Cultural-historical pedagogy: what is it? The cultural and historical nature of the goals of education.

Vygotsky’s concept of mental development appeared against the background of debates about from what positions to approach the study of man. Among the approaches, two prevailed: “ideal” and “biological”. From the position of the ideal approach, man has a divine origin, therefore his psyche is immeasurable and unknowable. From a “biological” point of view, man has a natural origin, therefore his psyche can be described by the same concepts as the psyche of animals. Vygotsky solved this problem differently. He showed that humans have a special type of mental functions that are completely absent in animals (voluntary memory, voluntary attention, logical thinking, etc.). These functions constitute the highest level of the human psyche - consciousness. Vygotsky argued that higher mental functions are of a social nature, that is, they are formed in the process social interactions. Vygotsky's concept can be briefly distinguished into three parts. The first part is “Man and Nature”. This part contains two main provisions: 1. During the evolutionary transition from animals to humans, a fundamental change in the relationship of the subject with the environment occurred (from adaptation to its transformation). 2. Man managed to change nature with the help of tools. The second part of Vygotsky’s theory is “Man and his psyche.” It also contains two provisions: 1. Mastery of nature did not pass without a trace for man: he learned to master his own psyche, he acquired higher mental functions. 2. Man also mastered his own psyche with the help of tools, but psychological tools, which Vygotsky called signs. Signs are artificial means with the help of which a person was able to force himself to remember some material, to pay attention to some object - that is, to master his memory, behavior and other mental processes. The signs were objective - a “knot as a keepsake”, a notch on a tree. The third part of the concept is “Genetic aspects”. This part of the concept answers the question “Where do signs come from?” Vygotsky believed that at first these were interpersonal signs (the words “do”, “take”, “carry”). This relationship then turned into a relationship with myself. Vygotsky called the process of transforming external signs into internal ones interiorization. According to Vygotsky, the same thing is observed in ontogenesis. First, the adult acts with a word on the child; then the child begins to influence the adult with words; and finally the child begins to influence himself with words. The concept of L. S. Vygotsky played a huge role in the formation of modern scientific views on the problem of the origin of the psyche and the development of human consciousness.

2. Causes of conflicts and types of teacher attitudes towards conflict.

With all the variety of conflicts, we can distinguish them main reasons:

In recent years, students have changed a lot, while some teachers see them as students were ten to fifteen years ago.

Lack of mutual understanding between teachers and students, caused by ignorance of the age-related psychological characteristics of students. Thus, the increased criticality characteristic of adolescence is often perceived by teachers as a negative attitude towards their personality.

Traditionality and stereotyping in the choice of educational methods and means.

The teacher evaluates not the individual act of the student, but his personality. This assessment often determines the attitude of other teachers towards the student.

The assessment of a student is often based on a subjective perception of his action and little awareness of his motives, personality characteristics, and living conditions in the family.

The teacher finds it difficult to analyze the situation and is in a hurry to strictly punish the student.

The nature of the relationship that has developed between the teacher and individual students; The personal qualities and non-standard behavior of these students are the cause of constant conflicts with them.

Personal qualities of the teacher (irritability, rudeness, vindictiveness, complacency, helplessness); the teacher’s mood when interacting with students; teacher's life problems.

General climate and organization of work in the teaching staff. There are four types of teacher attitude towards a conflict situation.

1. The desire to avoid suffering and troubles. The elder behaves as if nothing happened. He does not notice the conflict, avoids resolving the issue, and lets what happened take its course, without complicating his own life. Unresolved disputes destroy the team and provoke students to violate discipline.

2. Realistic attitude to reality. The teacher is patient and sober about what is happening. He adapts to the demands of those in conflict, that is, he follows their lead, trying to soften conflicting relationships with persuasion and exhortations. He behaves in such a way that, on the one hand, he does not disturb the teaching staff and administration, and on the other hand, he does not spoil relations with students. But persuasion and concessions lead to the fact that the elder is no longer respected and is even laughed at.

3. Active attitude to what happened. The teacher recognizes the existence of a critical situation and does not hide the conflict from colleagues and managers. He does not ignore what happened, does not try to please everyone, but acts in accordance with his own moral principles and beliefs, without taking into account the individual characteristics of the conflicting students, the situation in the team, or the causes of the conflict. As a result, a situation of external well-being develops, the cessation of quarrels, and violations of discipline, but this does not always mean that the conflict is resolved.

4. Creative attitude to conflict. The elder behaves in accordance with the situation and resolves the conflict with minimal losses. In this case, he consciously and purposefully, taking into account all the accompanying phenomena, finds a way out of the conflict situation. He takes into account the objective and subjective causes of the conflict and does not make hasty decisions.

Ticket number 5

S.A. Aleshina

Pedagogical activity in the historical process has always been perceived as a special cultural practice. “Paideia” meant the path (guidance of this path, its organization) that a person had to go through, changing himself in the pursuit of the ideal of spiritual and physical perfection. Almost all cultures emphasize the importance of the “second birth” of a person and the role of the teacher in this act. A meeting between a student and a teacher is an extraordinary act. The teacher, according to the ideas of the Talmudists, is placed higher in respect and veneration of his person than the father and mother. A person owes his physical, earthly existence to his parents, i.e. temporary life, and to the mentor - spiritual and eternal life. According to Maimonides, a teacher who leaves the children and goes away, or engages in other work with them other than teaching, or generally sloppily, negligently deals with them, belongs to the category of those about whom it is said: “Cursed is he who does God’s work with deception.” ". The teacher shares his knowledge, gives it, and does not broadcast it. Above the entrance to Plato’s Academy was inscribed the famous formula “Let no geometer enter.” In the modern world, there are no mechanisms that protect the educational space from people who are not knowledgeable, who are not familiar with the depths of professional and pedagogical knowledge. According to the figurative expression of I. A. Kolesnikova, the opposition of “sacred and profane” in the pedagogical field disappears as society democratizes and liberalizes. This, in particular, applies to the modern sociocultural and educational situation in Russia.

One of the signs of a total crisis in education was the loss of the cultural foundations of pedagogical activity and the sense of belonging to any particular educational culture. Training and education in mass practice begins to be carried out intuitively, spontaneously, or even outside the cultural field of the profession, as illustrated by examples of teacher ignorance, cruelty, and pedagogical helplessness not only in our country. The era dominated by the project principle is characterized by “loss of historicity as a dimension of human existence.” Shakespeare's metaphor “the chain of times has broken” is fully applicable to the current state of education, in innovative aspirations, paradoxically, not noticing the danger of destroying the usual cultural and pedagogical ties.

In response to the increasingly complex challenges of the time, the cultural and pedagogical foundations of teaching are rapidly being simplified. Educational traditions, symbols, and attributes are disappearing and losing their inner meaning. The human beginning of teaching activity is depreciated in competitive conditions market economy. Tested for centuries, described in detail in historical sources methods of teaching and education are no longer known to many teachers. As a result, a conversation with a student turns into one of the most difficult pedagogical genres, the development of student self-government becomes a problem, and the focus on the child’s personality and respect for him is regarded by some participants in pedagogical excellence competitions as an innovation.

We believe that the study of pedagogical heritage is necessary for everyone involved in the educational field. Students preparing to become teachers and educators, teaching practitioners, researchers and education managers, government officials on whom the formation of educational policy and strategy depends. The history of pedagogical culture as a field of knowledge is multifunctional in its potential impact on the quality of professional activity. In addition to the educational function that lies on the surface, it performs the function of humanitarization. The latter is inherent in the opposition (ambivalence) of culture as an integral repository of pedagogical experience, in the existence of a range at the poles of which are secular and confessional education, free and totalitarian education, “human” and machine learning. The cultural context of consideration of educational phenomena and processes always correlates with the uniqueness of a particular subject of pedagogical activity, is value-oriented, defined in time and space, and polyphonic, which fully corresponds to the characteristics of the humanitarian type of thinking.

The history of pedagogical culture plays the role of an intermediary between the volume of human experience and an individual teacher (educator) in his professional development, thereby performing a professional development function. The formation of mental processes is culturally mediated by historically complex activity (L. S. Vygotsky). If, by analogy with the zone of proximal development, we talk about the zone of proximal professional development of a teacher’s personality, inclusion in a dialogue with culture is perceived as a universal developmental mechanism. Mastering a profession turns into a movement from a culturally determined vision of the world to culturally determined action. Historically, this resonates with the understanding of culture as “a purposeful activity to awaken forces dormant in an object and as a certain degree of development of this activity.” This meaning, as officially recorded for the first time in Russia, is given in the “Pocket Dictionary of Foreign Words” by N. Kirillov (1846) [cit. from: 9, p. 12].

