and gamma rays generated both directly during the explosion and as a result of the decay of fission products. Along with neutrons and gamma rays, nuclear reactions also produce alpha and beta particles, the influence of which can be ignored due to the fact that they are very effectively delayed at distances of the order of several meters. Neutrons and gamma rays continue to be released for quite a long time after the explosion, affecting the radiation situation. The actual penetrating radiation usually includes neutrons and gamma rays appearing during the first minute after the explosion. This definition is due to the fact that in a time of about one minute, the explosion cloud manages to rise to a height sufficient for the radiation flux on the surface to become practically invisible.

Gamma quanta and neutrons spread in all directions from the center of the explosion for hundreds of meters. With increasing distance from the explosion, the number of gamma quanta and neutrons passing through a unit surface decreases. During underground and underwater nuclear explosions, the effect of penetrating radiation extends over distances much shorter than during ground and air explosions, which is explained by the absorption of the flow of neutrons and gamma rays by water.

The zones affected by penetrating radiation during explosions of medium- and high-power nuclear weapons are somewhat smaller than the zones affected by shock waves and light radiation. For ammunition with a small TNT equivalent (1000 tons or less), on the contrary, the damage zones of penetrating radiation exceed the zones of damage by shock waves and light radiation.

The damaging effect of penetrating radiation is determined by the ability of gamma quanta and neutrons to ionize the atoms of the medium in which they propagate. Passing through living tissue, gamma rays and neutrons ionize atoms and molecules that make up cells, which lead to disruption of the vital functions of individual organs and systems. Under the influence of ionization in the body there arise biological processes cell death and decomposition. As a result, affected people develop a specific disease called radiation sickness.

To assess the ionization of atoms in the medium, and therefore the damaging effect of penetrating radiation on a living organism, the concept of radiation dose (or radiation dose) was introduced, the unit of measurement of which is the x-ray (r). A radiation dose of 1 r corresponds to the formation of approximately 2 billion ion pairs in one cubic centimeter of air.

Depending on the radiation dose, there are three degrees of radiation sickness:

The first (mild) occurs when a person receives a dose of 100 to 200 rubles. It is characterized by general weakness, mild nausea, short-term dizziness, increased sweating; Personnel who receive such a dose usually do not fail. The second (medium) degree of radiation sickness develops when receiving a dose of 200-300 r; in this case, signs of damage - headache, fever, gastrointestinal upset - appear more sharply and faster, and personnel in most cases fail. The third (severe) degree of radiation sickness occurs at a dose of more than 300 r; it is characterized by severe headaches, nausea, severe general weakness, dizziness and other ailments; severe form often leads to death.

The intensity of the flow of penetrating radiation and the distance at which its action can cause significant damage depend on the power of the explosive device and its design. The dose of radiation received at a distance of about 3 km from the epicenter of a thermonuclear explosion with a power of 1 Mt is sufficient to cause serious biological changes in the human body. A nuclear explosive device can be specially designed to increase the damage caused by penetrating radiation compared to the damage caused by other damaging factors (neutron weapons).

The processes occurring during an explosion at a significant altitude, where the air density is low, are somewhat different from those occurring during an explosion at low altitudes. First of all, due to the low density of air, absorption of primary thermal radiation occurs over much greater distances and the size of the explosion cloud can reach tens of kilometers. Significant Impact The process of formation of an explosion cloud begins to be influenced by the processes of interaction of ionized particles of the cloud with the Earth’s magnetic field. Ionized particles formed during the explosion also have a noticeable effect on the state of the ionosphere, making it difficult, and sometimes even impossible, for the propagation of radio waves (this effect can be used to blind radar stations).

One of the results of a high-altitude explosion is the emergence of a powerful electromagnetic pulse spreading over a very large area. An electromagnetic pulse also occurs as a result of an explosion at low altitudes, but the strength of the electromagnetic field in this case quickly decreases as one moves away from the epicenter. In the case of a high-altitude explosion, the area of ​​action of the electromagnetic pulse covers almost the entire surface of the Earth visible from the point of the explosion.

An electromagnetic pulse occurs as a result of strong currents in air ionized by radiation and light. Although it has no effect on humans, exposure to EMR damages electronic equipment, electrical appliances and power lines. In addition, the large number of ions generated after the explosion interferes with the propagation of radio waves and the operation of radar stations. This effect can be used to blind a missile warning system.

The strength of the EMP varies depending on the height of the explosion: in the range below 4 km it is relatively weak, stronger with an explosion of 4-30 km, and especially strong with an explosion height of more than 30 km

The occurrence of EMR occurs as follows:

1. Penetrating radiation emanating from the center of the explosion passes through extended conductive objects.

2. Gamma quanta are scattered by free electrons, which leads to the appearance of a rapidly changing current pulse in conductors.

3. The field caused by the current pulse is emitted into the surrounding space and propagates at the speed of light, distorting and attenuating over time.

Under the influence of EMR, high voltage is induced in all conductors. This leads to insulation breakdowns and failure of electrical devices - semiconductor devices, various electronic units, transformer substations, etc. Unlike semiconductors, vacuum tubes are not exposed to strong radiation and electromagnetic fields, so they continued to be used by the military for a long time.

Radioactive contamination is the result of a significant amount of radioactive substances falling out of a cloud lifted into the air. The three main sources of radioactive substances in the explosion zone are fission products of nuclear fuel, the unreacted part of the nuclear charge, and radioactive isotopes formed in the soil and other materials under the influence of neutrons (induced activity).

As the explosion products settle on the surface of the earth in the direction of movement of the cloud, they create a radioactive area called a radioactive trace. Density of contamination in the area of ​​the explosion and along the movement trail radioactive cloud decreases with distance from the center of the explosion. The shape of the trace can be very diverse, depending on the surrounding conditions.

The radioactive products of an explosion emit three types of radiation: alpha, beta and gamma. The time of their impact on the environment is very long. Due to the natural decay process, radioactivity decreases, especially sharply in the first hours after the explosion. Damage to people and animals due to radiation contamination can be caused by external and internal irradiation. Severe cases may be accompanied by radiation sickness and death. Installing a cobalt shell on the warhead of a nuclear charge causes contamination of the area with the dangerous isotope 60Co (a hypothetical dirty bomb).

nuclear weapon environmental explosion

Nuclear explosion-- an uncontrolled process of releasing large amounts of thermal and radiant energy as a result of a chain nuclear fission reaction or thermonuclear fusion reaction in a very short period of time.

By their origin, nuclear explosions are either a product of human activity on Earth and in near-Earth space, or natural processes on certain types of stars. Artificial nuclear explosions are powerful weapons designed to destroy large ground and protected underground military facilities, concentrations of enemy troops and equipment (mainly tactical nuclear weapons), as well as the complete suppression and destruction of the opposing side: the destruction of large and small settlements with civilian populations and strategic industry (Strategic nuclear weapons).

A nuclear explosion can have peaceful uses:

· movement of large masses of soil during construction;

· collapse of obstacles in the mountains;

· ore crushing;

· increasing oil recovery from oil fields;

· shutting off emergency oil and gas wells;

· search for minerals by seismic sounding of the earth's crust;

· the driving force for nuclear and thermonuclear pulsed spacecraft (for example, the unrealized project of the Orion spacecraft and the project of the interstellar automatic probe Daedalus);

· scientific research: seismology, internal structure of the Earth, plasma physics and much more.

Depending on the tasks solved with the use of nuclear weapons, nuclear explosions are divided into the following types:

Ш high altitude (above 30 km);

Ш air (below 30 km, but does not touch the surface of the earth/water);

Ш ground/surface (touches the surface of the earth/water);

Ш underground/underwater (directly underground or underwater).

Damaging factors of a nuclear explosion

When a nuclear weapon explodes, a colossal amount of energy is released in millionths of a second. The temperature rises to several million degrees, and the pressure reaches billions of atmospheres. High temperature and pressure cause light radiation and a powerful shock wave. Along with this, the explosion of a nuclear weapon is accompanied by the emission of penetrating radiation, consisting of a flow of neutrons and gamma rays. The explosion cloud contains a huge amount of radioactive products - fission fragments of a nuclear explosive that fall along the path of the cloud, resulting in radioactive contamination of the area, air and objects. The uneven movement of electric charges in the air, which occurs under the influence of ionizing radiation, leads to the formation of an electromagnetic pulse.

The main damaging factors of a nuclear explosion are:

Ш shock wave;

Ш light radiation;

Ш penetrating radiation;

Ш radioactive contamination;

Ш electromagnetic pulse.

The shock wave of a nuclear explosion is one of the main damaging factors. Depending on the medium in which the shock wave arises and propagates - in air, water or soil, it is called, respectively, an air wave, a shock wave in water and a seismic blast wave (in soil).

Air shock wave called a region of sharp compression of air, spreading in all directions from the center of the explosion at supersonic speed.

The shock wave causes open and closed injuries of varying severity in humans. The indirect impact of the shock wave also poses a great danger to humans. By destroying buildings, shelters and shelters, it can cause serious injury.

Excessive pressure and the propelling action of high-speed pressure are also the main reasons for the failure of various structures and equipment. Damage to equipment as a result of being thrown back (when it hits the ground) can be more significant than from excess pressure.

Light radiation from a nuclear explosion is electromagnetic radiation, including the visible ultraviolet and infrared regions of the spectrum.

The energy of light radiation is absorbed by the surfaces of illuminated bodies, which heat up. The heating temperature may be such that the surface of the object will char, melt or ignite. Light radiation can cause burns to exposed areas of the human body, and in the dark - temporary blindness.

Source of light radiation is the luminous area of ​​the explosion, consisting of vapors of structural materials of ammunition and air heated to a high temperature, and in case of ground explosions - evaporated soil. Dimensions of the luminous area and the time of its glow depend on the power, and the shape - on the type of explosion.

Action time light radiation from ground and air explosions with a power of 1 thousand tons is approximately 1 s, 10 thousand tons - 2.2 s, 100 thousand tons - 4.6 s, 1 million tons - 10 s. The dimensions of the luminous area also increase with increasing power of the explosion and range from 50 to 200 m at ultra-low power nuclear explosions and 1-2 thousand m at large ones.

Burns open areas of the human body of the second degree (formation of bubbles) are observed at a distance of 400-1 thousand m at low powers of a nuclear explosion, 1.5-3.5 thousand m at medium and more than 10 thousand m at large ones.

