Examples of norms in Russian. The concept of language norm

In the linguistic literature of recent years, two types of norms are distinguished: imperative and dispositive.

Imperative(i.e. strictly mandatory) are those norms, the violation of which is regarded as poor mastery of the Russian language (for example, violation of the norms of declension, conjugation, or belonging to grammatical gender). These norms do not allow options (non-variable), any other implementations of them are considered incorrect: met Vanya(Not with Van), ringing I T(no sound O nyat), quart A l(not sq. A rotal), my peeve(not my pet peeve) wash your hair with shampoo(not shampoo).

Diapositive(optional, not strictly mandatory) norms allow stylistically different or neutral options: otherwise - otherwise, stack - stack, croutons - croutons (colloquial), thinking - thinking (obsolete), whirl - whirl (additional), brown - korishnevy, piece of cheese - piece of cheese, grade book - grade book, three served went persons - three persons served went.

The concepts of normalization and codification are closely related to issues of norms and their variation.

Often the terms “normalization and codification” are used interchangeably. However, in recent studies these terms and concepts are differentiated.

V. A. Itskovich suggests that normalization should be considered not a simple description of a norm, or its codification in the strict sense of the word, but only active intervention in the language process, for example, the introduction of certain terms and the rejection of others as undesirable for some reason. (Itskovich V.A. Language norm. - M., 1968). However, with this approach to normalization and codification, the distinction between these two phenomena is somewhat lost. We find a clearer solution to this issue in L.I. Skvortsov: “Contrasting in degree of activity (or “awareness”) to each other, the concepts of “codification” and “normalization” turn out to be in relation to subordination: the latter is part of the former. In practice, “normalization”... is usually called “standardization” (in the broad sense of the word: establishment of GOST, streamlining of the terminology system, official renaming, etc.)” (Skvortsov L.I. Fundamentals of speech culture: Reader. – M.: graduate School, 1984. – P.164).

According to L.K. Graudina, the term “normalization” refers to a set of problems that involve covering the following aspects: 1) studying the problem of defining and establishing the norm of a literary language; 2) research for normative purposes of language practice in its relation to theory; 3) bringing into the system, further improving and streamlining the rules of use in cases of divergence between theory and practice, when there is a need to strengthen the norms of the literary language (104). L. K. Graudina considers the term “codification” to be narrower and more specialized compared to the term “normalization” and uses it in cases when it comes to registering rules in normative works (Graudina, L. K., Shiryaev E. N. Culture of Russian speech. – M.: Infra-M, 1999. – P. 19).

The most optimal, in our opinion, is the definition of normalization as the process of formation, approval of a norm, its description, and ordering by linguists. Normalization is a historically long-term selection of single, most commonly used units from linguistic variants. Normalizing activity finds its expression in the codification of a literary norm - its official recognition and description in the form of rules in authoritative linguistic publications (dictionaries, reference books, grammars). Consequently, codification is a developed set of rules that brings standardized options into systems and “legitimizes” them.

A speech norm is a set of the most stable traditional implementations of the language system, selected and consolidated in the process of public communication. (Russian language and culture of speech: textbook / edited by O. Ya. Goikhman. - M.: Infra-M, 2010.)

A linguistic norm (literary norm) is the rules for the use of speech means in a certain period of development of a literary language, that is, the rules of pronunciation, word usage, and the use of traditionally established grammatical, stylistic and other linguistic means accepted in social and linguistic practice. (Vvedenskaya, Pavlova, Kashaeva).

The norm is mandatory for both oral and written speech and covers all aspects of the language. There are norms: orthoepic (pronunciation), orthographic (writing), word-formation, lexical, morphological, syntactic, punctuation.

Signs of literary language norms:

relative stability,

common usage,

universality,

correspondence to the use, custom and capabilities of the language system.