Understanding the historical meaning and cultural contexts of educational processes contributes to the formation of an internally consistent pedagogical picture of the world, provides additional cultural grounds for choosing a professional position, understanding the boundaries of one’s competence, i.e. for professional self-determination. The property of culture to be the “sphere of works” and the sphere of “addressed being” allows the teacher not only to construct an address to students (pupils) as an author’s essay, but also to enter into spatially dispersed, time-delayed communication with the world. In this case, the communicative function of pedagogical culture comes to the fore. Moreover, cultural dialogue can take place at a variety of levels (eras, national cultures, individuals).

During the spatio-temporal dialogue of cultures, the function of continuity is updated. Cultural-historical discourse combines three time dimensions: teaching experience past, pedagogical “present” and educational future, presented in innovative models. The accumulation and integration into the field of culture of pedagogical achievements belonging to different eras, peoples, and states ensures the growth of the educational potential of humanity as a whole.

The axiological function of historical and pedagogical knowledge is determined by its ability to serve value guide selection of cultural foundations and criteria for assessing pedagogical phenomena. Elementary ignorance of history sometimes does not allow one to adequately evaluate a particular experience from a cultural perspective and decide whether it is worth borrowing. By introducing a European dimension into the Russian education system, it is necessary to evaluate the proposed innovations according to the criterion of cultural conformity. As indicators for this criterion, the author proposes modernity (compliance with the challenges of the time), relevance (multi-level compliance with the cultural context), continuity (the ability to maintain and develop the cultural potential of domestic education). In a situation of an innovation boom, “cultural-historical knowledge can perform an expert-evaluative function, preventing “reinventing the wheel” and the introduction of pseudo-innovation, confirming the feasibility of retro-innovation activities” [ibid.].

The presence of the fact of innovation in education is revealed only in comparison with the context of world and national pedagogical culture, since in all areas of activity the absence of historical and cultural prototypes and analogues serves as an indicator of authorship and fundamental novelty. In turn, the discovery of historical parallels makes it possible to foresee the possible consequences of the introduction of certain innovations and alternatives.

Turning to the history of pedagogical culture becomes an additional chance to introduce cultural and historical meanings into the consciousness of key agents of education modernization. The vector of its changes cannot be built only on the basis of today's challenges. First, you need to understand the historical roots of what is happening in the educational space. Reading some modern projects and concepts of education brings to mind the lines of L. N. Modzalevsky, written in the 19th century: “Only ignorance of history and disrespect for it could produce those Don Quixotes in educational work, of which we have had quite a few over the years.” lately, and who sometimes, despite all the nobility of their aspirations, only harm the correct development of pedagogical work in our fatherland.”

In order for the historical volume of professional culture to grow into teachers’ everyday life, the corresponding content must become a normative part of the multi-level system of higher professional education at all its stages. We agree with the opinion of I. A. Kolesnikova, who negatively assesses the fact that today the list of educational profiles does not include the history of pedagogy as separate direction preparation. In the text of the Federal State Educational Standard for Higher Professional Education (050100), indirect mention of it is present only at the undergraduate level. In the column “Projected result of development” it is said that the bachelor must know “the development trends of the world historical and pedagogical process, the features of the current stage of development of education in the world.” At the same time, the requirement of “general culture” (general cultural competence, general cultural level) is not sufficiently supported by cultural grounds. It is unclear what educational culture we're talking about in pedagogical standards. What is its space-time “dimension”? What is surprising is the difference in the content of standards between the actual “professional” (PC, SPK) and “cultural” (OC) dimensions. It is significant that during the discussion of the new generation of standards, cultural and historical arguments were practically not heard. It seems that in the teacher training system one of the fundamental pedagogical principles - the principle of cultural conformity - ceases to operate. Perhaps because it conflicts with international trends in standardization and unification of professional competencies.

CULTURAL-HISTORICAL ROLE OF TEACHER EDUCATION IN RUSSIA IN THE CONTEXT OF ITS GENESIS (BEFORE 1917)

L. A. Stepanova

Russian State Social University

The article reveals the historical aspects of the formation of institutes of teacher education in Russia and the practice that developed in them. The cultural and phenomenological features of teacher training in significant for Russian history periods up to the October Revolution of 1917. The high culture-forming role of teaching practice, its influence on the formation of the specifics of pedagogical culture and, in general, on the traditions of professional training of teachers in Russia are characterized.

Key words: teacher education, historical and cultural phenomenon, teacher training institutions.

The article reveals the historical aspects of the formation of pedagogical educational institutions in Russia and the way they gained the experience and success. It shows cultural and phenomenological peculiarities of teachers training in important Russian periods up to The Great October Revolution 1917. The article characterizes a high cultural role of pedagogical practice and its influence on pedagogical cultural formation and on the professional teachers training in Russia.

Key words: pedagogical education, historical and cultural phenomenon, pedagogical educational institutions.

Domestic teacher education has a long and very complex history. The peculiarities of the formation of the historical paradigm of Russia, associated with its rather specific attitude to other religious and cultural values ​​and traditions, contributed to the fact that for quite a long time there were no special institutes for training teachers in Russian culture. The structure of society and the specifics of the culture of Russian antiquity and the early Middle Ages did not imply the separation of pedagogical knowledge from the unity of first the folk tradition as a whole, and later, as society stratified, the class tradition. We can identify a similar picture in almost any society of the mentioned period.

It should be taken into account that the formation of culture and society is directly related to the development of technology - methods of materially transformative and information-intellectual activity. Naturally, the level of education is the determining factor in an individual’s ability to improve technology, and a teacher - professional or “spontaneous” - thus becomes a conductor of cultural developmental influence, an important participant in the unified progress of culture. The development of teacher education and pedagogical culture is directly dependent on the processes of democratization of society, and the higher the level of democracy in society, the higher the need for the development of individual knowledge

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and skills and, as a consequence, in the training of specialist teachers. However, the general lack of prevalence of pedagogical knowledge in class societies did not exclude the need for them in relation to individual social strata, which for a long time made the teacher a mentor of the elite, combining in his still non-professional, but rather functional role, elements of various knowledge, skills and components of folk tradition, which were creatively rethought and projected into dynamic practice.

Given the low prevalence of pedagogical culture in society as a whole, the functions of teachers were performed by persons who did not have special education and, therefore, were not able to build and transform the process of teaching and upbringing, which made them individual exponents of tradition rather than specialists. Thus, the lack of institutionalized teacher education was a stagnating factor in the cultural system, and vice versa, the development of the social institution of teacher education acted as a factor in expanding sociocultural diversity (7).

It follows from this that in the early stages of the formation of domestic pedagogical education, it is inappropriate to isolate this social and historical-cultural phenomenon from the unity of formation, since the separation of pedagogical education and its institutionalization occurred gradually, as the importance of the qualitative uniqueness of the professional training of teachers was realized.

The prerequisites for the creation of educational systems developed in Rus' much earlier than it adopted Christianity in its Orthodox version. Population growth and the complication of methods of materially transforming activities, the isolation of handicraft labor and large settlements, as well as the formation of the foundations of statehood and class stratification led to the complication of the education process, the separation of one’s own

specifically educational vector. With the advent of a pronounced patriarchal system, the family took over the main educational functions. The education of peasants and artisans was carried out mainly through mentoring and involvement in work. In this process, the special education of professional military personnel was isolated and developed, which began at an early age. The upbringing and education of the cult elite - bearers of religious and proto-scientific knowledge, which included the basics of writing, was quite difficult.

In the 9th century, Byzantine missionaries Cyril and Methodius created a Slavic charter, which began the spread of a new writing and culture. This cultural and historical event led to the emergence of special teaching of new literacy in Rus' even before its adoption of Christianity. The importance of literacy training was obvious, which quickly and spontaneously formed the organizational infrastructure of small educational institutions, the main function of which was teaching Cyrillic literacy, naturally, based on religious literature.