Penetrating radiation is a stream of gamma radiation and neutrons emitted from the zone of a nuclear explosion.

Gamma radiation and neutron radiation are different in their physical properties. What they have in common is that they can spread in the air in all directions over a distance of up to 2.5-3 km. Passing through biological tissue, gamma and neutron radiation ionize the atoms and molecules that make up living cells, as a result of which normal metabolism is disrupted and the nature of the vital activity of cells, individual organs and body systems changes, which leads to the emergence of a specific disease - radiation sickness.

The source of penetrating radiation is nuclear reactions fission and fusion occurring in ammunition at the time of explosion, as well as radioactive decay of fission fragments.

The duration of action of penetrating radiation is determined by the time the explosion cloud rises to such a height at which gamma radiation and neutrons are absorbed by the thickness of the air and do not reach the ground (2.5-3 km), and is 15-20 s.

The degree, depth and shape of radiation injuries that develop in biological objects when exposed to ionizing radiation depend on the amount of absorbed radiation energy. To characterize this indicator, the concept is used absorbed dose, i.e. energy absorbed per unit mass of the irradiated substance.

The damaging effect of penetrating radiation on people and their performance depend on the radiation dose and exposure time.

Radioactive contamination of the area, the surface layer of the atmosphere and airspace occurs as a result of the passage of a radioactive cloud from a nuclear explosion or a gas-aerosol cloud from a radiation accident.

Sources of radioactive contamination are:

in a nuclear explosion:

* fission products of nuclear explosives (Pu-239, U-235, U-238);

* radioactive isotopes (radionuclides) formed in soil and other materials under the influence of neutrons - induced activity;

* unreacted part of the nuclear charge;

During a ground-based nuclear explosion, the luminous area touches the surface of the earth and hundreds of tons of soil instantly evaporate. The air currents rising behind the fireball pick up and raise a significant amount of dust. As a result, a powerful cloud is formed, consisting of a huge number of radioactive and inactive particles, the sizes of which range from several microns to several millimeters.

On the trail of a cloud of a nuclear explosion, depending on the degree of contamination and the danger of injuring people, it is customary to plot four zones on maps (diagrams) (A, B, C, D).

Electromagnetic pulse.

Nuclear explosions in the atmosphere and in higher layers lead to the formation of powerful electromagnetic fields with wavelengths from 1 to 1000 m or more. Due to their short-term existence, these fields are usually called an electromagnetic pulse (EMP). An electromagnetic pulse also occurs as a result of an explosion at low altitudes, but the strength of the electromagnetic field in this case quickly decreases as one moves away from the epicenter. In the case of a high-altitude explosion, the area of ​​action of the electromagnetic pulse covers almost the entire surface of the Earth visible from the point of the explosion. The damaging effect of EMR is caused by the occurrence of voltages and currents in conductors of various lengths located in the air, ground, and in electronic and radio equipment. EMR in the specified equipment induces electric currents and voltages, which cause insulation breakdown, damage to transformers, combustion of spark gaps, semiconductor devices, and burnout of fuse links. The communications, signaling and control lines of missile launch complexes are most susceptible to EMR, command posts.

Introduction

1.1 Shock wave

1.2 Light emission

1.3 Radiation

1.4 Electromagnetic pulse

2. Protective structures

Conclusion

References

Introduction

A nuclear weapon is a weapon whose destructive effect is caused by the energy released during nuclear fission and fusion reactions. It is the most powerful look weapons mass destruction. Nuclear weapons are intended for mass destruction of people, destruction or destruction of administrative and industrial centers, various objects, structures and equipment.

The damaging effect of a nuclear explosion depends on the power of the ammunition, the type of explosion, and the type of nuclear charge. The power of a nuclear weapon is characterized by its TNT equivalent. Its unit of measurement is t, kt, Mt.

In powerful explosions, characteristic of modern thermonuclear charges, the shock wave causes the greatest destruction, and the light radiation spreads farthest.

1. Damaging factors nuclear weapons

During a nuclear explosion, there are five damaging factors: shock wave, light radiation, radioactive contamination, penetrating radiation and electromagnetic pulse. The energy of a nuclear explosion is distributed approximately like this: 50% is spent on the shock wave, 35% on light radiation, 10% on radioactive contamination, 4% on penetrating radiation and 1% on the electromagnetic pulse. High temperature and pressure cause a powerful shock wave and light radiation. The explosion of a nuclear weapon is accompanied by the release of penetrating radiation, consisting of a stream of neutrons and gamma quanta. The explosion cloud contains a huge amount of radioactive products - fission fragments of nuclear fuel. Along the path of movement of this cloud, radioactive products fall out of it, resulting in radioactive contamination of the area, objects and air. The uneven movement of electric charges in the air under the influence of ionizing radiation leads to the formation of an electromagnetic pulse. This is how the main damaging factors of a nuclear explosion are formed. The phenomena accompanying a nuclear explosion largely depend on the conditions and properties of the environment in which it occurs.

1.1 Shock wave

Shock wave- this is an area of ​​​​sharp compression of the medium, which spreads in the form of a spherical layer in all directions from the explosion site at supersonic speed. Depending on the propagation medium, a shock wave is distinguished in air, water or soil.

Air shock wave- this is the zone compressed air, spreading from the center of the explosion. Its source is high blood pressure and temperature at the point of explosion. The main parameters of the shock wave that determine its damaging effect:

· excess pressure in the shock wave front, ?Рф, Pa (kgf/cm2);

· speed pressure, ?Rsk, Pa (kgf/cm2).

Near the center of the explosion, the speed of propagation of the shock wave is several times higher than the speed of sound in air. As the distance from the explosion increases, the speed of wave propagation quickly decreases and the shock wave weakens. An air shock wave during a nuclear explosion of average power travels approximately 1000 meters in 1.4 seconds, 2000 meters in 4 seconds, 3000 meters in 7 seconds, 5000 meters in 12 seconds.

Before the front of the shock wave, the pressure in the air is equal to atmospheric P0. With the arrival of the shock wave front at a given point in space, the pressure sharply (jumps) increases and reaches a maximum, then, as the wave front moves away, the pressure gradually decreases and after a certain period of time becomes equal to atmospheric pressure. The resulting layer of compressed air is called the compression phase. During this period, the shock wave has the greatest destructive effect. Subsequently, continuing to decrease, the pressure becomes below atmospheric pressure and the air begins to move in the direction opposite to the propagation of the shock wave, that is, towards the center of the explosion. This zone of low pressure is called the rarefaction phase.

Directly behind the shock wave front, in the compression region, air masses move. Due to the braking of these air masses, when they meet an obstacle, the pressure of the high-speed pressure of the air shock wave arises.

Velocity head? Rskis a dynamic load created by an air flow moving behind the shock wave front. The propelling effect of high-speed air pressure has a noticeable effect in the zone with excess pressure of more than 50 kPa, where the speed of air movement is more than 100 m/s. At pressures less than 50 kPa the influence ?Rsk is falling quickly.

The main parameters of the shock wave, characterizing its destructive and damaging effect: excess pressure in the front of the shock wave; velocity head pressure; the duration of the wave action is the duration of the compression phase and the speed of the shock wave front.

The shock wave in water during an underwater nuclear explosion is qualitatively similar to the shock wave in the air. However, at the same distances, the pressure in the shock wave front in water is much greater than in air, and the action time is shorter.

During a ground-based nuclear explosion, part of the explosion energy is spent on the formation of a compression wave in the ground. Unlike a shock wave in air, it is characterized by a less sharp increase in pressure at the wave front, as well as a slower weakening behind the front. When a nuclear weapon explodes in the ground, the main part of the explosion energy is transferred to the surrounding mass of soil and produces a powerful shaking of the ground, reminiscent of an earthquake in its effect.

When exposed to people, a shock wave causes injuries (injuries) of varying degrees of severity: direct - from excess pressure and high-velocity pressure; indirect - from impacts from fragments of enclosing structures, glass fragments, etc.

According to the severity of damage to people from the shock wave, they are divided into:

· on the lungs with ?Рф = 20-40 kPa (0.2-0.4 kgf/cm2), (dislocations, bruises, ringing in the ears, dizziness, headache);

· average at ?Рф = 40-60 kPa (0.4-0.6 kgf/cm2), (contusions, blood from the nose and ears, dislocations of the limbs);

· heavy with ?Russia? 60-100 kPa (severe contusions, damage to hearing and internal organs, loss of consciousness, bleeding from the nose and ears, fractures);

damaging factor nuclear weapons

· fatal when ?Russia? 100 kPa. There are ruptures of internal organs, broken bones, internal bleeding, concussion, and prolonged loss of consciousness.

The nature of destruction of industrial buildings depending on the load created by the shock wave. Overall rating destruction caused by the shock wave of a nuclear explosion is usually given according to the severity of this destruction:

· weak destruction at ?Russia? 10-20 kPa (damage to windows, doors, light partitions, basements and lower floors are completely preserved. It is safe to be in the building and it can be used after routine repairs);

· average damage at ?Рф = 20-30 kPa (cracks in load-bearing structural elements, collapse of individual sections of walls. Basements are preserved. After clearing and repairs, part of the premises on the lower floors can be used. Restoration of buildings is possible during major repairs);

· severe damage during ?Russia? 30-50 kPa (collapse of 50% of building structures. The use of premises becomes impossible, and repair and restoration are most often impractical);

· complete destruction at ?Russia? 50 kPa (destruction of all structural elements of buildings. It is impossible to use the building. Basements in case of severe and complete destruction can be preserved and after the rubble is cleared, they can be partially used).

Guaranteed protection of people from the shock wave is provided by sheltering them in shelters. In the absence of shelters, anti-radiation shelters, underground workings, natural shelters and terrain are used.

1.2 Light emission

Light radiationis a flow of radiant energy (ultraviolet and infrared rays). The source of light radiation is the luminous area of ​​the explosion, consisting of vapors and air heated to a high temperature. Light radiation spreads almost instantly and lasts depending on the power of the nuclear weapon (20-40 seconds). However, despite the short duration of its impact, the effectiveness of light radiation is very high. Light radiation makes up 35% of the total power of a nuclear explosion. The energy of light radiation is absorbed by the surfaces of illuminated bodies, which heat up. The heating temperature may be such that the surface of the object will char, melt, ignite, or vaporize the object. The brightness of the light radiation is much stronger than that of the sun, and the resulting fireball during a nuclear explosion is visible for hundreds of kilometers. So, when on August 1, 1958, the Americans detonated a megaton nuclear charge over Johnston Island, the fireball rose to a height of 145 km and was visible from a distance of 1160 km.