Literary correct speech constructed in accordance with language norms. Norm − uniform exemplary generally accepted use of elements of a literary language in a certain period of its development. It is historical and can change one way or another over time.. Studying the state of language in its speech manifestations (artistic and scientific literature, live speech, oral and written speech of the media, etc.), linguists highlight certain norms inherent in it at this stage of existence. The establishment of a norm and its assimilation by native speakers helps preserve the integrity and general intelligibility of the literary language, protects it from the unjustified penetration of dialectal, colloquial and slang elements. It is compliance with the norm that allows the verbal means we use to perform their main function - to be a means of communication.

Literary norms are reflected in all linguistic dictionaries modern Russian language. At the same time, in explanatory dictionaries a set of basic (mandatory) norms and commonly used variant norms are reflected. For example, in the “Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language” the accentual variants (i.e. stress variants) of such words as standardize And normalize, thinking And thinking. Some variants of words are given with corresponding marks: cottage cheese And (colloquial) cottage cheese, contract And (simple.) agreement. In the "Orthoepic Dictionary of the Russian Language" you can follow the fate of some accent variants of words. Yes, words standardize And thinking become preferred and normalize And thinking have the mark extra. (acceptable).

All non-literary units included in the dictionary are marked with special marks: simple(colloquial), slang(slang) places(local), etc. Speech errors are not recorded in explanatory dictionaries of the Russian language. A comprehensive reflection of the difficulties of the Russian language is given in reference dictionaries. The indicators of various normative dictionaries give reason to talk about three degrees of normativity:

The first degree norm is strict, rigid, not allowing options;

The II degree norm is neutral, allowing equivalent options;

The III degree norm is more flexible, allowing the use of colloquial as well as outdated forms.

The historical change in the norms of a literary language is a natural, objective phenomenon. It does not depend on the will and desire of individual language speakers. The development of society, changes in the social way of life, the emergence of new traditions, the functioning of literature and art lead to the constant updating of the literary language and its norms.

The norms of the literary language reflect the originality of the Russian national language, contribute to the preservation of linguistic tradition, cultural heritage past. They protect the literary language from the flow of dialect speech, social and professional jargon, and vernacular. This allows the literary language to remain holistic, generally understandable, and fulfill its the main function is cultural.

Based on the norms adopted and in force at any stage of the existence of a literary language, it is possible to determine what changes in relation to normalization have occurred and what are the trends in the further development of norms of the literary language.

There are standards:

· orthoepic,

· grammatical,

· lexical.

Their assimilation by native speakers of the national language occurs naturally, if in early childhood a person hears correct, standardized speech. Mastery of norms continues at school and other educational institutions. But in speech practice, despite this, one or another violation of the norm occurs very often. This drawback can be overcome if you systematically work with various kinds of dictionaries and reference books.

Competent oral and written speech presupposes the absence of speech errors. Every person should write and speak clearly, accurately, stylistically, and expressively. Elementary level proficiency speech culture necessary for each of us in order to be a full member of society, to participate in public and production activities and fully express yourself as a person. IN lately More and more attention was paid to overcoming speech errors. One evidence of this is the inclusion of the corresponding section in the texts of State testing. However, so far the results leave much to be desired, and speech errors continue to “decorate” the written and oral statements of our compatriots.

Speech errors, depending on the relationship to the two main forms of speech - written and oral - can be divided into:

1. Characteristics of the oral form of speech (orthoepic and accentological);

2. Characteristics of written speech (spelling and punctuation);

3. Independent of the form of speech (speech itself, found in both oral and written forms).

Speech errors themselves can be word-formation, morphological, syntactic, lexical, phraseological and stylistic.

Derivatives appear when a native speaker resorts to unjustified word-composition or modification of words. Morphological ones are associated with the non-normative formation of word forms and the use of parts of speech. Syntactic ones involve incorrect construction of phrases and sentences. Lexical ones arise when a word is used in a meaning that is unusual for it, the compatibility of words is violated, repetitions and tautologies. Phraseological ones are associated with the incorrect use of set phrases, while stylistic ones are associated with a violation of the unity of style.