The ideological turning point caused by Russia's adoption of Christianity in 988 marked the beginning of radical changes in all aspects of the life of the Russian state, including upbringing and education. Since that time, Orthodox Christian teaching has become one of the leading forms of education, which becomes the sacred ideology of the Russian state, equally influencing all layers of society. It was with the adoption of Christianity in Rus' that the sprouts of a new system of education and upbringing began to appear.

The church's monopoly on education led to the opening of the first primary schools in churches. Since the 12th century, widespread literacy training for women began, both at home and in monasteries. In addition to schools where literacy was taught, there were schools of “book learning”, which were a higher level of education

and in which, thanks to the use of certain aspects of ancient education, a special cultural environment was formed with its own views on education, upbringing and choice of school. It is no coincidence that this type of school gradually acquired high authority in the field of education. The developing Russian state required educated people with both religious and numerous secular knowledge. The emergence in Rus' of such types of educational and cultural institutions as the translation college and scriptorium at the St. Sophia Cathedral, the Kiev Pechersk and Novogorodsky monasteries, in which libraries carried out educational activities during this period, made it possible to achieve not only significant success in the development of many areas culture, but also significantly surpass many European countries in terms of the average level of education. In a relatively short period of time in historical terms, a complete system of upbringing and education was created in Rus' from primary schools to academies, which indicates the formation in Rus' until the middle of the 13th century of the cultural and pedagogical tradition itself, connecting the foundations of folk education with Christian content.

The collapse of the Kievan state largely slowed down the process of formation of the pedagogical tradition in Rus', but the population of certain regions remained the carriers of medieval high culture - Pskov, Novgorod and a few other free lands, in which relics of institutionalized paganism continued to exist latently.

In the 16th century, the needs for the development of education increased significantly. During this period at a fast pace Primary education began to develop, which continued to be carried out in monastery and church schools, and teaching methods also developed in them, albeit spontaneously.

In the period after the end of the “Time of Troubles,” the spread of book culture and literacy began at a rapid pace. Like

Previously, the growth of the educational system marked the spiritual and cultural rebirth of the nation. Primary and elementary schools were opened in cities and villages, book printing developed, a government school and schools were opened under the Ambassadorial, Apothecary, Discharge, Local and Pushkar orders (4). In the second half of the 17th century, Greco-Latin schools were created. In 1679, the first higher education institution close to the type of Western European universities was established. educational institution in Russia - the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy, the graduates of which, as is known, were outstanding representatives of Russian culture, science and education.

In the second half of the 17th century, the first professional teachers appeared in the person of graduates of the Kiev-Mohyla and Slavic-Greek-Latin academies, who also trained teachers. However, they were not specialists in the full sense of the word: teaching was only one of the possibilities for using their knowledge and skills. The social prerequisites for the emergence of real special pedagogical educational institutions were formed only during the time of Peter I, when the foundations of the state system of public education were laid.

The eighteenth century, the century of Enlightenment, was marked by a surge in the development of pedagogical theory and practice, the development of the foundations of an anthropological paradigm for understanding the goals of upbringing and education, which were considered in a multidimensional plane. These trends also manifested themselves in Russia, where the image of a new person was being formed, secularly educated, not thinking in religious and dogmatic categories, but looking at the world with a broad view. It is no coincidence that in Russia at the beginning of the 18th century, thanks to the reforms of Peter I, the foundations of modern European education in Russia were laid. The reforms of Peter I were largely educational in nature: on his orders, a network of schools, primary, secondary and higher, was created,

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The Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy was reformed. In 1725, the St. Petersburg Academy was opened with a university and a gymnasium. Under Peter I, a tradition arose of inviting foreign teachers to Russia, although the tsar himself did not encourage such a practice. However, the period of Peter's reign was marked by the beginning of intensive convergence of Russian and foreign pedagogical traditions, the formation of an integral field of multicultural pedagogical theory and practice, much later, all this led to a significant imbalance towards tightening foreign influence.

From the middle of the 18th century, in the context of cross-cultural connections of the Russian elite, domestic cultural and pedagogical reflection began to take shape, embodied in the works of M.V. Lomonosov, I.I. Betsky, N.I. Novikova, A.I. Radishchev, which was evidence of the intensive development of Russian pedagogy of this period. The lack of a clear differentiation of sciences and the commonality of the cognitive field of the educated environment of that time formed the unique integrity of the multidisciplinary foundations of pedagogy, which also affected the quality of education. The poorly defined division of sciences into natural, technical and humanities projected into the educational environment a unique synthesis of knowledge and skills, which, in turn, contributed to the syncretic development of education, both in content and in organizational and methodological aspects. At the same time, it was during this period that the ideas of nationality of upbringing, personal approach, adaptability of upbringing and education began to find their expression, although, of course, they were not formalized in such terminological definitions.

As secular culture developed in Russia, the need for educated people grew, and the first special pedagogical educational institutions could not satisfy the increased demand for teachers. Theological seminaries remained the main “forges” of teaching staff; many graduates

who became teachers of urban public schools and, naturally, more actively projected religious principles into the learning process. This strengthened the priority of religious orientation in the dissemination of knowledge and, accordingly, weakened the secular nature of education. This trend was characteristic of Russia over the next hundred years.

In the period from the end of the 18th to the end of the first third of the 19th century, an ideology and philosophy of education was formed in Russia, an understanding of the cultural significance of pedagogy and teacher education, its role in the fate of the state, spread, although the system of teacher education itself had not yet acquired the features of systemic integrity. The foundations of the new education laid by Peter I largely contradicted traditional culture Russian society, And various kinds manifestations associated with the forced “Europeanization” of all spheres of society, including in the educational environment, contributed to the alienation of many people from traditional Orthodox culture and a change in the value priorities of entire social strata.

Up to the second half of the 19th century century, the initiative for the development of teacher education came from above, on behalf of the most socially advantaged strata. Progressive figures of Russian culture of the first half of the nineteenth century A.I. Herzen, V.G. Belinsky, D.I. Pisarev et al. viewed teacher education as a means, not an end. They considered the main priorities for the development of education to be the dissemination of culture and increasing the literacy of the population, which is quite consistent with modern ideas about pedagogy and educational systems, which are not valuable in themselves in isolation from their direct functional tasks. It was at this time that humanitarian reflection began to develop a holistic position regarding the sociocultural role of teacher education, separating it from education, and already in the second half of the 19th century

In the 11th century, the image of a teacher moves from the pages of specialized literature into the artistic world, acquiring romantic positive features. The paradigm of the educational environment at this time was qualitatively different from its counterpart in the Enlightenment, when the edification of pedagogical work overshadowed the aesthetics of pedagogy. However, despite the noticeable successes in the formation of the system of professional training of teaching staff during this period, there was a catastrophic shortage of teachers in the country, and the system of their training clearly did not meet the requirements of the time.

The middle and second half of the 19th century were marked by radical reforms in the field of education. Charters passed in the 1860s radically changed the structure Russian education. During these same years, a persistent social and pedagogical movement emerged that contributed to the dissemination of pedagogical knowledge and pedagogical culture. In the field of education, reforms were manifested in the creation of schools of various types, from primary to higher education, the emergence and spread of various forms female education. Women's gymnasiums and the Smolny Institute were opened; in addition, the classical gymnasium was improved, real schools were developed, secondary schools of various departments were reformed, including the church department, and the number of universities and institutes increased. Universities received autonomy. The content of education has undergone serious changes, in which the share of natural science knowledge has increased. Despite the diversity of schools, the main trend in education was the creation of a unified national education system, which government circles, unfortunately, could not fully understand and purposefully implement.

Distinctive feature sociocultural life of post-reform Russia was the spread of education. A wide spread unfolded social movement for the creation of public schools, changing teaching methods

participation in them, as well as for granting the right to education to women. The Moscow Literacy Committee in the early 1860s raised the issue of introducing universal primary education. The most common type of primary school during this period was zemstvo schools, of which more than 10 thousand were opened by the mid-1870s (3). Their discovery has intensified the problem of teacher training in a new way.

The development of literacy became a factor in general cultural growth, in connection with which libraries were opened, the range of published books expanded, and the printing base developed. The circulations gradually increased, primarily of mass fiction, “popular” literature, which, despite the primitiveness of the content, still introduced illiterate and uncultured people to the foundations of their native culture.