Light radiation can cause burns to exposed areas of the body, blinding people and animals, and charring or ignition of various materials.

The main parameter that determines the damaging ability of light radiation is the light impulse: this is the amount of light energy per unit surface area, measured in Joules (J/m2).

The intensity of light radiation decreases with increasing distance due to scattering and absorption. The intensity of light radiation strongly depends on meteorological conditions. Fog, rain and snow weaken its intensity, and, conversely, clear and dry weather favors the occurrence of fires and the formation of burns.

There are three main fire zones:

· Zone of continuous fires - 400-600 kJ/m2 (covers the entire zone of moderate destruction and part of the zone of weak destruction).

· The zone of individual fires is 100-200 kJ/m2. (covers part of the zone of moderate destruction and the entire zone of weak destruction).

· The fire zone in the rubble is 700-1700 kJ/m2. (covers the entire zone of complete destruction and part of the zone of severe destruction).

The damage to people by light radiation is expressed in the appearance of four-degree burns on the skin and effects on the eyes.

The effect of light radiation on the skin causes burns:

First degree burns cause pain, redness, and swelling of the skin. They do not pose a serious danger and are quickly cured without any consequences.

Second degree burns (160-400 kJ/m2), blisters formed filled with a transparent protein liquid; If large areas of skin are affected, a person may lose ability to work for some time and require special treatment.

Third degree burns (400-600 kJ/m2) are characterized by necrosis of muscle tissue and skin with partial damage to the germ layer.

Fourth degree burns (? 600 kJ/m2): necrosis of the skin of deeper layers of tissue, possible temporary or complete loss of vision, etc. Third- and fourth-degree burns affecting a significant portion of the skin can be fatal.

Effect of light radiation on the eyes:

· Temporary blinding - up to 30 minutes.

· Burns of the cornea and eyelids.

· Burn of the fundus of the eye - blindness.

Protection from light radiation is simpler than from other damaging factors, since any opaque barrier can serve as protection. Shelters, PRUs, dug up quickly erected protective structures, underground passages, basements, cellars are completely protected from light radiation. To protect buildings and structures, they are painted in light colors. To protect people, fabrics impregnated with fire-resistant compounds and eye protection (glasses, light shields) are used.

1.3 Radiation

Penetrating radiation is not uniform. Classic experiment to detect complex composition radioactive radiation, consisted of the following. The radium preparation was placed at the bottom of a narrow channel in a piece of lead. There was a photographic plate opposite the channel. The radiation emerging from the channel was affected by a strong magnetic field, the induction lines of which were perpendicular to the beam. The entire installation was placed in a vacuum. Under the influence of a magnetic field, the beam split into three beams. The two components of the primary flow were deflected in opposite directions. This indicated that these radiations had electrical charges of opposite signs. In this case, the negative component of the radiation was deflected by the magnetic field much more strongly than the positive one. The third component was not deflected by the magnetic field. The positively charged component is called alpha rays, the negatively charged component is called beta rays, and the neutral component is called gamma rays.

The flux of a nuclear explosion is a flux of alpha, beta, gamma radiation and neutrons. The neutron flux arises due to the fission of the nuclei of radioactive elements. Alpha rays are a stream of alpha particles (doubly ionized helium atoms), beta rays are a stream of fast electrons or positrons, gamma rays are photon (electromagnetic) radiation, which in their nature and properties are no different from X-rays. When penetrating radiation passes through any medium, its effect is weakened. Radiation of different types has different effects on the body, which is explained by their different ionizing abilities.

So alpha radiation, which are heavy charged particles, have the greatest ionizing ability. But their energy, due to ionization, quickly decreases. Therefore, alpha radiation is not able to penetrate the outer (horny) layer of the skin and does not pose a danger to humans until substances emitting alpha particles enter the body.

Beta particleson the path of their movement they rarely collide with neutral molecules, therefore their ionizing ability is less than that of alpha radiation. The loss of energy in this case occurs more slowly and the penetrating ability in the tissues of the body is greater (1-2 cm). Beta radiation is dangerous to humans, especially when radioactive substances come into contact with the skin or inside the body.

Gamma radiationhas relatively low ionizing activity, but due to its very high penetrating ability it poses a great danger to humans. The weakening effect of penetrating radiation is usually characterized by a layer of half attenuation, i.e. the thickness of the material, passing through which the penetrating radiation is reduced by half.

Thus, the following materials weaken penetrating radiation by half: lead - 1.8 cm 4; soil, brick - 14 cm; steel - 2.8 cm 5; water - 23 cm; concrete - 10 cm 6; tree - 30 cm.

Special protective structures - shelters - completely protect a person from the effects of penetrating radiation. Partially protected by PRU (basements of houses, underground passages, caves, mine workings) and covered protective structures (cracks) quickly erected by the population. The most reliable refuge for the population are metro stations. Anti-radiation drugs from AI-2 - radioprotective agents No. 1 and No. 2 - play a major role in protecting the population from penetrating radiation.

The source of penetrating radiation is the nuclear fission and fusion reactions occurring in ammunition at the time of explosion, as well as the radioactive decay of fission fragments of nuclear fuel. The duration of action of penetrating radiation during the explosion of nuclear weapons does not exceed several seconds and is determined by the time the explosion cloud rises. The damaging effect of penetrating radiation lies in the ability of gamma radiation and neutrons to ionize atoms and molecules that make up living cells, as a result of which normal metabolism and the vital activity of cells, organs and systems of the human body are disrupted, which leads to the emergence of a specific disease - radiation sickness. The degree of damage depends on the exposure dose of radiation, the time during which this dose was received, the area of ​​the body irradiated, and the general condition of the body. It is also taken into account that irradiation can be single (received in the first 4 days) or multiple (exceeding 4 days).

With a single irradiation of the human body, depending on the exposure dose received, 4 degrees of radiation sickness are distinguished.

Degree of radiation sickness Dp (rad; R) The nature of the processes after irradiation 1st degree (mild) 100-200 Latent period 3-6 weeks, then weakness, nausea, fever, performance remains. The content of leukocytes in the blood decreases. First degree radiation sickness is curable. 2nd degree (average) 200-4002-3 days of nausea and vomiting, then a latent period of 15-20 days, recovery in 2-3 months; manifests itself in more severe malaise, dysfunction of the nervous system, headaches, dizziness, at first there is often vomiting, an increase in body temperature is possible; the number of leukocytes in the blood, especially lymphocytes, decreases by more than half. Possible fatalities (up to 20%). 3rd degree (severe) 400-600 Latent period 5-10 days, is difficult, recovery in 3-6 months. A severe general condition, severe headaches, vomiting, sometimes loss of consciousness or sudden agitation, hemorrhages in the mucous membranes and skin, necrosis of the mucous membranes in the gum area are noted. The number of leukocytes, and then erythrocytes and platelets, decreases sharply. Due to weakening protective forces the body develops various infectious complications. Without treatment, the disease ends in death in 20-70% of cases, most often from infectious complications or bleeding. Grade 4 (extremely severe)? 600The most dangerous, without treatment usually ends in death within two weeks.

During an explosion, within a very short time, measured in a few millionths of a second, a huge amount of intranuclear energy is released, a significant part of which is converted into heat. The temperature in the explosion zone rises to tens of millions of degrees. As a result, the fission products of the nuclear charge, the unreacted part of it and the ammunition body instantly evaporate and turn into a hot, highly ionized gas. The heated products of the explosion and masses of air form a fireball (in an air explosion) or a fiery hemisphere (in a ground explosion). Immediately after formation, they quickly increase in size, reaching several kilometers in diameter. During a ground-based nuclear explosion, they rise upward at very high speed (sometimes over 30 km), creating a powerful upward flow of air that carries with it tens of thousands of tons of soil from the surface of the earth. As the power of the explosion increases, the size and degree of contamination of the area in the area of ​​the explosion and in the wake of the radioactive cloud increase. The quantity, size and properties of radioactive particles and, consequently, their rate of fall and distribution over the territory depend on the amount and type of soil caught in the cloud of a nuclear explosion. That is why during above-ground and underground explosions (with soil ejection) the size and degree of contamination of the area is much greater than during other explosions. With an explosion on sandy soil, the radiation levels on the trail are on average 2.5 times, and the area of ​​the trail is twice as large as with an explosion on cohesive soil. The initial temperature of the mushroom cloud is very high, so the bulk of the soil that falls into it melts, partially evaporates and mixes with radioactive substances.

The nature of the latter is not the same. This includes the unreacted part of the nuclear charge (uranium-235, uranium-233, plutonium-239), fission fragments, and chemical elements with induced activity. In about 10-12 minutes, the radioactive cloud rises to its maximum height, stabilizes and begins to move horizontally in the direction of air flow. The mushroom cloud is clearly visible at a great distance for tens of minutes. The largest particles, under the influence of gravity, fall out of the radioactive cloud and dust column even before the moment when the latter reaches its maximum height and contaminates the area in the immediate vicinity of the center of the explosion. Light particles settle more slowly and at considerable distances from it. This creates a trace of a radioactive cloud. The terrain has virtually no effect on the size of radioactive contamination zones. However, it causes uneven infection of individual areas within zones. Thus, hills and hills are more heavily infected on the windward side than on the leeward side. The fission products falling from the explosion cloud are a mixture of approximately 80 isotopes 35 chemical elements the middle part of Mendeleev’s periodic table of elements (from zinc No. 30 to gadolinium No. 64).

Almost all isotope nuclei formed are overloaded with neutrons, are unstable and undergo beta decay with the emission of gamma quanta. Primary nuclei of fission fragments subsequently experience an average of 3-4 decays and eventually turn into stable isotopes. Thus, each initially formed nucleus (fragment) has its own chain radioactive transformations. People and animals entering a contaminated area will be exposed to external radiation. But danger lurks on the other side. Strontium-89 and strontium-90, cesium-137, iodine-127 and iodine-131 and other radioactive isotopes falling onto the surface of the earth are included in the general cycle of substances and penetrate into living organisms. Of particular danger are strontium-90 iodine-131, as well as plutonium and uranium, which can concentrate in certain parts of the body. Scientists have found that strontium-89 and strontium-90 are mainly concentrated in bone tissue, iodine in the thyroid gland, plutonium and uranium in the liver, etc. The highest degree of infection is observed in the closest areas of the trail. As you move away from the center of the explosion along the axis of the trace, the degree of contamination decreases. The trace of the radioactive cloud is conventionally divided into zones of moderate, severe and dangerous contamination. In the light radiation system, the activity of radionuclides is measured in Becquerels (Bq) and is equal to one decay per second. As the time elapses after the explosion increases, the activity of fission fragments quickly decreases (after 7 hours by 10 times, after 49 hours by 100 times). Zone A - moderate contamination - from 40 to 400 rem. Zone B - severe contamination - from 400 to 1200 rem. Zone B - dangerous contamination - from 1200 to 4000 rem. Zone G - extremely dangerous contamination - from 4000 to 7000 rem.