Lexical norms

Abstract

Topic: Standards of modern Russian language

Introduction

1 The concept of a language norm and its functions

2 Norms of modern Russian language

3 Language norms and speech practice

Conclusion

List of used literature

Introduction

The history and culture of the people is reflected in the language. Moreover, the most essential part of the collective experience of the people, which manifests itself in intellectual activity and in “ inner world» of a person, finds its expression through language in oral speech and in written texts.

The concepts of “normal” and “norm” are important for many species human activity. There are standards for the production of products (for example, at a factory) and normals, i.e. technical requirements requirements that the product must satisfy. Nutritionists talk about nutritional standards, athletes “fit” into certain standards (in running, in jumping). No one doubts the fact that in any civilized society there are norms of relationships between people, norms of etiquette; Each of us has an idea of ​​what is normal for human communication, and what is abnormal, goes beyond the limits of some unwritten norm. Yes and ours everyday speech replete with these words: How are you? - Fine!; Well, how are you? - Nothing, it’s normal. Moreover, the norm is invisibly present in our statements that do not contain the words norm or normal. When we say: a comfortable chair, a too dark room, inexpressive singing, we mean certain generally accepted “norms” for the comfort of a chair, the lighting of the room, and the expressiveness of singing.

There is a norm in language too. And this is quite natural: language is an integral part of not only a civilized society, but also of any human society in general. Normativity is compliance with language norms that are perceived by its speakers as an “ideal” or correct model.

The language norm is one of the components of national culture. Therefore, the development of a literary norm, its codification, and the reflection of the normalizing activities of linguists in grammars, dictionaries and reference books are of great social and cultural importance.

All of the above justifies the relevance of this topic.

Purpose of the work: a comprehensive study and analysis of the norms of the modern Russian language.

The work consists of an introduction, 3 chapters, a conclusion and a list of references.

1 The concept of a language norm and its functions

Norm is one of the central linguistic concepts. Most often this term is used in combination with “literary norm” and is applied to those varieties of language that are used in media mass media, in science and education, in diplomacy, lawmaking and legislation, in business and legal proceedings and other areas of “socially important”, mainly public communication. But we can talk about the norm in relation to a territorial dialect or social jargon. Thus, linguists use the term norm in two senses - broad and narrow.

In a broad sense, the norm refers to such means and ways of speech that have been spontaneously formed over many centuries and which usually distinguish one type of language from others. That’s why we can talk about a norm in relation to a territorial dialect: for example, normal for Northern Russian dialects is Okanye, and for Southern Russian dialects - Akanye. Any social or professional jargon is also “normal” in its own way: for example, what is used in trade argot will be rejected as alien by those who speak the jargon of carpenters; established ways of using linguistic means exist in army jargon and in the jargon of musicians-“labukhs”, and speakers of each of these jargons can easily distinguish someone else’s from their own, familiar and therefore normal for them, etc.

In a narrow sense, a norm is the result of the codification of language. Of course, codification is based on the tradition of the existence of language in a given society, on some unwritten but generally accepted ways of using linguistic means. But it is important that codification is the purposeful ordering of everything related to language and its application. The results of codifying activities are reflected in normative dictionaries and grammars.

The norm as a result of codification is inextricably linked with the concept of literary language, which is otherwise called normalized or codified. The territorial dialect, urban vernacular, social and professional jargons are not subject to codification: after all, no one consciously and purposefully makes sure that Vologda residents consistently okal, and residents of the Kursk village Akali, so that sellers, God forbid, do not use the terminology of carpenters, and soldiers - words and expressions of Labouche jargon, and therefore the concept of norm in the narrow sense of this term just discussed is not applicable to such varieties of language - dialects, jargons.

Language norms are not invented by scientists. They reflect natural processes and phenomena that have occurred and are occurring in the language and are supported by the speech practice of native speakers of a literary language. The main sources of language norms include the works of classical writers and some modern writers, the language of Central Television announcers, generally accepted modern usage, data from live and questionnaire surveys, scientific research linguists, language system (analogs), opinion of the majority of speakers.