The second half of the nineteenth century was full of theoretical activity of outstanding figures of Russian pedagogy, among whom special place occupied by the founder of national pedagogical science K.D. Ushinsky. With the activities of K.D. Ushinsky is associated with the formation of modern content and teaching technologies, which were supposed to serve not only the goals of forming knowledge and skills, but also the goals of development and education. A significant contribution to the development of teaching content and technologies was made by L.N. Tolstoy, who organized primary school in Yasnaya Polyana, where he put his ideas into practice. With the help of these and other representatives of the progressive pedagogical community, general education developed in the direction from a neoclassical and real school to a national school.

As already noted, the system of teacher education in Russia is at an end XIX -beginning The twentieth century underwent numerous changes, usually directed “from above.” The objective of such reforms was, on the one hand, to ensure the expansion of the teaching profession in accordance with the needs

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society, and on the other hand, not to shake the official ideological line. “Democratic” reforms did not find support among all representatives of the ruling elite.

An analysis of the literature shows that, in general, the entire pre-revolutionary period of the formation of teacher education in Russia was characterized by surges and declines in the social and cultural influence of education in general and teaching practice in particular (1, 4, 6). Traditionally, two trends in the development of Russian culture have manifested themselves in Russia: reactionary and progressive. The direct connection between educational problems and general social problems was realized by the government only shortly before 1917, and the individualization of education, the cultivation of conscious love for the Motherland and comprehensively and harmoniously developed personality were never put into practice. Such priorities, of course, could have a positive impact on the process of smoothing out social contradictions and the development of Russian culture. However, despite the nonlinearity and contradictions of the historical and pedagogical process, the general features of the cultural and historical role of pedagogical education remain

remained unchanged at all stages of its development - from non-institutionalized and spontaneous forms and up to the formation of a relatively holistic system of training teachers, which developed in Russia in the last pre-revolutionary decades.

Pedagogical education in pre-revolutionary Russia throughout its existence was characterized by such features as a lack of unity, constant changes in the status and professional prospects of graduates, undemocratic principles of organization - remnants of class differentiation of education, as well as a certain speculative approach of the authorities to building both organizational infrastructure and and the content itself. Despite the fact that the advanced public has always been aware and clearly articulated the high culture-forming role of pedagogical practice, pedagogical culture and pedagogical education, such a position was not always and not completely shared by the authorities, which influenced the lag in the cultural progress of Russia in comparison with European countries, where the attitude of the authorities was fundamentally to others.

Notes

1. Belozertsev, E.P. Education: historical and cultural phenomenon: [course of lectures] / E.P. Belozertsev. - St. Petersburg: Legal Center Press, 2004.

2. Biryukov, A. A. System of pedagogical education in the history of Russia: textbook. allowance / A.A. Biryukov and others - Samara: Samar. University, 2003.

3. History of education and pedagogical thought / author. DI. Latyshina. - M.: Gardariki, 2003.

4. Knyazev, E. A. Genesis of higher pedagogical education in Russia in the 19th - early 20th centuries: A change of paradigms / E.A. Knyazev. - M.: September, 2002.

5. Experience in training teaching staff in pre-revolutionary Russia and the USSR. - M., 1972.

6. Pryanikova, V.G. History of education and pedagogical thought: [textbook-reference book] / V.G. Pryanikova, Z.I. Ravkin.- M., 1995.

7. Yudina, N.P. Modern approaches to the study of the historical and pedagogical process in the light of tendencies of post-non-classical rationality / N.P. Yudina. - Khabarovsk, 2001.

Each pedagogical term has its own history and appears in a certain context. The phrase “developmental education” owes its origin to the domestic psychologist V.V. Davydov and was first heard in the 60s of the twentieth century.
The sixties, as you know, were a special period in the history of our country. This is a decade of democratic changes, a surge in the activity of the intelligentsia (then still Soviet) and the public life of the country.
During such historical periods, society usually begins to reconsider its attitude towards the individual and the problems of education. And here in pedagogical dictionary The word “development” penetrates, forcing the stable and generally accepted term “formation” to take its place.
The stylistic difference is obvious. Behind “formation” is the rigid, directive activity of the teacher-subject, addressed to the child-object. You can “shape” (or “mold”) bricks from clay, pies from dough, a doll from a log. What about the child? The comparison of a child, especially a small one, with clay has taken root in our speech. It expresses an inescapable desire for pedagogical voluntarism.
The term “development” comes from a different value system. He seems to draw our attention to the fact that the child is not at all amorphous clay. Certain forces operate within him (from the moment of birth, and now it turns out that even before birth) that allow him to respond or not respond to our pedagogical efforts.
In this sense, the child is certainly a subject of the pedagogical process, i.e. active actor. And “developmental education” is education aimed at development. This was the deep humanistic meaning of the term “developmental education”, “launched” with the light hand of V.V. Davydov into teaching practice.
Nowadays, the term “developmental education” has firmly entered the domestic pedagogical dictionary. But “today,” writes Yaroslavl scientist G. Selevko, “the use of the term “developmental education” is so diverse that a special study is required to understand its modern meaning.”
In this and subsequent issues we will introduce readers to pedagogical systems that define themselves within the framework of the developmental learning paradigm.
Perhaps our readers will be able to get an idea of ​​the content that is put into the words “developmental education” in our time.
We asked Doctor of Psychological Sciences Viktor GURUZHAPOV to talk about the concept of the cultural-historical school.

- Viktor Aleksandrovich, can the concept of a school of a cultural-historical type be considered an integral part of cultural-historical pedagogy?

Yes. The concept we created in collaboration with V.V. Rubtsov and A.A. Margolis, is designed for a continuous educational cycle, starting from the preschool period (from 4-5 years old) until the end of high school.
It is based on the idea that children at a certain age must experience certain types of learning that have existed in cultural history. Hence the name - cultural-historical school. In addition, this concept is based on the ideas of cultural-historical psychology, the founder of which is L.S. Vygotsky.

- That is, it is assumed that each culture had its own way of teaching children and that there are certain psychologically adequate forms of education for each age, which the child perceives better at one or another stage of his development. Could you give some examples?

Where does training begin? From mastering ritual actions. That is, exactly the same as in primitive culture. What does this mean? For example, we want to teach children how to brush their teeth. It is useless to explain to a small child why this should be done. The rational reasons for observing the rules of personal hygiene will not be clear to him for a long time. The only explanation is that it is supposed to be done this way. In the morning, mom, dad, grandma or, if the situation plays out in kindergarten, children in the group must brush their teeth. This is a rule, a ritual. It's necessary. This is how everyone does it in our society. So we brush and brush our teeth.
In primitive society, ritual was the main form of transmission to new generations of important norms of social existence.

- And in our culture, what age of children is characterized by ritual as an educational form?

The ritual form of education is used at any age. After all, a person who does not master one or another form of ritual behavior often finds himself outside of society. Another thing is that for children, ritual is the main form of mastering the norm. At other age levels, other forms of learning arise. But preschool age, among other things, is a sensitive period for learning the norms of social behavior. If at this time the child does not learn to take care of himself, use hygiene products, eat carefully, and be polite, in subsequent periods it will be difficult or impossible to catch up at all.

The psychological literature describes the behavior of Mowgli children - foundlings who were “raised” by animals until a certain age. It was truly impossible for children who “returned” to human society at the age of five and at an older age to be taught to eat at the table or use cutlery. A huge problem was teaching them how to use the toilet for its intended purpose.

Yes. And the easiest way to teach a small child is through ritual, if this ritual exists within a special space that we can specifically build in pursuit of our educational goals.

- What educational forms does cultural-historical pedagogy offer for older children? For example, for children of primary school age?

At primary school age, the child enters a system of new relationships represented by the so-called “school-workshop”. From our point of view, some schemes that were accepted in the society of medieval culture are being implemented there. In the “workshop”, working next to the “master”, the child masters a certain norm of action. For example, learning to study. Here, in contrast to the first, preschool, stage, the action itself acquires a certain meaning and is perceived by the child as a certain way of working.
The teacher - the “master” - sets the canon of action, which the student imitates. This is precisely a canon, and not just an algorithm represented by a sequence of operations.

- Do you mean that the student tries to imitate the teacher as a model of behavior? After all, canon is a behavioral category?

Yes. One day I took a math lesson in a developmental education program. It was led by a male mathematician who had previously worked at the high school. The behavior of this teacher was built in accordance with classical ideas about what a mathematician should be - solid, reasonable, restrained, and possessing inner dignity. And, most importantly, his every word and movement must be evidence-based. You should have seen the children who were sitting in this lesson! They seem to have absorbed this style: they come to the board calmly and reason intelligently. And in all their actions one can see the same dignity, the same solidity. This is training from a master!