Moderate Infestation Zone- the largest in size. Within its boundaries, the population located in open areas may receive mild radiation injuries in the first day after the explosion.

IN severely affected areathe danger for people and animals is higher. Here, severe radiation damage is possible even after a few hours of exposure to open areas, especially in the first day.

IN zone of dangerous contaminationhighest levels of radiation. Even at its border, the total radiation dose during the complete decay of radioactive substances reaches 1200 r, and the radiation level 1 hour after the explosion is 240 r/h. On the first day after infection, the total dose at the border of this zone is approximately 600 r, i.e. it is practically fatal. And although radiation doses are then reduced, it is dangerous for people to stay outside shelters in this area for a very long time.

To protect the population from radioactive contamination of the area, all available protective structures are used (shelters, control points, basements of multi-storey buildings, metro stations). These protective structures must have a sufficiently high attenuation coefficient (Kosl) - from 500 to 1000 or more times, because radioactive contamination zones have high levels of radiation. In areas of radioactive contamination, the population must take radioprotective drugs from AI-2 (No. 1 and No. 2).

1.4 Electromagnetic pulse

Nuclear explosions in the atmosphere and in higher layers lead to the formation of powerful electromagnetic fields with wavelengths from 1 to 1000 m or more. Due to their short-term existence, these fields are usually called electromagnetic pulse. An electromagnetic pulse also occurs as a result of an explosion at low altitudes, but the strength of the electromagnetic field in this case quickly decreases as one moves away from the epicenter. In the case of a high-altitude explosion, the area of ​​action of the electromagnetic pulse covers almost the entire surface of the Earth visible from the point of the explosion. The damaging effect of an electromagnetic pulse is caused by the occurrence of voltages and currents in conductors of various lengths located in the air, ground, and in electronic and radio equipment. An electromagnetic pulse in the specified equipment induces electric currents and voltages, which cause insulation breakdown, damage to transformers, combustion of arresters, semiconductor devices, and burnout of fuse links. The communication lines, signaling and control lines of missile launch complexes and command posts are most susceptible to the effects of electromagnetic pulses. Protection against electromagnetic pulses is carried out by shielding control and power supply lines and replacing fuse links (fuses) of these lines. The electromagnetic pulse is 1% of the power of a nuclear weapon.

2. Protective structures

Protective structures are the most reliable means of protecting the population from accidents in the areas of nuclear power plants, as well as from weapons of mass destruction and other modern means attacks. Protective structures, depending on their protective properties, are divided into shelters and anti-radiation shelters (RAS). In addition, simple shelters can be used to protect people.

. Shelters- these are special structures designed to protect people sheltering in them from all damaging factors of a nuclear explosion, toxic substances, bacterial agents, as well as high temperatures and harmful gases generated during fires.

The shelter consists of main and auxiliary premises. In the main room, intended to accommodate those being sheltered, there are two or three-tier bunks-benches for sitting and shelves for lying on. The auxiliary premises of the shelter are a sanitary unit, a filter-ventilation chamber, and in large-capacity buildings - a medical room, a food pantry, premises for an artesian well and a diesel power plant. As a rule, the shelter has at least two entrances; in low-capacity shelters - entrance and emergency exit. In built-in shelters, entrances can be made from stairwells or directly from the street. The emergency exit is equipped in the form of an underground gallery ending in a shaft with a head or hatch in a non-collapsible area. The outer door is made protective and hermetic, the inner door is made hermetic. Between them there is a vestibule. In buildings with a large capacity (more than 300 people), a vestibule-gate is equipped at one of the entrances, which is closed on the outside and inside with protective-hermetic doors, which makes it possible to exit the shelter without compromising the protective properties of the entrance. The air supply system, as a rule, operates in two modes: clean ventilation (cleaning the air of dust) and filter ventilation. In shelters located in fire-hazardous areas, a complete isolation mode with air regeneration inside the shelter is additionally provided. The power, water supply, heating and sewage systems of the shelters are connected to the corresponding external networks. In case of damage, the shelter has portable electric lights, tanks for storing emergency water supplies, as well as containers for collecting sewage. Heating of shelters is provided from the general heating network. In addition, the shelter premises house a set of means for conducting reconnaissance, protective clothing, fire extinguishing equipment, and an emergency supply of tools.

. Anti-radiation shelters (PRU)provide protection of people from ionizing radiation in the event of radioactive contamination (contamination) of the area. In addition, they protect from light radiation, penetrating radiation (including from neutron flux) and partly from shock waves, as well as from direct contact of radioactive, toxic substances and bacterial agents on the skin and clothing of people. PRUs are installed primarily in the basement floors of buildings and structures. In some cases, it is possible to construct free-standing prefabricated PRUs, for which industrial (prefabricated reinforced concrete elements, brick, rolled products) or local (timber, stones, brushwood, etc.) are used. building materials. All buried premises suitable for this purpose are adapted for PRU: basements, cellars, vegetable stores, underground workings and caves, as well as premises in above-ground buildings that have walls made of materials that have the necessary protective properties. To increase the protective properties of the room, window and excess doorways are sealed, a layer of soil is poured onto the ceiling and, if necessary, soil bedding is made outside near the walls protruding above the surface of the ground. Sealing of premises is achieved by carefully sealing cracks, crevices and holes in the walls and ceiling, at the junction of window and door openings, and the entry of heating and water pipes; adjusting the doors and covering them with felt, sealing the rebate with a felt roller or other soft dense fabric. Shelters with a capacity of up to 30 people are ventilated by natural ventilation through the supply and exhaust ducts. To create draft, the exhaust duct is installed 1.5-2 m above the supply duct. Canopies are made at the outer terminals of ventilation ducts, and tightly fitting dampers are made at the entrances to the room, which are closed during radioactive fallout. The internal equipment of the shelters is similar to that of the shelter. In rooms adapted for shelters that are not equipped with running water and sewerage, water tanks are installed at the rate of 3-4 liters per person per day, and the toilet is equipped with a portable container or a backlash closet with a cesspool. In addition, bunks (benches), racks or chests for food are installed in the shelter. Lighting is provided from an external power supply or portable electric lanterns. The protective properties of the PRU from the effects of radioactive radiation are assessed by the protection coefficient (radiation attenuation), which shows how many times the radiation dose in an open area is greater than the radiation dose in a shelter, i.e. how many times do PRUs weaken the effect of radiation, and therefore the radiation dose to people?

Retrofitting the basement floors and interiors of buildings increases their protective properties several times. Thus, the protection coefficient of equipped basements of wooden houses increases to approximately 100, of stone houses - to 800 - 1000. Unequipped cellars attenuate radiation by 7 - 12 times, and equipped ones - by 350-400 times.

TO the simplest sheltersThese include open and closed gaps. The cracks are built by the population themselves using locally available materials. The simplest shelters have reliable protective properties. Thus, an open slit reduces the probability of damage by a shock wave, light radiation and penetrating radiation by 1.5-2 times, and reduces the possibility of exposure in a radioactive contamination zone by 2-3 times. The blocked gap protects from light radiation completely, from a shock wave - 2.5-3 times, from penetrating radiation and radioactive radiation - 200-300 times.

The gap is initially arranged open. It is a zigzag trench in the form of several straight sections no more than 15 m long. Its depth is 1.8-2 m, width at the top is 1.1-1.2 m and at the bottom up to 0.8 m. The length of the gap is determined by calculating 0.5-0.6 m per person. The normal capacity of the slot is 10-15 people, the largest is 50 people. Construction of the gap begins with laying out and tracing - indicating its plan on the ground. First, a base line is drawn and the total length of the slot is plotted on it. Then half the width of the slot along the top is laid off to the left and right. Pegs are hammered in at the kinks, tracing cords are pulled between them and grooves 5-7 cm deep are torn off. Digging begins not across the entire width, but slightly inward from the tracing line. As you deepen, gradually trim the slopes of the crack and bring it to the required size. Subsequently, the walls of the crack are reinforced with boards, poles, reeds or other available materials. Then the gap is covered with logs, sleepers or small reinforced concrete slabs. A layer of waterproofing is laid on top of the coating, using roofing felt, roofing felt, vinyl chloride film, or a layer of crumpled clay is laid, and then a layer of soil 50-60 cm thick. The entrance is made on one or both sides at right angles to the crack and equipped with a hermetic door and vestibule, separating the room for those being covered with a curtain of thick fabric. An exhaust duct is installed for ventilation. A drainage ditch is dug along the floor with a drainage well located at the entrance to the gap.

Conclusion

Nuclear weapons are the most dangerous of all means of mass destruction known today. And, despite this, its quantities are increasing every year. This obliges every person to know how to protect themselves in order to prevent death, and maybe even more than one.

In order to protect yourself, you must have at least the slightest understanding of nuclear weapons and their effects. This is precisely the main task of civil defense: to give a person knowledge so that he can protect himself (and this applies not only to nuclear weapons, but in general to all life-threatening situations).

Damaging factors include:

) Shock wave. Characteristics: high-speed pressure, sharp increase in pressure. Consequences: destruction by mechanical action of the shock wave and damage to people and animals by secondary factors. Protection: the use of shelters, simple shelters and protective properties of the area.

) Light radiation. Characteristics: very high temperature, blinding flash. Consequences: fires and burns to people's skin. Protection: the use of shelters, simple shelters and protective properties of the area.

) Radiation. Penetrating radiation. Characteristics: alpha, beta, gamma radiation. Consequences: damage to living cells of the body, radiation sickness. Protection: the use of shelters, anti-radiation shelters, simple shelters and the protective properties of the area.

Radioactive contamination. Characteristic: large area damage, the duration of preservation of the damaging effect, the difficulty of detecting radioactive substances that have no color, odor and other external signs. Consequences: radiation sickness, internal damage from radioactive substances. Protection: the use of shelters, anti-radiation shelters, simple shelters, protective properties of the area and personal protective equipment.