Norms help the literary language maintain its integrity and general intelligibility. They protect the literary language from the flow of dialect speech, social and professional jargon, and vernacular. This important function norms – a function of protecting the language. In addition, norms reflect what has developed historically in a language - this is a function of reflecting the history of the language.

Speaking about the essence of a norm, it should be remembered that a norm is not a law. The law constitutes a necessity that does not allow any deviations, while the norm only prescribes how it should be. Let's compare the following examples:

1. A stone thrown up must then fall down (this is a law of nature);

2. A person living in a society must follow the rules of the community, for example, not knocking on the wall with a hammer after 11 pm (these are social norms);

3. A person in the process of verbal communication must place stress correctly (these are language norms).

So, the norm only indicates how it should be - this is the function of the prescription.

Thus, a language norm is the traditionally established rules for the use of speech means, i.e. rules of exemplary and generally accepted pronunciation, use of words, phrases and sentences.

2 Norms of modern Russian language

There are written and oral norms.

Written language norms are, first of all, spelling and punctuation norms. For example, the spelling N in the word worker, and НН in the word nameNNik, is subject to certain spelling rules. And the placement of a dash in the sentence Moscow is the capital of Russia is explained punctuation standards modern Russian language.

Oral norms are divided into grammatical, lexical and orthoepic.

Grammar rules are the rules for using the forms of different parts of speech, as well as the rules for constructing a sentence. The most common grammatical errors associated with the use of the gender of nouns are “railroad rail, French shampoo, big callus, registered parcel post, patent leather shoes.” However, rail, shampoo is a masculine noun, and corn, parcel, shoe is feminine, so you should say “ railway rail, French shampoo and a big callus, a custom-made parcel, a patent leather shoe.”

Lexical norms are the rules for using words in speech. An error is, for example, using the verb lay down instead of putting. Despite the fact that the verbs lay down and put down have the same meaning, put down is a normative literary word, and lay down is a colloquial word. The expressions: I put the book in its place, etc. are errors. The verb to put should be used: I put the books in place.

Orthoepic norms are pronunciation norms of oral speech. (Orthoepy from the Greek orthos - correct and epos - speech). Compliance with pronunciation standards is important for the quality of our speech. Pronunciation that corresponds to orthoepic standards facilitates and speeds up the process of communication, therefore the social role of correct pronunciation is very great, especially now in our society, where oral speech has become a means of the widest communication at various meetings, conferences, and forums.

The norm is conservative and is aimed at preserving the linguistic means and rules for their use accumulated in a given society by previous generations. The unity and universality of the norm are manifested in the fact that representatives of different social strata and groups that make up a given society are obliged to adhere to traditional methods of linguistic expression, as well as those rules and regulations that are contained in grammars and dictionaries and are the result of codification. Deviation from linguistic tradition, from dictionary and grammatical rules and recommendations is considered a violation of the norm. However, it is no secret that at all stages of the development of a literary language, when using it in different communicative conditions, variants of linguistic means are allowed: you can say cottage cheese - and cottage cheese, spotlights - and spotlights, you are right - and you are right, etc.

The norm is based on traditional ways language use and is wary of linguistic innovations. “The norm is recognized as what was, and partly what is, but not at all what will be,” wrote the famous linguist A.M. Peshkovsky. He explained this property of both the literary norm and the literary language itself: “If the literary dialect changed quickly, then each generation could only use the literature of its own and the previous generation, many two. But under such conditions there would be no literature itself, since the literature of each generation is created by all previous literature. If Chekhov had not already understood Pushkin, then Chekhov probably would not have existed. Too thin a layer of soil would provide too little nutrition for literary sprouts. The conservatism of the literary dialect, uniting centuries and generations, creates the possibility of a single powerful centuries-old national literature.” However, the conservatism of a norm does not mean its complete immobility in time. It is another matter that the pace of normative changes is slower than the development of a given national language as a whole. The more developed the literary form of a language is, the better it serves the communicative needs of society, the less it changes from generation to generation of people using this language.