- How is cultural-historical pedagogy fundamentally different, for example, from Waldorf pedagogy? After all, there is also a postulate: “A child, in the process of his development, must go through all the stages of cultural development in a condensed form.” In other words, “a child in ontogenesis must repeat the main stages of cultural
phylogeny".

Waldorfs have their own, it must be said, rather unique ideas about the development of culture. But the fundamental difference is, perhaps, that we have a certain image of the cultural universe, to which, as a result of our educational process the child must come. We assign teachers a very active role in the educational process. Waldorfs proceed from the fact that the child initially has a desire for higher forms of existence, which must be helped to manifest and unfold during the learning process. In this sense, they follow the child, and we indicate to the child the perspective space of movement. That is why our educational paradigm exists within the framework of developmental education. Within our system, on each age stage in a child it is necessary to develop those qualities (new formations) that will become the basis for his development at the next age level.
Waldorfs, for example, believe that the main quality of a child in preschool childhood is imagination. It already exists, is present in him. You just don’t need to stop it from manifesting itself.
We share the view that imagination is the most important quality for a preschooler. But this is not enough for us. Firstly, imagination is not at all present in a ready-made (even if “unmanifested”) form: it needs to be developed.
Secondly, no less important for a preschooler from the point of view of his life prospects is the development of voluntary actions.
Voluntary action is action within the limits of a cultural norm. How is the arbitrariness of actions expressed? It is that I plan my activities, choose the mode of these activities and act within certain cultural constraints. After all, it is very important that the child understands what a cultured person can do in what situation and what he cannot do. The child must develop the ability to change socio-cultural positions.
And finally, it is extremely important for a preschooler to learn to operate with so-called “sign-symbolic” means.

- Can you talk about this in a little more detail? What does this actually mean: sign-symbolic means?

What was Vygotsky talking about? By mastering symbolic means, a child masters universal human abilities. In relation to psychology before school age these ideas were most fully developed in the works of L.A. Wenger is a classic of our domestic psychological school.

I would like to look at the problem of a child’s mastering sign-symbolic means not from the point of view of psychologists, but from the point of view of practitioners. Our practitioners, as we know, are not privy to the depths of sign theories. Therefore, for them, a sign is, first of all, a diagram.
They told the teacher that it is useful for the child to work with diagrams and signs. Due to his understanding of the problem, he begins to draw icons and diagrams at every convenient and inconvenient occasion. For example, a child must make up a story. He already does his job very well. And the teacher reminds him everything: look at the diagram, look at the diagram. The child has already flown away in the development of the plot - rich, interesting, and everyone is pulling him by the legs to an unnecessary scheme, which in fact does not help him compose, but slows down his story.
Or the teacher offers the child cards that contain a diagram of the so-called “step-by-step actions.” But the child may not need it at all if he already has an idea of ​​the stages of his actions (for example, how to work during appliqué or how to clean the table after working in a painting class): he has done this many times already. The sequence of actions is already automated or easily predicted by him. And here the scheme has some kind of intrusive, I would even say, aggressive nature of the organization of space.

Of course, one can often observe situations in which the use of signs turns out to be unnecessary and even incorrect. Using a sign is generally not an easy matter. That is why I say that a sign acquires its real life only in a special “mythological” space.

- Can you explain what this is?

Well, for example, there is a well-known thesis: role-playing play plays a huge role in the life of an older preschooler. That's true. What, however, are we faced with? Due to the fact that the child cannot transfer the skills acquired in role-playing game, in other life situations.
And so we decided that these games and other types of children’s activities should be immersed in some unified semantic field. It should be an integral world with legends about its origin, with its own rituals, traditions and holidays, with diverse role-playing spaces and, naturally, with its own signs and symbols.
We called this world mythological space.
Moreover, according to our ideas, a child should be immersed in this space for quite a long time: for example, from five to ten years. Then we will be able to provide him with the opportunity to live a developing, dynamic life within the mythological space.
And so we created the “Country of Childhood”, in which we planned to teach and raise children, starting from the preparatory class for school - from the age of five. Year preschool education we considered it mandatory. This was the year of entry into the mythological space, the year of living in mythological reality. Because children of four, five and even six years old are characterized by a mythological perception of reality.
In the perception of older children, a shift is already taking place from mythological perception to communal, to more socially determined. They already know how to joke about a fairy tale. The five-year-old still firmly believes in the reality of gaming reality. The line between fairy tale and reality is still blurred for him.
Within the mythological space, signs and symbols have a very important ability: they can be transferred. Transfer from one activity to another, from one game to another, from a given situation to a new one.
And now five-year-old children find themselves in a certain environment built according to the principles described - in a mythological environment with a ready-made, developed mythology. Since this environment is built according to the type of “country”, “state”, it has a name, attributes (coat of arms, flag), its own map on which cities are indicated, its own management system, its own currency, its own banks.
And the children begin to master the mythology of this “country”. And along with the development of mythology, they learn to master the sign-symbolic means of a given mythological space.

- Can you give me a specific example: how does this happen?

As I said, “Childhood Country” has its own currency, its own toy money. This money can be “earned” within certain situations. In other situations they represent a medium of exchange. To use money as a medium of exchange, you need to enter into some ritual relationships.
All this is very complicated, and at first the meaning of money is completely unclear to a small child. At first he saves his “toy” money as badges of honor. Money, as already mentioned, can be earned in certain situations: for some good deeds, for special success in classes, etc. And the children compete to see who has more money. At the same time, they are driven by purely sporting interest.
And suddenly they find themselves in a fair situation. Here it is revealed that these funny pieces of paper that they have saved up can be exchanged for a variety of things. But this is not so easy to do. For the exchange to take place, it is necessary to enter into some kind of ritual relationship. I have seen some very funny situations at these fairs. For example, the kid realized that he could buy himself a car. He goes up to the “counter”, hands over his toy money and asks for a car. The older child gives him the “goods”, counts out (counts out loud - this is an important condition for “working” as a seller!) the required number of pieces of paper, and returns the excess to the “buyer”.
And now the kid holds the car in one hand, the remaining money in the other and... doesn’t understand what’s going on. He doesn’t show any satisfaction with the “purchase” on his face. Just puzzled. The remaining money weighs on him. He doesn't know what to do with them next. He still doesn’t have the concept of a remainder!

- This is despite the fact that he lives in the world of commodity-money relations and goes to the store with his mother?

So in everyday life it is not included in the exchange process itself! And here the child determines his very existence and its course. This is a fundamentally new position.

- Why doesn’t he feel satisfied?

The ritual is not completed! The child had already learned that he had to give the money and buy the thing. Since he still has the money, he needs to do something else. And so he walks and walks in circles and finally makes a decision: to buy another car. Here it is!
It turns out that he has enough for another machine (and it doesn’t matter to him which one): he has just as much money left as he needs. And he takes both cars in one hand so that the other - the one in which there was a remainder - feels empty. And, having gotten rid of money, having received two cars, he finds true happiness. He runs to his people: “It worked! Bought!"
What happened? He performed a standardized action in a given mythological space. I did it myself, arbitrarily. This is a development situation.

- And you won’t be accused of instilling in your child a taste for commodity-money relations from an early age? How can early involvement of a child in exchange, in “buy-sell” relationships, have a harmful effect on his spiritual and moral development?

Instead of answering, I will tell you a story. One of the private schools, which was attended by the children of wealthy parents, decided to introduce a similar gaming system. Parents came to the meeting, sat, listened and said: “Why waste time on trifles? Why invent some kind of toy money? We will give our children real ones. Let them go to the fair!”
And nothing happened. No game. Why? Yes, because this real money is not included in this mythological space and does not have a symbolic meaning.

- Can't you play them?

You can't play.

- Such situations are typical for fairy tales, when a fairy-tale hero can use fairy-tale means only within certain limits. Remember Ellie with her glass slippers and magic hat? Or the same Harry Potter, who in the real world was a poor boy, and in the magical world - a rich heir?