) Electromagnetic pulse. Characteristics: short-term electromagnetic field. Consequences: the occurrence of short circuits, fires, the effect of secondary factors on humans (burns). Protection: It is good to insulate lines carrying current.

Protective structures include shelters, anti-radiation shelters (RAS), as well as simple shelters.

References

1.Ivanyukov M.I., Alekseev V.A. Basics of life safety: Tutorial- M.: Publishing and trading corporation "Dashkov and K", 2007;

2.Matveev A.V., Kovalenko A.I. Fundamentals of protecting the population and territories in emergency situations: Textbook - St. Petersburg, SUAI, 2007;

.Afanasyev Yu.G., Ovcharenko A.G. and others. Life safety. - Biysk: Publishing house of ASTU, 2006;

.Kukin P.P., Lapin V.L. and others. Life safety: Textbook for universities. - M.: graduate School, 2003;

Study questions:

1. Nuclear weapons and their damaging factors. Brief characteristics of the outbreak nuclear destruction, possible magnitude and structure of sanitary losses.
2. Chemical weapons, classification and brief description foci of chemical damage.
3. Bacteriological (biological) weapons, brief description.
4. Brief characteristics of the focus of the combined lesion.
5. New types of weapons and their destructive effect

Introduction

Recently, there has been a turn of military theorists and historians towards the development of a new concept of war, new forms and methods of armed struggle. They proceed from the fact that with qualitatively new means of armed struggle created on the basis latest technologies, including precision weapons and weapons based on new physical principles, the nature of the war will inevitably change when the mass death of civilians decreases significantly (in Yugoslavia, the ratio of military deaths to civilian population was 1:15). However, the danger of nuclear missile war and wars using other types of weapons of mass destruction is still relevant today.

Question No. 1

Nuclear weapons (NW), damaging factors. Brief description of the source of nuclear damage, possible magnitude and structure of sanitary losses

Nuclear weapons are called ammunition (warheads of missiles and torpedoes, nuclear bombs, artillery shells, etc.), the damaging effect of which is based on the use of intranuclear energy released during explosive nuclear reactions.

Nuclear weapons, depending on the method of obtaining energy, are divided into three types:

1. actually nuclear (atomic), which uses the energy released as a result of the fission of nuclei of heavy elements (uranium, plutonium, etc.);

2. thermonuclear, using the energy released during the synthesis of light elements (hydrogen, deuterium, tritium);

3. neutron - a type of ammunition with a low-power thermonuclear charge, characterized by a high yield of neutron radiation.

Nuclear weapons are the most powerful means of mass destruction. It began to enter service with a number of states in large quantities from the mid-50s.

The nature of the destructive effect of nuclear weapons depends mainly on:

1. ammunition power.ammunition power,
2. type of explosion
3. type of ammunition.

The power of a nuclear explosion is measured by TNT equivalent, which is measured in tons, thousands of tons - kilotons (kt) and millions of tons - megatons (mt).

By power, nuclear weapons are conventionally divided into ultra-small (explosion power up to 1 kt), small (explosion power 1-10 kt), medium (explosion power 10 - 100 kt), large (explosion power 100 kt - 1 mt) and super-large (power - explosion rate is more than 1 MT).

Nuclear explosions can be carried out on the surface of the earth (water), underground (water) or in the air on different heights. In this regard, it is customary to distinguish the following types of nuclear explosions: ground, underground, underwater, surface, air and high-altitude.

The damaging factors of a nuclear explosion include: shock wave, light radiation, penetrating radiation (ionizing radiation), radioactive contamination of the area, electromagnetic pulse and seismic (gravitational) waves.

Shock wave- the most powerful damaging factor of a nuclear explosion. About 50% of the total explosion energy is spent on its formation. It is a zone of sharp compression of air, spreading in all directions from the center of the explosion at supersonic speed. As the distance increases, the speed quickly drops and the wave weakens. The source of the shock wave is the high pressure at the center of the explosion, reaching billions of atmospheres. The greatest pressure occurs at the front boundary of the compression zone, which is commonly called the shock wave front. Duration of action per person is 0.3 - 0.6 seconds.

The damaging effect of a shock wave is determined by excess pressure. It is measured in kilopascals (kPa) or kilograms-force per 1 cm 2 (kgf/cm 2).

The shock wave can cause traumatic injuries, concussions or death to unprotected people. Damages can be direct or indirect.

Direct defeat shock wave occurs as a result of the influence of:

Excessive pressure,

And high-speed air pressure.

Indirect damage people can be hit by debris from destroyed buildings and structures, glass shards, stones, trees and other objects flying at high speed.

When affecting people, the shock wave causes injuries of varying severity:

Mild lesions occur at excess pressure of 0.2-0.4 kgf/cm2. They are characterized transient disorders body functions (ringing in the ears, dizziness, headache). Dislocations and bruises are possible;

Moderate lesions occur at excess pressure of 0.4-0.6 kgf/cm 2 . In this case there may be contusions, hearing damage, bleeding from the ears and nose, fractures and dislocations;

Severe lesions are possible with excess pressure of 0.6-1.0 kgf/cm 2, characterized by severe contusions of the whole body, loss of consciousness, multiple injuries, fractures, bleeding from the nose and ears; possible damage to internal organs and internal bleeding;

Extremely severe lesions occur when excess pressure exceeds 1 kgf/cm 2 . Marked ruptures of internal organs, fractures, internal bleeding, concussion, prolonged loss of consciousness. Ruptures are observed in organs containing large amounts of blood (liver, spleen, kidneys) filled with fluid (ventricles of the brain, urinary and gall bladders).

Light radiation represents a stream of visible, infrared and ultraviolet rays emanating from the luminous area. Its formation consumes 30-35% of the total explosion energy of medium-caliber ammunition. The duration of light radiation depends on the power and type of explosion and can last up to ten seconds or more.

Infrared radiation has the greatest damaging effect. The main parameter characterizing light radiation is the light pulse. Light impulse is measured in calories per 1 cm 2 (cal/cm) or kilojoules per 1 m 2 (kJ/m 2) of surface.

Light radiation from a nuclear explosion upon direct exposure causes burns, including to the retina of the eyes. Secondary burns are possible, arising from the flames of burning buildings, structures, and vegetation.

In the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, approximately 50% of all deaths were caused by burns, of which 20-30% were caused by direct light radiation and 70-80% by burns from fires.

Depending on the magnitude of the light pulse, four degrees of burn are distinguished: a first degree burn causes a light pulse of 100-200 kJ/m 2 (2-6 cal/cm 2); II - 200-400 kJ/m2 (6-12 cal/cm2); III - 400-600 kJ/m2 (12-18 cal/cm2); IV degree - more than 600 kJ/m2 (more than 18 cal/cm2).

Penetrating radiation (ionizing radiation) represents a powerful stream of γ-rays and neutrons released at the moment of a nuclear explosion. Its share consumes about 5% total energy of a nuclear explosion. The damaging effect of γ - rays lasts about several seconds, and neutrons - for fractions of a second.

Neutrons and γ - rays have great penetrating power. As a result of exposure to penetrating radiation from a nuclear explosion, a person may develop radiation sickness.

Radioactive contamination of the area, water and air occurs as a result of the fallout of radioactive substances (RS) from the cloud of a nuclear explosion, accounting for up to 10-15% of the total energy of a ground-based nuclear explosion.

Main sources of radioactivity in nuclear explosions:

Nuclear fission products of substances that make up nuclear fuel (200 radioactive isotopes of 36 chemical elements);

Induced activity resulting from the impact of the neutron flux of a nuclear explosion on some chemical elements that make up the soil (sodium, silicon, etc.);

Some part of the nuclear fuel that does not participate in the fission reaction and ends up as tiny particles into explosion products.

Radioactive contamination of the area has a number of features, distinguishing it from other damaging factors of a nuclear explosion are:

1. large affected area - thousands of square kilometers;
2. duration of preservation of the damaging effect (days, months or more);
3. impossibility of detecting radioactive substances without the use of special devices (stealth action).

Radioactive contamination is most pronounced during ground and low air explosions, when a huge amount of dust is entrained in the mushroom cloud. In this case, the soil raised with the cloud is mixed with radioactive substances and they fall out, both in the area of ​​the explosion and along the path of the cloud, forming a so-called radioactive trace.

The area is considered contaminated radioactive substances at radiation levels of 0.5 R/h and above. The level of radiation in the contaminated area is constantly decreasing due to the transformation of short-lived isotopes into non-radioactive substances.

For every sevenfold increase in the time elapsed after the explosion, the level of radiation in the area decreases by 10 times. The radiation level drops especially quickly in the first hours and days after the explosion, and then substances with a long half-life remain, and the decrease in radiation level occurs slowly. So, if 1 hour after the explosion the radiation level is taken as the initial one, then after 7 hours it will decrease by 10 times, after 49 hours (about 2 days) by 100 times, and after 14 days by 1000 times compared to the initial one.

The damaging effect of radioactive substances on people is due to two factors: the external influence of γ-radiation and B-particles when they come into contact with the skin or inside the body.

Electromagnetic pulse causes the emergence of electric and magnetic fields as a result of the impact of γ-radiation from a nuclear explosion on the atoms of environmental objects and the formation of a flow of electrons and positively charged ions. Exposure to an electromagnetic pulse can lead to the failure of sensitive electronic and electrical elements, i.e., the operation of communication devices, electronic computer equipment, etc. is disrupted, which will negatively affect the work of headquarters and other control bodies. An electromagnetic pulse does not have a pronounced damaging effect on people.

One of the types of nuclear weapons is neutron weapon. In neutron ammunition of small and ultra-small calibers the action of the shock wave and light radiation is limited to a radius of 140 - 300m, and the effect of neutron radiation is brought to the same level as during the explosion of high-power thermonuclear ammunition, or even slightly increased (in conditions of a low air explosion).

In some neutron munitions, up to 80% of the energy can be carried away by penetrating radiation and only 20% is spent on the shock wave, light radiation and radioactive contamination of the area. People will die from the effects of a flux of neutrons (80-90%) and y-rays (10-20%) or suffer a severe form of acute radiation sickness.

The source of nuclear destruction is the territory within which, as a result of the impact of the damaging factors of a nuclear explosion, there were massive injuries to people, farm animals and plants, destruction and damage to buildings, structures, fires and radioactive contamination of the area.