1. Varieties of literary language.

2. Definition of norms and types of norms.

1. VARIETIES OF LITERARY LANGUAGE

Literary language and its non-literary variants.
The national language is a combination of its following varieties.
Literary language is an exemplary version of the language, which is designed to serve the diverse cultural needs of the entire people, and is used in government institutions, science, education, media, fiction and is subject to strictly defined rules, which are called norms.
Vernacular used in the speech of poorly educated strata of the urban population, giving it an incorrect and rude character.
You have heard, sometimes they say: “Her daughter got married” (instead of her), “tranvay” (instead of tram), “trolleybus” (instead of trolleybus).

Vernacular speech has a number of typical features in the field of vocabulary, morphology, phonetics and syntax.
There is a special type of colloquial expressive words that have a connotation of rudeness and are used for greater expressiveness (slap, get drunk, get dressed up, ugly, muzzle - about a person). Such words are marked “simple” in dictionaries. - colloquial. They can be used by both insufficiently cultured people and native speakers of a literary language. They are also found in fiction as a stylistic means to characterize the speech of uncultured characters, as, for example, in the stories of M. Zoshchenko, where words like “polta”, “stanov”, “forever”, etc. are not uncommon.

Dialects(from the Greek Dialektos - “talk, adverb”, where dia - “through”, lektos - “able to be spoken”) - non-literary varieties of the Russian language that are used by people in certain territories V rural areas.
The differences between the literary language and dialects pass through all levels of the language system: pronunciation features - phonetic level; in its own special words – lexical; and elements of grammar - grammatical.
Thus, the Tula dialect is characterized by the pronunciation of [g] fricative and its corresponding deafening in [x]: instead of the literary [druk], Tula people pronounce [drukh].
The question of the difference between language and dialect is very complex. Often different languages ​​are closer to each other than dialects of the same language are to each other. Many Turkic languages ​​differ very little from each other. At the same time, speakers of northern and southern Chinese dialects absolutely do not understand each other. Chinese leader Mao Zedong hardly spoke publicly because he was from the south and found it difficult to speak in a manner that was customary in the capital Beijing. In Japan, residents of villages 30 km away often cannot understand each other. An important factor is the presence of writing and literary norms.

If two linguistic entities have a common literary norm, then they are recognized as dialects of the same language.
Jargon(from the French jargon) is a non-literary version of the language that is used in casual communication within some social groups.

Youth jargon (student, school), jargon of fishermen, athletes, filmmakers, computer jargon, and thieves' argot are known. Communication between people in jargon is only possible if it involves representatives of the same team who understand each other well, and the subject of the conversation does not go beyond a fairly narrow range of topics.
So, for example, in the jargon of pilots, the bottom of the fuselage is called the belly, a training aircraft is called ladybug. If the plane is pulled upward by the force of the air flow, then it swells; if its nose drops sharply, then the plane bites. Figures aerobatics also have metaphorical names: barrel, slide, etc.

2. THE CONCEPT OF STANDARDS AND TYPES OF STANDARDS
If you think about what makes up the specifics of speech culture as a special linguistic discipline, you cannot help but notice that the problem of literary norms is especially important for it.

In a literary language, pronunciation, as well as the choice of words and the use of grammatical forms, is subject to certain rules, norms.

The most important feature of a literary language is the presence of norms, i.e. certain rules that all members of society must observe.