Yes, yes, yes. But the child will have to find out these “protected” properties of the mythological space. After all, how did it happen? For some reason the child was not successful in earning toy money. And so he brings real money from home and tries to buy (!) toy currency with it. It will suit one child, then another. Neither agrees.
After all, toy money is the key to their personal participation in the game. And personal participation is the main value. Therefore, all accusations against us that we are developing commercialism in children are unjustified. Toy money does not serve greed or hoarding. This is a way to get involved live game. Can this be sold?
I want to emphasize one more important point. The participation of 4-5 year old children in fairs is not at all the same as economic games for high school students. They enter the situation completely differently, with a different internal charge, with different attitudes. What happens to children here and now as a result of such play cannot be made up for at another age.
Within the symbolic relationships of a given mythological space, they are capable of real noble deeds. For example, a teacher and children dream of purchasing something for their class (or group). But there are not enough class (group) funds for this thing. And then some child makes up for the shortfall from his toy money. As a result of this action, his score, of course, decreases. But authority rises disproportionately higher in comparison with losses. And then it becomes clear: in order to earn authority, you need to be able to sacrifice something. A very important discovery.

I will try to summarize the understanding of cultural-historical pedagogy that I learned from our conversation.
So, cultural-historical pedagogy offers an educational model within which methods that arise in different periods of human history are used to educate children of different ages. In accordance with what stage of cultural development this or that “reflects” child's age, certain methods of introduction into modern culture take advantage.
On a practical level, cultural-historical pedagogy can be implemented in the form of a large game designed for a fairly long period of time. This game allows you to build a special gaming space, which you call mythological. In the play space, children of different ages realize their age-related needs and get the opportunity to realize and develop the personal qualities they need at the next age stage. In other words, in play the child’s perspectives receive a certain materialized form. A kid, for example, knows that successful useful activity will allow him to participate in fairs, have the right to vote in deciding important issues, and in the future - to run for “president”. In this game he also learns to reckon with and understand the “conventions” characteristic of human society. This is called the development of sign-symbolic means of culture.

With its mythological side, this play space is primarily aimed at children. Children of primary school age perceive the game in its social context. Presidential elections, activities in self-government bodies, etc. are important to them.
They clearly distinguish a game situation from a learning situation. (The main efforts of teachers in the preparatory years for school are aimed at this - to teach children standardized actions in a standardized environment.)

- How are classes structured in preschool groups?

Most activities involve travel. Traveling is a very convenient way to conduct classes. They allow you to present material in large blocks and integrate different disciplines. For preschoolers, such integration is very important.

- Traveling - literally or figuratively?

In the sense that children do not sit at their desks unnecessarily, but move in some space on the map.

- And as part of a journey, the appearance of a map is quite organic: a real traveler will not take a step without a map. And the map is a symbolic image of space.

Yes. And there are special icons on the map that indicate certain actions. Children already know these icons and, therefore, know what tasks they will need to complete.
The teacher constantly offers the children new cards and changes the sequence of tasks so that excessive automaticity does not develop. And while traveling, children unnoticed by themselves master signs related directly to future academic disciplines: plus, minus, more, less, equal, etc.
Learning in such a situation occurs unobtrusively, within the play context, within the event in which the child is immersed.
In general, I believe that learning is an event. What is a truly talented teacher? The fact is that he knows how to initiate an event, and then live in it with the children.
And the concept of cultural-historical pedagogy makes it possible to realize this most important principle.

The conversation was conducted by Marina AROMSHTAM

Mercy and charity as cultural and historical traditions of social and pedagogical activity. Stages of development of charity in Russia. Introduction of the profession "social teacher" in Russia.

Mercy and charity as cultural and historical traditions of social and pedagogical activity.

The theory and practice of social pedagogy are related to the historical, cultural, ethnographic traditions and characteristics of the people, depend on the socio-economic development of the state, and are based on religious, moral and ethical ideas about man and human values.

If we talk about social pedagogy as an area of ​​practical activity, then it is necessary to clearly distinguish between social and pedagogical activity as an officially recognized type of professional activity, on the one hand, and as a specific, real activity of organizations, institutions, individuals, citizens to provide assistance to people in need, on the other.

Until recently, socio-pedagogical activity as a profession that involves special training of people capable of providing qualified assistance to children in need of social, pedagogical and moral-psychological support did not exist in our country. As for the real activities of the society in helping disadvantaged children, it has deep historical roots in Russia.

It must be said that throughout the development of human civilization, any society has in one way or another been faced with the problem of attitude towards those of its members who cannot independently ensure their full existence: children, the elderly, the sick with disabilities in physical or mental development, and others. The attitude towards such people in different societies and states at different stages of their development was different - from the physical destruction of weak and inferior people to their full integration into society, which was determined by the axiological (value) position characteristic of a given society, i.e. a system of sustainable preferred, significant, and valuable ideas for members of society. The axiological position, in turn, is always determined by the ideological, socio-economic, and moral views of society.

The history of the Russian people shows that in their culture, even during the period of tribal relations, traditions of a humane, compassionate attitude towards the weak and disadvantaged people, and especially towards children as the most defenseless and vulnerable among them, began to be laid. With the adoption of Christianity in Rus', these traditions were consolidated in various forms of mercy and charity that existed at all stages of the development of Russian society and the state.

Despite the fact that the words “charity” and “mercy”, at first glance, are very close in meaning, they are not synonyms. Mercy is a willingness to help someone out of philanthropy, compassion, or, as V. Dahl defines it, “love in action, a willingness to do good to everyone.” Russian Orthodox Church from its very foundation, it proclaimed mercy as one of the most important ways to fulfill the basic Christian commandment “love your neighbor as yourself.” Moreover, mercy as active love for one’s neighbor, through which love for God was affirmed, should have been expressed not just in compassion, sympathy for the suffering, but in real help to them. In ancient Russian society, the practical fulfillment of this commandment was, as a rule, reduced to the requirement to give alms to those in need. Later, other forms of manifestation of mercy developed, the most significant of which was charity. Charity involves the provision of free and, as a rule, regular assistance people in need. Having emerged as a manifestation of a merciful attitude towards one’s neighbor, charity has today become one of the most important components of the social life of almost every modern state, having its own legal basis and various organizational forms. However, in each country the development of charity has its own historical characteristics.

Stages of development of charity in Russia

Many researchers identify several stages in the development of charity in Russia, stage 1 - IX-XVI centuries. During this period, charity began with the activities of individuals and the church and was not included in the responsibilities of the state.

Grand Duke Vladimir, who was popularly called the “Red Sun,” became famous for his good deeds and merciful attitude towards those in need. Being by nature a man of a broad soul, he encouraged others to take care of their neighbors, to be merciful and patient, and to do good deeds. Vladimir initiated and carried out a number of activities to introduce Russians to education and culture. He established schools for the education of children of the noble, middle-class and poor, seeing in the education of children one of the main conditions for the development of the state and the spiritual formation of society.

Prince Yaroslav Vladimirovich, who accepted the throne in 1016, established an orphan school, in which he taught 300 young men at his expense,

During the difficult period of civil strife and wars, when a huge number of people appeared in need of material and moral help, it was the church that took upon itself this noble mission. It inspired the Russian people to fight for national revival and was extremely important for preserving among the people their inherent spirituality, faith in goodness, and did not allow them to become embittered and lose moral guidelines and values. The Church created a system of monasteries where the poor and suffering, the destitute, the physically and morally broken found shelter. Unlike western church, which saw its main charitable task as caring for the poor and infirm, that is, giving them shelter and food, the Russian church took upon itself to perform three most important functions: training, treatment, charity. In Russia, among the monasteries and large churches, there were none that did not maintain hospitals, almshouses, or orphanages. Among priests we find many striking examples when their lives and deeds were dedicated to helping people. Thus, the Venerable Seraphim of Sarov, Elder Ambrose, who served people with faith and truth in Optina Monastery, Sergius of Radonezh and many others evoke deep respect and admiration. They taught in word and deed to observe moral commandments, develop worthy examples of behavior, and treat people with respect. , take care of children, perform acts of mercy and love for one's neighbor.

But the traditions of charity among the Russian people were not limited to the activities of the church and individual princes. Ordinary people often provided support to each other, and first of all to the children. The fact is that during this period children were not recognized by the state and the church as a value for society. The bishops of the pre-Mongol period, according to historians, did not distinguish themselves in helping children, especially those abandoned by their mothers, while the people did not remain indifferent to the fate of orphans.