The size of the outbreak depends on the power of the ammunition used, the type of explosion, the nature of the building, the terrain, etc.

The outer boundary of the source is considered to be a conditional outer line in the area where the excess pressure in the shock wave front does not exceed 0.1 kgf/cm 2 . Conventionally, the source of nuclear damage is divided into four circular zones: complete, strong, medium and weak destruction .

Light Damage Zone characterized by excess pressure in the shock wave front 0.1-0.2 kgf/cm 2. It accounts for up to 62% of the area of ​​the entire outbreak. Within this zone buildings receive slight damage(cracks, destruction of partitions, door and window fillings). From light radiation separate fires occur.

People located in this area outside of shelters may be injured by falling debris and breaking glass, and burns. There are no losses in shelters. May arise secondary lesions from fires, explosions of containers with flammable and lubricating materials, contamination of the territory of the emergency storage facility, etc.

The total losses among the population in this zone are 15%, all of them will be sanitary.

The main rescue operations in this area are carried out to extinguish fires and rescue people from partially destroyed and burning buildings. Conditions for the work of medical units are relatively favorable.

Medium Damage Zone characterized by excess pressure in the shock front waves 0.2-0.3 kgf/cm 2 and occupies about 15% of the lesion.

In this zone wooden buildings will be severely or completely destroyed, stone buildings will receive medium and weak damage. Shelters and basement-type shelters are preserved. Formed on the streets individual rubble. From light radiation massive fires may occur(more than 25% of burning buildings).

Characteristic massive sanitary losses among the unprotected population, which may amount to 40%, of which 10% will be irrevocable. These are the dead and missing.

Rescue and other urgent work involves putting out fires and rescuing people from rubble, destroyed and burning buildings. The working conditions of rescue units to provide first aid are limited and are possible only after the work of fire fighting and engineering units. Conditions for the work of medical teams are unfavorable and impossible for medical teams.

Nuclear damage zones

Zone of severe destruction formed by excess pressure in the shock wave front 0.3-0.5 kgf/cm 2 and makes up about 10% of the total area of ​​the outbreak. In this zone ground buildings and structures receive severe damage, parts of walls and ceilings are destroyed. Shelters, most basement-type shelters and underground utilities and energy networks, as a rule, are preserved. As a result of the destruction of buildings continuous or local blockages are formed. From light radiation arise continuous fires(90% of burning buildings). People in open areas receive moderate injuries from the shock wave. They can be affected by a light pulse, which often leads to III-IV degree burns. In this zone, carbon monoxide poisoning is possible, and massive irreversible losses among the unprotected population are typical. Total losses can be 50% of which 15% are irrecoverable losses.

Zone of complete destruction occurs when there is excess pressure in the front of the shock wave 0.5 kgf/cm 2 or more. It accounts for about 13% of the entire area of ​​the lesion. In this zone, residential and industrial buildings, radiation shelters and up to 25% of shelters are completely destroyed, underground utilities and energy networks are destroyed and damaged, continuous rubble is formed. Fires do not occur, since the flame is knocked down by the shock wave. There may be isolated pockets of combustion and smoldering in the rubble.

Unprotected people experience severe and extreme severe injuries and burns. During a nuclear explosion on land, there is also severe radioactive contamination of the area.

For this zone characterized by massive losses among vulnerable populations. Total losses can be up to 90% of which, 80% are irrevocable.

People who are in well-equipped and sufficiently deep shelters will remain unaffected. The nature of the damage and destruction determines the main content of rescue operations. The working conditions for medical units are extremely unfavorable, and for hospital-type medical units they are excluded.

In the source of nuclear damage, medical units can begin work, as a rule, after extinguishing fires, clearing rubble and opening shelters and basements. Victims located in destroyed shelters, shelters and basements have traumatic injuries of a predominantly closed nature, outside shelters - combined injuries in the form of burns and open injuries, impact on them is possible ionizing radiation. In places where radioactive substances fall out, radiation injuries are likely.

Knowledge of the characteristics of the destruction zones in the source of nuclear damage allows the head of the medical service of civil defense (MSGO) to make an approximate calculation of the likely sanitary losses in the source of damage, the need for the number of forces of the MSGO required to provide medical care to the affected people, and to properly organize this assistance.

When a person is simultaneously exposed to several damaging factors of a nuclear explosion, so-called combined injuries are observed. The following combinations are distinguished:

Mechanical trauma and burns;

Mechanical trauma and radiation injury;

Burns and radiation injury;

Mechanical trauma, burns and radiation damage.

Combined lesions have a number of features, the main ones being they are the following:

1. The presence of the so-called mutual burden syndrome, which manifests itself in the fact that the course and outcomes of mechanical injuries and burns worsen in those exposed to radiation. At the same time, the latent period of radiation sickness is reduced, and it itself proceeds in a severe form.

2. Development of shock and secondary infection due to weakening of the body’s protective properties after irradiation.

3. A decrease in the regenerative capacity of irradiated cells and tissues, as a result of which the healing of wounds and burns or the healing of fractures occurs slowly and with various complications.

All these features of combined lesions should be taken into account when providing medical care and treatment.

Zones of radioactive contamination of the area.

Radioactive cloud trail(the dimensions of which depend on the power of the explosion and wind speed) on flat terrain with constant wind directions and speed has the shape of an elongated ellipse and conditionally divided into four zones: moderate, severe, dangerous and extremely dangerous infestation .

The boundaries of these zones are determined by the exposure dose until complete decay (P) or (for the convenience of solving problems of assessing the radiation situation) by the radiation level for a given time (R/h).

Moderate pollution zone (zone A) occupies about 60% of the total footprint area. At the outer boundary of this zone, the exposure dose of radiation during the complete decay will be 40 R, and at the inner boundary - 400 R. The radiation level an hour after the explosion at the outer boundary of this zone will be 8 R/h, after 10 hours - 0.5 R/h. During the first day of stay in this zone, unprotected people may receive a radiation dose higher than permissible norms, and 50% of them may develop radiation sickness. Work on sites, as a rule, does not stop. Work in open areas located in the middle of the zone or at its internal border must be stopped.

Heavy pollution zone (zone B) occupies about 20% of the total footprint area. The exposure dose during the complete decay at the outer boundary of the zone will be equal to 400 R, and at the inner boundary - 1200 R. The radiation level 1 hour after the explosion will be 80 R/h at the outer boundary of the zone, after 10 hours - 5 R/h. The risk of injury to unprotected people in this area persists for up to 3 days. Losses in this zone among the unprotected population will be 100%. Work at the facilities is stopped for up to 1 day, workers and employees take refuge in protective structures, basements or other shelters.

Dangerous pollution zone (zone B) occupies about 13% of the total footprint area. On the outer border of this zone, the exposure dose until complete decay will be 1200 R, and on the inner border - 4000 R. The radiation level 1 hour after the explosion on its outer boundary will be 240 R/h, after 10 hours - 15 R/h. Severe injuries to people are possible even with a short stay in this area. Work at the facilities is stopped for a period of 1 to 3-4 days, workers and employees take refuge in protective structures.

Extremely hazardous pollution zone (zone D) occupies about 7% of the footprint area. At the outer boundary, the exposure dose of radiation during the complete decay will be equal to 4000 R, and in the middle of this zone - up to 10,000 R. The radiation level an hour after the explosion at the outer boundary of the zone will be 800 R/h, after 10 hours - 50 R/h. Damage to people can occur even when they are in anti-radiation shelters. In the zone, work at facilities is stopped for 4 days or more, workers and employees take refuge in shelters. After the specified period, the radiation level on the territory of the facility decreases to values ​​that ensure safe activities of workers and employees in production premises.

In zones radioactive contamination The working conditions of medical units are becoming significantly more complicated. Therefore, anti-radiation protection regimes must be observed to prevent overexposure of people.

When units move through contaminated areas, measures are taken to protect personnel from radiation: routes with the lowest level of radiation are selected, vehicles move at high speeds, radioprotective drugs, respirators and other protective equipment are used.

The personnel of the sanitary squads must take all measures to protect themselves from the effects of penetrating radiation. The work of sanitary teams in areas contaminated with radioactive substances is planned based on the possible radiation dose (max. 0.5 Gray). Before entering the specified areas, it is necessary to ensure that personnel receive the radioprotective agent contained in the individual first aid kit. After finishing work, the personnel of the san brigades must undergo special treatment.

The working hours of sanitary squads in contaminated areas are set by senior civil defense commanders in accordance with accepted safe radiation doses. To carry out individual dosimetric monitoring, sanitary squads are given individual or group dosimeters before entering a contaminated area. At the end of the work, these dosimeters are collected and the radiation doses are recorded in a special journal.

To deploy functional units of a medical detachment (OPM), shelters and premises are used in areas not contaminated with radioactive substances, or (in extreme cases) in contaminated areas with a radiation level of no more than 0.5 R/h.

MSGO formations, in particular OPM, located outside the source in the direction of movement of the radioactive cloud, must be removed from this area in a timely manner, before its approach, preserving them for subsequent entry into the lesion site.

The personnel of medical service institutions must be promptly sheltered in anti-radiation shelters for a period determined by the conditions of the specific situation.

Dimensions of sanitary losses will depend from:

1. power and design of nuclear weapons;
2. type of explosion;
3. the number of people in the affected area;
4. provision of the population with individual and collective means of protection;
5. terrain;
6. the nature of the development and planning of the city;
7. weather conditions;
8. time of day, etc.

Possible structure of the san. losses in a nuclear explosion with a power of 20 kt

Damaging factors	Defeats
	character	frequency of occurrence,%
Shock wave	Mechanical damage
Light radiation	Thermal burns
Penetrating radiation and radioactive contamination	Radiation injuries
Simultaneous exposure to all damaging factors	Combined lesions

MTX of lesions when using nuclear weapons (Yu.M. Polumiskov, I.V. Vorontsov, 1980)

Type of ammunition	Ammunition caliber	Sanitary losses, %			Type of nuclear focus
		from combined lesions	from light radiation	from penetrating radiation
Neutron Atomic	Super small, small				Foci with predominantly radiation losses
Fission ammunition					Lesions with combined lesions
Thermonuclear ammunition	Large, extra large				Lesions with predominantly thermal lesions

In the event of a sudden use of nuclear weapons, the total human losses at the source of nuclear destruction can reach 50-60% of the city's population. When using protective equipment, losses are reduced by half or more. It is believed that of the total number of human losses, 1/3 are irretrievable (dead) and 2/3 are sanitary losses (lost ability to work). Of the sanitary losses, about 20-40% will be lightly affected and 60-80% will be moderately and severely affected. Shock may occur in 20 - 25% of those affected. 65 - 67% of those affected will require hospitalization.