Language norms are a historical phenomenon. The history of the formation of a language is the history of the formation of a norm.
The most important sign of a culture of speech is its correctness. The correctness of speech is determined by compliance with the norms inherent in the literary language.
What is the norm? What are the standards? What makes them special? This is a question that needs to be answered.
Norm – rules for the use of speech means in a certain period of development of a literary language. Another definition: the most suitable language option for communication (S. I. Ozhegov).
The norm is mandatory for both oral and written speech and covers all aspects of the language. There are norms of orthoepic, spelling, syntactic, lexical, morphological, punctuation, intonation. All norms are registered in dictionaries of grammar, spelling, stylistics, etc., such fixation of a language norm is now commonly called codification. In cases of sufficient frequency and regularity, codification does not present difficulties and is equal to an objectively existing norm. The situation is more complicated when there are variants in speech, because it is in this situation that the problem of choice arises and the problem of comparison, evaluation of variants from the point of view of their “literariness”, compliance with the norms of modern language.
The culture of speech begins where language seems to offer a choice for codification, and this choice is far from clear-cut.
And it is possible because variant (or variable) norms are quite widely represented in the Russian language.
A variant is “formal modifications of the same unit, found at different levels of language (phonetic, lexical, morphological, syntactic).” The options can be equal (rust/vet - rust/th) and unequal (beets - beets).
Unequal options may vary:
- by meaning – semantic variants: i/rice (flower) – iri/s (candy);
- treat different people language styles– stylistic (eyes – neutral style; eyes – book style);
- to be modern or outdated - normative-chronological options: stylus (modern) - stylus (obsolete).

Thus, the norm evaluates linguistic forms and their use on a scale:

correct - acceptable - incorrect.

Compliance with norms at all levels of language is a sign of correct and cultural speech.

The main feature of the Russian literary language is normativity, i.e. the presence of generally accepted norms that are generally binding for all speakers of a given language.

Literary norms are the rules of use accepted in linguistic practice. linguistic units(rules of pronunciation, word usage, use of grammatical and stylistic resources of the language system).

Literary and linguistic norms are formed as a result of the conscious choice of linguistic means in the process of communication and are elevated to the rank of correct, generally binding ones.

According to L.K. Graudina, the term normalization identifies a set of problems related to the following aspects:

1) studying the problem of defining and establishing the norms of a literary language;

2) research for normative purposes of language practice in its relation to theory;

3) bringing into the system, further improving and streamlining the rules of use in cases of divergence between theory and practice, when there is a need to strengthen the norms of the literary language (Graudina L.K. Issues of normalization of the Russian language: Grammar and variants. M., 1980. P. 3) .

S.I. Ozhegov determined language norm as “a set of language means that are most suitable (“correct”, “preferred”) for serving society, formed as a result of the selection of linguistic elements (lexical, pronunciation, morphological, syntactic) from among coexisting, existing, newly formed or extracted from the passive stock of the past in the process of social, in a broad sense, assessment of these elements” (S.I. Ozhegov. Works on the culture of speech // Lexicology. Lexicography. Culture of speech. M., 1974).

Thus, normalization is a complex and lengthy selection from among the coexisting language variants of the most common, stable and meeting the requirements of the language system. In this case, such important parameters as the degree of distribution, public approval of a language unit, the degree of authority of the source and the internal patterns of development of the language system itself are taken into account.

Literary and linguistic norms are universally binding for all speakers of a given language, cultivated in special publications, recorded in linguistic reference books and dictionaries, i.e. are codified. Codification of a norm is the fixation, consolidation of it in dictionaries, grammars, teaching aids, especially special dictionaries (spelling, spelling, dictionaries of paronyms, synonyms, grammatical difficulties of the Russian language).

Standards are classified according to various parameters. According to the degree of mandatoryness, a distinction is made between imperative (strictly mandatory) and dispositive (optional) norms.

Mandatory norms are strictly required. Their violation is interpreted as poor command of the Russian language. Imperative norms include incorrect pronunciation, incorrect placement of stress in words, violation of the rules of declension, conjugation, syntactic compatibility of words, incorrect word usage, erroneous construction of syntactic structures - phrases and sentences. Violations of imperative norms are regarded as gross errors in the use of language.