The tradition that had developed in the pre-state period of caring for a child by the entire clan community was transformed into caring for abandoned children with poor women. Skudelnitsa is a common grave in which people who died during epidemics, froze in winter, etc. were buried. At skudelnitsa, guardhouses were built where abandoned children were brought. They were cared for and educated by poor people - elders and old women, who were specially selected and played the role of guard and educator.

The orphans were supported in poor houses at the expense of alms from the population of the surrounding villages. People brought clothes, shoes, food, toys. It was then that proverbs such as “A thread for the world, but a shirt for the poor orphan” arose, “A living person is not without a place, and a dead person is not without a grave.” Both unfortunate death and unfortunate birth were covered by people's charity.

Despite their primitiveness, houses for poor children were an expression of people's concern for orphans, a manifestation of human duty to children. Skudelniks watched them physical development, with the help of fairy tales they conveyed to them the moral rules of human society, and collective relationships smoothed out the severity of childhood experiences.

By the beginning of the 16th century, along with the personal participation of any person in charitable activities, a new trend associated with the charitable activities of the state had emerged in helping those in need. In particular, at the Council of the Stoglavy in 1551, Ivan Vasilyevich the Terrible expressed the idea that in every city it is necessary to identify all those in need of help - the poor and beggars, and build special almshouses and hospitals where they would be provided with shelter and care.

Stage 2 - from the beginning of the 17th century. before the reform of 1861. During this period, the emergence of state forms of charity took place, and the first social institutions were opened. The history of childhood charity in Rus' is associated with the name of Tsar Fyodor Alekseevich, or more precisely, with his decree (1682), which spoke of the need to teach children literacy and crafts.

But most of all, history knows the name of the great reformer - Peter I, who during his reign created a state system of charity for the needy, identified categories of the needy, introduced preventive measures to combat social vices, regulated private charity, and legislated his innovations.

For the first time under Peter I, childhood and orphanhood became the object of state care. In 1706, shelters for “shameful babies” were opened, where it was ordered to take illegitimate children with anonymity of origin, and the death penalty was inevitable for the “destruction of shameful babies.” Infants were provided for by the state, and the treasury provided funds for the maintenance of children and the people serving them. When children grew up, they were sent to almshouses for food or to foster parents, children over 10 years old - to sailors, foundlings or illegitimate children - to art schools.

Catherine the Great realized the plan of Peter I by building first in Moscow (1763) and then in St. Petersburg (1772) imperial educational homes for “disgraceful infants.”

The charitable activities of the Russian Imperial Court, especially its female half, took on the form of a stable tradition during this period. Thus, Maria Feodorovna, the wife of Paul I and the first minister of charity, showed great concern for orphans. In 1797, she wrote a report to the emperor on the work of orphanages and orphanages, in which, in particular, it was proposed to “...give babies (orphans) to be raised in the sovereign’s villages by peasants of “good behavior.” But only when the children in orphanages become stronger , and most importantly - after smallpox vaccination. Boys can live in foster families until they are 18 years old, girls - until they are 15 years old. As a rule, these children married in the village, and their future was managed by public charity bodies. This was the beginning of the system of raising orphans in families, and in order for the educators to be “skillful and skillful,” Maria Fedorovna, at her own expense, opened pedagogical classes at educational homes and pepiniers (a pepinier is a girl who graduated from a secondary closed educational institution and was left with it for pedagogical practices) classes - in women's gymnasiums and institutes that trained teachers and governesses. In 1798, she founded the Trusteeship for Deaf-Mute Children.

During the same period, public organizations began to be created, independently choosing the object of assistance and working in that social niche that the state did not cover with its attention. Thus, under Catherine II (mid-18th century), the state-philanthropic “Educational Society” was opened in Moscow. In 1842, also in Moscow, a board of guardians of orphanages was created, headed by Princess N.S. Trubetskoy. Initially, the council's activities were focused on organizing the free time of poor children who were left without parental supervision during the daytime. Later, the council began to open departments for orphans, and in 1895 a hospital for the children of the Moscow poor.

Alexander I turns his attention to children with visual impairments. By his order, the famous French teacher Valentin Gayuy was invited to St. Petersburg, who developed an original method of teaching blind children. From this time on, institutions for this category of children began to be built, and in 1807. The first institute for the blind was opened, where only 15 blind children studied (they expected to admit 25), since already at that time the thesis “there are no blind people in Russia” was tenacious. During this period, a certain social policy and legislation began to develop in Russia, and a system of charity for people, and in particular for children in need of help, was formed. The church is gradually moving away from charity work, performing other functions, and the state is creating special institutions that begin to implement public policy in providing social support and protection.

Stage III - from the 60s. XIX century until the beginning of the 20th century. During this period of time there was a transition from public philanthropy to private philanthropy. Public philanthropic organizations are emerging. One of them is the “Imperial Philanthropic Society,” in which monetary charitable donations from private individuals, including members of the imperial family, were concentrated.

As in Western Europe, a network of charitable institutions and establishments was gradually formed in Russia, mechanisms of charitable assistance were established and improved, which covered an increasingly wide range of children with various social problems: illness or developmental defect, orphanhood, vagrancy, homelessness, prostitution, alcoholism and etc.

Public philanthropic activities extended to include children with physical disabilities. Orphanages were organized for deaf and dumb children, blind children, and disabled children, where they were educated and trained in various crafts in accordance with their illness.

The Trust for Deaf-Mute Children, founded by Empress Maria Feodorovna, maintained schools, educational workshops, shelters and shelters for children at its own expense, and provided benefits to families with deaf-mute dependents. Poor pupils were given state support.

No less significant was Maria Alexandrovna's guardianship of blind children. The main source of income for the Trusteeship was the circle collection - a material donation from all churches and monasteries, which was collected in the fifth week after Easter. The schools accepted children from 7 to 11 years old for full government support in case of extreme need.

In 1882, the Blue Cross Society for the Care of Poor and Sick Children was opened, led by the Grand Duchess Elizaveta Mavriklevna. Already in 1893, within the framework of this society there was a department for the protection of children from cruelty, including shelters and hostels with workshops.

At the same time, at the expense of private entrepreneur A. S. Balitskaya, the first shelter for crippled and paralyzed children was created. At the end of the 19th century. It becomes necessary to open shelters for idiotic and epileptic children, who also require special care and care. Such a noble mission was undertaken by the Society for Charity of Underage Cripples and Idiots, which opened a shelter for idiotic children in St. Petersburg. There, psychotherapist I.V. Malyarevsky opens a medical educational institution for mentally retarded children, with the goal of helping children with mental health problems in teaching them an honest working life.

Thus, the system of public and state charity for children in Russia at the end of the 19th century was an extensive network of charitable societies and institutions, the activities of which were significantly ahead of the development of professional social work and social pedagogy in Europe.

During this period, charity takes on a secular character. Personal participation in it is perceived by society as a moral act. Charity is associated with the nobility of the soul and is considered an integral matter for everyone.

A notable feature of this period is the emergence of professional assistance and the emergence of professional specialists. Various courses are beginning to be organized, which became the beginning of professional training for social services. The “Social School” was formed at the Faculty of Law of the Psychoneurological Institute, where one of the departments was the “Department of Public Charity” (October 1911). In the same year, the first intake of students majoring in “public charity” was made. In 1910 and 1914 The first and second congresses of social workers took place. One of the most important areas of activity of scientists and practitioners during this period was providing assistance and building a system of educational and correctional institutions where poor and street children ended up.

In Moscow, under the City Duma, there was a Charity Council and a special Children's Commission formed by it, which collected statistical data on children expelled from school or expelled from shelters for bad behavior; controlled the conditions of detention of juvenile delinquents; assisted in the opening of orphanages. Congresses of representatives of Russian correctional institutions for minors (from 1881 to 1911 there were 8 congresses) were devoted to the issues of correction of juvenile delinquents through mental influence on the basis of love for one’s neighbor. In Russia, educational activities in relation to juvenile delinquents took on a wide scale. Lectures were given and conversations were held on the active participation of every citizen in the fate of a child who has committed an offense. Charitable societies were opened, which, with their own money, created institutions to help children who had taken the path of crime.

At the beginning of the 20th century. The system of social services has successfully developed in Russia. In 1902 There were 11,400 charitable institutions and 19,108 boards of trustees. In St. Petersburg alone, their income amounted to 7,200 rubles, a huge amount at that time. The money was used to create educational institutions, maintain homes for poor children, night shelters for tramps, public canteens, outpatient clinics and hospitals. A stable positive attitude towards charity was maintained and strengthened in society.