Question No. 2

Chemical weapons, classification and brief characteristics of chemical agents. Problems of storage and destruction of chemical agents stocks

Chemical weapons (CW) is a type of weapon of mass destruction, the destructive effect of which is based on the use of toxic chemical warfare agents (BTC).

To combat toxic chemicals(XO) include:

Toxic substances (OS),

Toxins,

Phytotoxicants that can be used for military purposes to damage various types of vegetation.

As chemical weapons delivery vehicles Aviation, missiles, artillery, engineering and chemical troops (aerosol generators, smoke bombs, grenades) are used to attack targets.

Features of chemical weapons:

CW causes massive and immediate injuries to people over a large area;

CW is capable of creating foci of chemical damage over large areas;

The use of chemical weapons is not accompanied by the destruction of material assets, but can lead to long-term dangerous pollution of the environment;

Many BTXVs are highly persistent, toxic, and rapidly act on the human body;

BTXV causes predominantly severe and moderate lesions;

The use of chemical weapons necessitates the use of personal protective equipment and special treatment;

Those affected need first aid as soon as possible.

In all cases, prompt evacuation from the outbreak is necessary to provide medical care.

The types of combat conditions of BTXV are: steam, aerosol and drops. Injuries to people as a result of direct exposure to BTXV particles are called primary, and injuries resulting from contact with a contaminated surface are called secondary.

Toxic substances (OS)- chemical compounds, having certain toxic and physical and chemical properties, which, when used in combat, are capable of infecting people, animals and plants, polluting the air, clothing, equipment and terrain.

Chemical agents form the basis of chemical weapons. While in combat condition, OV affect the body by penetrating through: respiratory organs, skin and wounds with fragments of chemical ammunition. In addition, lesions can occur as a result of consuming contaminated food and water.

The following types of classification are currently accepted OV.

1. For tactical purposes:

Lethal: VX, soman, sarin, mustard gas, hydrocyanic acid, phosgene

Temporarily incapacitating manpower: BZ;

Irritants: chloroacetophenone, adamsite, CS, CR.

2. According to the duration of the damaging effect:

Persistent, the damaging effect lasts for long periods - days, weeks and even months (mustard gas, VX);

Unstable damaging effects last from several tens of minutes to 2-4 hours (hydrocyanic acid, cyanogen chloride, phosgene, diphosgene, sarin).

1. 3. According to the speed of onset of the damaging effect:

Fast-acting (sarin, soman, VX, hydrocyanic acid, CS, CR);

Slow-acting (mustard gases, BZ, phosgene, diphosgene).

4. By likelihood of use:

Service records (VX, sarin, BZ, CS, CR);

Spare service cards (nitrogen mustard, lewisite);

Limited standard (sulfur mustard, hydrocyanic acid, cyanogen chloride).

5. According to the leading clinical symptom of the lesion(toxicological classification) :

Nerve agents or neurotoxicants (sarin, soman, VX);

Blistering action or cytotoxic action (mustard gas, nitrogen mustard gas, lewisite);

Generally toxic (hydrocyanic acid, cyanogen chloride);

Asphyxiating or pulmotoxicants (phosgene, diphosgene);

Irritant action - lachrymators and sternites (chloroacetophenone, chloropicrin, CS, CR);

Psychotomimetic action (BZ).

As a result of the use of chemical weapons, a zone of chemical contamination is formed, within which a source of chemical damage occurs.

Chemical contamination zone includes: the zone of use of chemical weapons and the territory into which a cloud contaminated with chemical agents in damaging concentrations has spread.

The source of chemical damage is a territory within which mass casualties of people, farm animals and plants occurred as a result of exposure to chemical weapons.

The size and nature of the source of chemical damage depend on the type and quantity of the chemical agent, methods of its combat use, meteorological conditions, terrain, building density settlements etc.

The magnitude of losses depends on the degree of surprise, scale, methods of using chemical agents and their properties, population density, the degree of its protection, the availability of personal protective equipment and the ability to use them.

Sanitary losses with fast-acting agents are formed within a period of 5 to 40 minutes; If first aid is not provided in a timely manner, there is a high mortality rate. When using slow-acting agents, sanitary losses occur within 1-6 hours.

Site of chemical damage

You will learn about protoxins and phytotoxicants in the toxicology course.

Question No. 3

Bacteriological (biological) weapons, brief description

BO (biological)- these are pathogenic microorganisms with delivery means intended for mass destruction of people, farm animals and plants.

Representatives of all classes of microorganisms that spread artificially into the external environment can be used as biological agents.

The following infectious diseases are used to infect people:

Viruses are the causative agents of smallpox, yellow fever, many types of encephalitis (encephalomyelitis), hemorrhagic fevers, etc.;

Bacteria - pathogens anthrax, tularemia, plague, brucellosis, glanders, melioidosis, etc.;

Rickettsia is the causative agent of Q fever, typhus, Tsutsugamu-shi fever, Dengue fever, Rocky Mountain spotted fever, etc.;

Fungi are the causative agents of coccidioidomycosis, histoplasmosis, blastomycosis and other deep mycoses.

To infect farm animals, pathogens that are equally dangerous to animals and humans (anthrax, foot-and-mouth disease, Rift Valley fever, etc.) or that only affect animals (rinderpest, African plague) can be used as BS. pigs and other epizootic diseases).

The damaging effect of biological weapons does not appear immediately, but after a certain time (incubation period), depending both on the type and number of pathogenic microbes that have entered the body, and on the physical state of the body.

Features of biological weapons:

1. High potential efficiency.
2. The presence of a latent period (incubation period).
3. Contagiousness (the ability to be transmitted from person to person).
4. Duration of action.
5. Difficult to detect.
6. Selectivity.
7. Cheap production.
8. Strong psychological impact.
9. Possible use of multiple infectious agents.
10. Silence.

According to the epidemiological danger, infectious agents are divided into:

1. Highly contagious (causative agents of plague, cholera, smallpox, hemorrhagic fevers, etc.)
2. Contagious (typhoid fever, salmonellosis, shigeliosis, anthrax, etc.)
3. Less contagious (meningoencephalitis, malaria, tularemia, etc.)
4. Non-contagious (brucillosis, botulism, etc.).

Based on this, the epidemiological features of the lesion will depend, and, consequently, the nature of anti-epidemic measures and the order of placement of the infected population. Finally, the type of pathogen used determines the general system of quarantine or observation measures and the timing of their cancellation.

Methods of combat use of BS:

Spraying biological formulations in the ground layer of air with aerosol particles - aerosol method. Leads to continuous morbidity. In the form of an epidemiological explosion;

Dispersion of vectors artificially infected with biological agents - transmission method. The incidence is increasing gradually. The lesion has irregular shapes;

Contamination of air and water with biological agents in confined spaces (volumes) using sabotage equipment - sabotage method.

The causative agents of anthrax, glanders, melioidosis, Rocky Mountain spotted fever, yellow fever and tularemia can be used as fast-acting BDs with a relatively short incubation period and leading to high mortality.

The causative agents of plague, cholera and smallpox are considered especially dangerous, since they cause diseases that are highly contagious, quickly spread, have a severe course of the disease and have a high mortality rate.

When using bacteriological (biological) weapons, zone of bacteriological (biological) contamination, which is formed as a result of contamination of the area by pathogenic microorganisms. Within this zone, a focus of bacteriological (biological) damage appears.

The source of bacteriological (biological) damage called territorywith settlements and objects national economy, within which mass casualties of people, farm animals and plants occurred as a result of exposure to BW.

Cities, settlements, and separate national economic facilities are of particular epidemic significance, that is, the territory where people live and work. In the rest of the territory there is no rapid development of the epidemic process and no protective anti-epidemic measures are required.

With the aerosol method of infecting a territory, the incidence of disease is continuous, in the form of an epidemiological explosion, and severe forms of the disease are often observed.

When infected vectors are used (transmissible method), the boundaries of the outbreak are unclear, and the incidence increases slowly.

To infect air and water with germs in a confined space, a sabotage method is used.

The methodology for assessing the situation in the outbreak involves taking into account the following factors: the type of pathogen used and the method of its application, the timeliness of detection, the area of ​​the infection zone and the area of ​​possible spread infectious diseases, meteorological conditions, time of year, number and density of population, nature and density of settlements, provision of the population with individual and collective means of protection and timeliness of their use, number of immunized population, provision of means of nonspecific and specific prevention and treatment.

Taking these factors into account makes it possible to determine sanitary losses and organize measures to localize and eliminate the source of bacteriological damage.

Sanitary losses from biological weapons can vary significantly depending on the type of microbes, their virulence, contagiousness, the scale of application and the organization of antibacterial protection. Of the total number of people at the site of bacteriological damage, The primary incidence can be 25-50%.

The medical situation in the source of bacteriological damage will be largely determined not only by the magnitude and structure of sanitary losses, but also by the availability of forces and means intended to eliminate the consequences, as well as their preparedness.

Question No. 4

Brief characteristics of the focus of combined lesions

Combined injuries are those caused by different types of weapons or different damaging factors of the same type of weapon.

The presence of nuclear, chemical and bacteriological weapons and other means of attack at the disposal of a potential enemy allows him to simultaneously or sequentially use several types of weapons of mass destruction.

The following options are possible:

1. combination of nuclear and chemical weapons;
2. nuclear and bacteriological weapons;
3. chemical and bacteriological weapons;
4. nuclear, chemical and bacteriological weapons.
5. The combined use of weapons of mass destruction with various types of conventional weapons is also not excluded.

The focus of a combined lesion (OKP) is a territory within which, as a result of the simultaneous or sequential impact of two or more types of weapons of mass destruction or other means of attack by the enemy, a situation has arisen that requires emergency rescue and other urgent work (AS and DPR) with disinfection of places -ness and the objects located on it.

NCP will be characterized by a more complex general and medical situation compared to outbreaks caused by any one type of weapon of mass destruction.

When assessing the situation in the OKP, one should proceed from the characteristics of the destructive effect of a particular type of weapon used. Thus, the high toxicity of modern 0V, the speed of their impact on humans requires the implementation of all measures, including medical ones, first and foremost short terms. On the other hand, timely detection of the use of bacteriological (biological) weapons, one of the features of the damaging effect of which is the presence of a latent period, makes it possible to carry out some activities (identification of patients and their hospitalization) at a later date.