Dispositive(variant) norms presuppose the existence of variants of pronunciation, word usage, and use of grammatical units. Violation of a dispositive norm is not regarded as a gross mistake; this is the choice of one of the coexisting and acceptable options in the language for using its means. For example, the dispositive norm is the norm of stress in words such as cottage cheese - cottage cheese; grammatical norm in the formation of certain forms of words, such as spasm - spasm, cuff - cuff, hussar - hussar etc. Language variants that are completely identical and do not differ either in semantic or stylistic terms are called doublets. Over the course of the historical development of a language, one of the doublet words gradually falls out of use and ceases to be a linguistic norm.

The norm of the literary language is constantly evolving, changing along with the development and change of the literary language itself. Therefore, the existence of doublet words and language variants is a natural and objective phenomenon, determined by dynamic processes in society and in the language itself.

The following phenomena are associated with the development of norms of the Russian literary language and their formation: public life, How anti-normalization and purism. Anti-normalization represents a position that results in a denial of the need for scientific normalization and codification of language. Linguists who take an anti-normalization position believe that “language rules itself” and deny any interference of scientists in the processes of formation and ordering of literary norms.

The opposite of the anti-normalization position is purism- rejection and outright prohibition of any innovations and changes in the language. Purists view a norm as something stable and unchanging, thereby denying any objective changes in language and the processes of formation of its norms. They idealize in language the past, long established and tested.

Both positions are anti-scientific and equally unacceptable, since, on the one hand, the stability and stability of the literary norm as a result of human activity, enshrined in traditions and patterns, is ignored, and on the other hand, the dynamic nature of the norm, its continuous development, change along with objectively occurring processes changes in language and society.

Norms are also classified according to language levels - phonetic, lexical-semantic and grammatical. Orthoepic norms (pronunciation norms) regulate the rules of pronunciation individual sounds, combinations of sounds, words. Causes certain difficulties in pronunciation of words such as boring, heartfelt, laundry(chn or shn?); dean, pace, energy I (hard or soft consonant before [e]?), etc. Adjacent to orthoepic norms accentological, those. norms correct setting stress in words. Errors in stress placement occur, for example, in words such as call, agreement, quarter, means, intention, provision etc. Thus, orthoepic norms generally regulate the pronunciation of sounds and their combinations, as well as the peculiarities of the use of supersegmental means of language (choice of the correct stress in a word, the necessary intonation structure).

Norms of word usage define features correct use words in the Russian language in accordance with their lexical meaning, as well as the functioning of stylistically and expressively colored vocabulary in accordance with the goals and objectives of communication. Norms of word usage also regulate the use in the language of synonyms - words that are close or identical in lexical meaning, paronyms - words that are close but not identical in meaning ( elective - selective, diplomatic - diplomatic, present - provide, businessman - business trip, spectacular - effective), phraseological units. The speaker or writer, in accordance with lexical norms, chooses the right word from among those existing in the language, taking into account its lexical meaning, stylistic and emotional-expressive coloring, while relying on pragmatic factors (goals and objectives of communication, as well as the communication environment).

Grammar rules are divided into morphological And syntactic. Morphological norms determine the choice of the desired word form from a number of variant forms of words of different parts of speech (nouns, adjectives, verbs). Grammatical norms are associated with the choice of gender form of nouns ( banknote - banknote, shoulder strap - shoulder strap, reserved seat - reserved seat, slipper - slipper, shoes- shoe), some case forms of nouns ( accountants - accountants, contracts - contracts, inspectors - inspectors, lecturers - lecturers, mechanics - mechanics), verb forms ( sways - sways, waves - waves, pours - pours), gerunds ( leading, carrying) etc.).

Syntactic norms prescribe correct usage syntactic constructions - phrases and sentences. These norms include the rules for agreeing adjectives and nouns with certain forms of nouns (reserved seat ticket, new shoe, impeccable alibi), verb control norms (pay for something, pay attention to something, confidence in something), rules for the use of participial and participial phrases. Syntactic norms also determine the order of constructing sentences in accordance with the peculiarities of word order in the Russian language, the rules for constructing complex sentences.