Stage IV - from 1917 to the mid-80s. XX century The turning point in the development of charity in Russia was the October Revolution of 1917. The Bolsheviks condemned charity as a bourgeois relic, and therefore any charitable activity was prohibited. The liquidation of private property closed possible sources of private charity. The separation of church and state and, in fact, its repression closed the way for church charity.

Having destroyed charity, which was a real form of assistance to needy children, the state took upon itself the care of the socially disadvantaged, the number of which increased sharply as a result of acute social cataclysms (the First World War, several revolutions, civil war). Orphanhood" homelessness, delinquency among teenagers, prostitution of minors - the most acute social and pedagogical problems of that period that required their solution.

Soviet Russia set the task of combating child homelessness and its causes. These issues were dealt with by the so-called social education departments - departments of social education under government bodies at all levels. Institutions for the social and legal protection of minors were created, and the training of specialists for the social education system began in universities in Moscow and Leningrad.

During this period, pedology began to actively develop, which set itself the task of ensuring the most successful upbringing of the child on the basis of synthesized knowledge about the child and the environment: helping children learn, protecting the child’s psyche from overload, painlessly mastering social and professional roles, etc.

20s caused the appearance of a whole galaxy of talented teachers and psychologists - both scientists and practitioners, including A. S. Makarenko, P. P. Blonsky, S. T. Shatsky, L. S. Vygotsky and many others. Their scientific works, impressive achievements in practical work on the social rehabilitation of “difficult” children and adolescents (First Experimental Station of the People's Commissariat for Education, labor colony named after M. Gorky, etc.)

received well-deserved international recognition. However, the system of social education and pedology did not develop for long; in fact, they ceased to exist after the notorious decree of 1936 “On pedological perversions in the system of Narkompros.” Pedology was accused of playing the role of the “anti-Leninist theory of the withering away of the school,” supposedly dissolving the latter in the environment. Many representatives of this theory were repressed, and social education and the concept of environment were discredited and removed from the professional consciousness of teachers for many years. Since the 1930s, called the “great turning point” in our history, the “iron curtain” has fallen, separating Soviet scientists and practitioners from their foreign colleagues for a long time. In the established totalitarian state, universal values ​​were replaced by class values. The proclamation of the utopian idea of ​​​​building the most perfect and fair society, the elimination of all remnants of the past, including social ills, made the topic of social problems and the system closed. social assistance children in need. New social upheavals associated with the Great Patriotic War (1941-1945) again aggravated the situation of children. “Now that thousands of Soviet children have lost their relatives and are left homeless,” the Pravda newspaper wrote, “their needs must be equated with the needs of the front.” The public's attitude towards socially disadvantaged children is changing - they are being treated as victims of war. The state is trying to solve their problems by creating boarding schools for evacuated children and expanding the network of orphanages for the children of soldiers and partisans. But along with this, charity is actually being revived (although this word is not used), which is manifested in the opening of special accounts and funds, in the transfer of money by soldiers and officers for children, in the transfer of personal savings of the population for their needs. In pedagogical science and practice, there has been a clear turn towards social pedagogy, the creation and development of its organizational forms and institutions, and the resumption of theoretical research in the field of environmental pedagogy related to the development of a systematic approach to teaching and upbringing.

Introduction of the profession "social teacher" in Russia

The deep social upheavals occurring in our society in recent years, the crisis state of the economy, culture, and education are catastrophically worsening living conditions and raising children. As a result of this, crime among teenagers and young people is growing, the number of street and neglected children is increasing, child alcoholism, child prostitution, child drug addiction are becoming a social problem, the number of children with disabilities in physical and mental development is increasing, etc.

In the conditions of reforming society, the social policy of the state is also changing. In 1990, the Supreme Soviet of the USSR ratified the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child, which came into force for Russian Federation as the legal successor of the USSR from September 15, 1990. Article 7 of the new Constitution of Russia states that in the Russian Federation “the government support family, motherhood, fatherhood and childhood, a system of social services is being developed, state pensions and other guarantees of social protection are being established.” Numerous regulations have been adopted; Law on Education, Presidential Decree on social support for large families, Government Decree on urgent measures for social protection of orphans and children without parental care, etc.

In the early 90s, three large social programs were adopted and began to be implemented: “Socio-psychological support, education and upbringing of children with developmental anomalies”, “Creative personality development” and “Social services for helping children and youth”; At the same time, such state social programs as “Children of Russia”, “Children of Chernobyl”, etc. were developed and are still in effect.

Various ministries and departments are currently dealing with issues of social protection and support for children: the Ministry of General and Vocational Education; Ministry of Labor and Social Development; Ministry of Health; Ministry of Justice.

New types of institutions are being created throughout the country: centers for social health of families and children, social rehabilitation of troubled teenagers; shelters are opened for children running away from home; There are social hotels and helplines and many other services providing social, medical, psychological, pedagogical and other types of assistance.

Charity is returning to our society, and on a new legislative basis. The Law of the Russian Federation “On Charitable Activities and Charitable Organizations” caused a process of rapid development of charitable foundations, associations, unions, and associations. Currently, the Charity and Health Foundation, the Children's Fund, the White Crane charitable foundation and many others are successfully operating, providing social protection and assistance to orphans and children without parental care, and inmates of orphanages. Organized and active professional associations social educators and social workers, is gaining strength volunteer movement, providing assistance and support to children in need. In 1991, the Institute of Social Pedagogy was officially introduced in Russia. In the vocational education system, a new specialty “social pedagogy” was approved, a qualification profile for a social teacher was developed, and appropriate additions were made to the qualification directory of positions for managers, specialists and employees. Thus, legally and practically, the foundations of a new profession were laid. The concept of “social teacher” has become familiar and has entered into the theoretical research of scientists and pedagogical practice. The official opening of a new social institution gave a huge impetus to methodological, theoretical and scientific-practical research both in the field of activity of new personnel and in their training. Recent years have been characterized by the fact that after a 70-year break, Russia is returning to the global educational space. Foreign experience is studied, translated literature is published, and there is an active exchange of specialists.

You and I stand at the origins of a new period - the period of professional social and pedagogical activity. It is just beginning, but it is not starting from scratch. Humanity has accumulated vast experience in working with children who require special protection and care; it knows methods and techniques for resolving the problems that arise for them, and creates new technologies. And the development of Russian culture itself has long prepared the ground for this profession in various spheres of social activity.

Social pedagogy in modern conditions political, social, economic transformations of the country, Russia's entry into the world community, Russia's adoption of the Convention on the Rights of the Child becomes a symbol of changes aimed at creating an effective system of assistance, protection and support for childhood.

Questions for self-control

• 1. What are the cultural and historical traditions of charity and mercy in Russia?
• 2. What main directions and forms of social assistance to childhood existed in the Old Russian state in the 9th - 16th centuries?
• 3. How the system of state child care was formed in Russia in the period from the 17th century. until the first half of the 19th century. ?
• 4. Tell us about the formation of the system of public child care in Russia: its advantages and disadvantages.
• 5. Expand the content of work with children in the social sphere during the Soviet period.
• 6. What is the essence modern approaches to the development of state and non-state structures of social assistance to childhood in Russia?

Literature:

• 1. Aleksandrovsky Yu.A. Know and overcome yourself: Alone with everyone.
• 2. Anthology of pedagogical thought of Ancient Rus' and the Russian state of the XIV-XVII centuries. -- M„ 1985.

"3. Anthology of social work. T. 1. History of social assistance in Russia / Compiled by M.V. Firsov. - M, 1994.

• 4. Vodya L.V. Charity and patronage in Russia: Krat. history essay. -- M., 1993.
• 5. Charitable organizations with a social orientation. -- M., 1998.
• 6. Egoshina V., N., Efimova N. V. From the history of charity and social security children in Russia. -- M., 1993.
• 7. Klyuchevsky V. O. Collection. cit.: In 9 vols. T. 1. Kure of Russian history. Part 1, - M., 1987.
• 8. Nesheretny P.I. Historical roots and traditions of the development of charity in Russia. - M, 1993.
• 9. Russian encyclopedia of social work: 2 volumes. / Ed. A. M. Panova, E. I. Kholostova. -- M., 1997.