Taking into account the characteristics of weapons of mass destruction, the work of MS Civil Defense units in the OKP should be focused on injuries from that type of weapon (or damaging factors) that require immediate medical care.

The most difficult tasks for MSDF arise when the enemy uses nuclear and chemical weapons.

This is due to the fact that in such a PCU it is necessary to quickly provide medical care to many people affected by both nuclear and chemical weapons. At the same time, searching for the injured and promptly providing medical assistance will be greatly hampered due to fires, destruction, radioactive and chemical contamination of the area, as well as the use of personal protective equipment during rescue operations.

As a result of the impact on the human body of different types of weapons or different damaging factors of one type of weapon combined lesions occur.

It is known that lesions from one type of weapon can aggravate the course of lesions from another type of weapon. This feature of combined lesions is called "mutual burden syndrome".

Thus, radiation sickness reduces the body’s protective functions, which greatly complicates the diagnosis and treatment of injuries caused by bacteriological (biological) weapons.

At the same time, infectious diseases will not only aggravate the condition of those affected by radiation sickness, but also impair the healing of wounds and burns.

In addition, various wounds and burns open up additional ways for the introduction of BS and OM into the human body.

Damage to highly toxic agents (sarin, Vx, mustard gas) will sharply worsen the condition of the affected people.

Thus, the occurrence of OKP will lead to:

To a sharp increase in losses (including sanitary ones),

Complicates the structure of lesions,

It will complicate the search and provision of medical care to the injured, their evacuation from the source of damage,

Will aggravate the course of the lesions,

And it will complicate the treatment of those affected.

Question No. 5

The latest types of weapons and their destructive effect

It is believed that of the new types of weapons possible in the near future, the greatest real danger is posed by beam, radio frequency, infrasonic, radiological and geophysical weapons.

1. Beam weapon. These weapons include:

A). Lasers are powerful emitters of electromagnetic energy in the optical range. The damaging effect of a laser beam is achieved as a result of heating the object’s materials to high temperatures, leading to their melting and even evaporation, damage to hypersensitive elements, damage to the organs of vision and thermal burns to the skin.

The action of a laser beam is characterized by secrecy (the absence of external signs in the form of fire, smoke, sound), high accuracy, straightness of propagation, and almost instantaneous action.

The most effective use of lasers can be achieved in outer space to destroy intercontinental ballistic missiles and artificial earth satellites, as envisaged in the American Star Wars plans.

B). Acceleration weapon. The damaging factor of an accelerator weapon is a high-precision, highly directed beam of charged or neutral particles saturated with energy (electrons, protons, neutral hydrogen atoms), accelerated to high speeds. Accelerator weapons are also called beam weapons.

Objects of destruction can be artificial earth satellites, intercontinental, ballistic and cruise missiles of various types, as well as various types ground weapons and military equipment,

2 . Radio frequency weapons- means whose destructive effect is based on the use of electromagnetic radiation of ultra-high (microwave) or extremely low frequency (ELF). The ultra-high frequency range ranges from 300 MHz to 30 GHz; extremely low frequencies include frequencies less than 100 Hz.

The object of destruction by radio frequency weapons is manpower, which means known ability radio emissions of ultra-high and extremely low frequencies cause damage (functional dysfunction) to vital human organs and systems - such as the brain, heart, central nervous system, endocrine system and circulatory system.

Radio frequency radiation can also influence the human psyche, disrupt perception, cause auditory hallucinations, (synthesize disorienting speech messages introduced directly into a person’s consciousness).

3. Infrasonic weapons- means of mass destruction based on the use of directed radiation of powerful infrasonic vibrations with a frequency below 16 Hz.

Such fluctuations may affect the central nervous system and digestive organs of a person, cause headaches, pain in internal organs, disrupt breathing rhythm .

With more high levels radiation power and very low frequencies, symptoms such as dizziness, nausea, intestinal upset and loss of consciousness appear. Infrasound radiation also has psychotropic effect on a person, causes loss of control over oneself, a feeling of fear and panic.

4. Radiological weapons- one of the possible types of weapons of mass destruction, the action of which is based on the use of radioactive military substances. Radioactive warfare agents are understood as substances specially obtained and prepared in the form of powders or solutions that contain radioactive isotopes of chemical elements that produce ionizing radiation.

The effect of radiological weapons can be comparable to the effect of radioactive substances that are formed during a nuclear explosion and contaminate the surrounding area.

The main source of radioactive weapons is waste generated during the operation of nuclear reactors. They can also be obtained by irradiating previously prepared substances in nuclear reactors or ammunition.

The use of military radioactive substances can be carried out using aerial bombs, aerial spray devices, unmanned aircraft, cruise missiles and other ammunition and military devices.

5. Geophysical weapons- a conventional term adopted in a number of foreign countries, denoting a set of various means that make it possible to use the destructive forces of inanimate nature for military purposes through artificially induced changes physical properties and processes occurring in the atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere of the Earth.

In the US and other NATO countries, attempts are also being made to explore the possibility impact on the ionosphere, causing artificial magnetic storms and auroras that disrupt radio communications and interfere with radar observations over a wide area. The possibility of large-scale changes temperature regime by spraying substances that absorb solar radiation, reducing the amount of precipitation designed for weather changes unfavorable to the enemy (for example, drought). Destruction of the ozone layer in the atmosphere can presumably make it possible to direct a destructive effect into areas occupied by the enemy cosmic rays and ultraviolet radiation from the Sun.

The term “geophysical weapon” essentially reflects one of the combat properties of nuclear weapons - providing influence on geophysical processes in the direction of initiating their dangerous consequences for troops and the population. In other words, damaging (destructive) factors geophysical weapons natural phenomena serve, and the role of their purposeful initiation is performed mainly by nuclear weapons.

6. Volumetric explosion ammunition- a fundamentally new type of ammunition, the effectiveness of which, according to evidence foreign press, significantly higher than that of ammunition filled with conventional explosives,

They were developed in the USA in 1966. The effect of volumetric explosion ammunition is as follows: the charge (liquid formulation) is sprayed into the air, the resulting aerosol is converted into a gas-air mixture, which is then detonated. The effect of such a charge, according to foreign experts, is comparable to the damaging effect of a shock wave from a tactical nuclear weapon.

7. Incendiary means - based on petroleum products - napalms. In my own way appearance napalms resemble rubber glue, stick well to various surfaces, burn for 3-5 minutes, and a temperature of 900-1100 °C occurs. The introduction of white phosphorus into the composition of napalms makes them self-igniting, and the addition of metallic sodium gives them the property of igniting on contact with moisture. Such mixtures are called supernapalms. Their average combustion temperature is 1100-1200 °C; they adhere well to vertical and inclined surfaces.

Features of the action of incendiary agents: the ability to destroy large concentrations of manpower and equipment; destruction and disablement for a long time of large military installations and populated areas; exerting a psychological impact on people (the ability to resist decreases); painfulness of burns, duration of inpatient treatment of the affected people. Low cost compared to other types of weapons, as well as the availability of a sufficient raw material base make incendiary weapon preferable.

8. Firearms. The main type of damage that occurs from exposure to firearms is injury. Wounding projectiles can be bullets or fragments of artillery shells, bombs, mines and hand grenades.

Using the M-16 5.56 caliber automatic rifle with a high initial bullet speed contributes to the occurrence of injuries, characterized by a large amount of destruction and foci of necrosis around the wound channel.

Cluster munitions used to increase combat effectiveness conventional means attacks, allowing to increase the affected area tens of times. Cassettes are equipped with many small bombs designed to destroy manpower.

Cluster munitions are also being created abroad for artillery, multiple launch rocket systems, and guided tactical missiles. Their effectiveness is 5 times higher than that of high-explosive fragmentation shells.

For the mass destruction of manpower, ball bombs are intended, containing 250 metal balls weighing 0.7-1.0 g. When the bomb is opened, the balls are scattered over an area of ​​100 m 2. A fighter-bomber can carry 1,000 bombs and hit open personnel over 10 hectares. The destructive effect of such a bomb load, according to the calculations of American experts, is equivalent to the firepower of 13,160 rifles, each firing a magazine of cartridges.

High explosive ammunition intended for the destruction of industrial, residential and administrative buildings, railways and highways, destruction of equipment and people. The main damaging factor of high-explosive ammunition is the air shock wave that occurs during the explosion of the conventional explosive with which these ammunition is loaded.

Shelters, shelters of various types, and blocked crevices effectively protect against shock waves and fragments of high-explosive and fragmentation ammunition. You can hide from ball bombs in buildings, trenches, folds of the terrain, and sewer wells.

Cumulative ammunition designed to destroy armored targets. Their operating principle is based on burning through an obstacle with a powerful jet of explosive detonation products.

Concrete-piercing ammunition designed to destroy high-strength reinforced concrete structures, as well as to destroy airfield runways. The ammunition body contains two charges (shaped-charge and high-explosive) and two detonators. When meeting an obstacle, an instantaneous detonator is triggered, which detonates the shaped charge. With some delay (after the ammunition passes through the ceiling), the second detonator is triggered, detonating the high-explosive charge, which causes the main destruction of the object.

Improvements in the design of ammunition are also in the direction of increasing the accuracy of hitting the target (high-precision weapons).

9. Precision weapons. This reconnaissance and strike complexes, which combine two elements:

. lethal means - aircraft with cluster bombs, missiles equipped with homing warheads are capable of selecting targets against the background of other objects and local objects;

. technical means - providing combat use destructive weapons: reconnaissance, communications, navigation, control systems, processing and displaying information, generating commands.

Such an integrated automated control system involves completely eliminating the person (operator) from the process of aiming the weapon at the target.

TO precision weapons also apply managed aerial bombs. In appearance, they resemble conventional aircraft bombs and differ from the latter by the presence of a control system and small wings. These bombs are designed to destroy small targets that require high precision. Bombs are dropped from airplanes that are many kilometers away from reaching the target, and are aimed at the target using radio and television control systems.

The development of means of armed struggle in comparison with past wars can lead to a manifold increase in the size of sanitary losses, a change in their structure, and the emergence of new types of combat pathology, which, in turn, will complicate the working conditions of all levels of the medical service.

Art. Lecturer at the Department of Medical and Mechanical Engineering A. Shabrov