A special group includes stylistic norms of the Russian language, which determine the features of the use of stylistically colored linguistic units in speech, i.e. units that have a stylistic connotation of being bookish or colloquial. The stylistic coloring of individual linguistic elements must correspond to the stylistic coloring of the entire text. Violation of stylistic norms leads to stylistic inconsistency, stylistically unjustified comedy, and stylistic errors.

Thus, the literary and linguistic norm can be considered as one of the most important conditions for the stability, unity and originality of the national language, its successful functioning as the most important means communication between people and the custodian of the riches of Russian spiritual culture.

Types of speech errors

If norms are mandatory rules for the use of language in speech, then sharp, unmotivated deviations from the literary norm should be considered as speech errors. The typology of errors caused by deviations from the literary and linguistic norm is related to the levels of language.

In written speech there are spelling and punctuation errors that arise as a result of violation of the rules of spelling and punctuation.

Possible in oral speech spelling errors- violations of pronunciation norms and incorrect placement of stress in words. In order to avoid spelling errors, it is necessary to use spelling dictionaries of the Russian language and dictionaries of accents.

Possible in both oral and written speech lexical errors, arising as a result of incorrect or inaccurate use of words, without taking into account their semantics (lexical meaning), features of lexical compatibility, as a result of mixing paronyms, and inappropriate choice of them in speech.

Grammar errors appear due to violations of the grammatical laws of the Russian language, norms of form formation, and the construction of syntactic structures - phrases and sentences. In accordance with the three main sections of grammar, errors in inflection, word formation and syntax are distinguished. These mistakes can be overcome with the help of knowledge of Russian grammar. To eradicate these errors, it is necessary to turn to grammarians, grammatical dictionaries of the Russian language, and dictionaries of grammatical difficulties.

Due to the deviation from the modern stylistic norm at all levels of language differ and stylistic errors , which arise as a result of incorrect or unmotivated use of linguistic units (words, phrases and sentences) that have a stylistic coloring that does not correspond to the stylistic coloring of the entire text. For example, book words, inappropriately used in colloquial speech, violate the stylistic unity of the text and create a terrible speech disease, which K.I. Chukovsky wrote about in his book about the Russian language “Alive as Life” - clerk : Why are you crying? or Darling, isn't the cape limiting for you?

Options, their typology

In literary language exists also a layer of linguistic units that stand on the border between the norm and the non-norm. These units represent language options. Language variants exist at the phonetic, lexical-semantic and grammatical level. At the phonetic level, there are pronunciation options ([d´e]kan - [de]kan, [t´e]mp - [te]mp, do[zh]i - do[zzh]i), accented ( agreement - agreement, cottage cheese - cottage cheese, call - call), phonemic ( tunnel - tunnel, cabinet - wardrobe). Lexical variants are linguistic units that have the same lexical meaning, but differ in sound composition ( wind - wind, gold - gold, fire - fire).

Grammatical variations are variant forms of the same word. There are inflectional variants, which are variants of inflectional forms (forms of the gender : banknote - banknote, reserved seat - reserved seat, spasm - spasm, case forms: accountants - accountants, behind the doors - behind the doors); derivational, which have variable word-forming affixes ( double - dual, diplomatic - diplomatic, tourist - tourist) And syntactic- control, coordination and connection options.

Thus, both speech errors and variants of the literary norm can be classified according to language levels. But if speech errors are gross violations norms that are unacceptable in the speech of educated people, then variants of the norm are possible in the speech of native speakers, because appear as a result of objective fluctuations in the norm at a certain stage of language development, manifestations of instability, instability of linguistic units of expression.

SPELLING NORM

Orthoepic(from Greek orthos- correct and epos- speech) norm examines the rules of pronunciation of words and placing emphasis on them.

Historical foundations of Russian orthoepy. Old Moscow and Leningrad pronunciation standards

Russian literary pronunciation evolved over a long period of time. Before the formation of the national language in the 17th century. Dialect varieties of the Russian language were widespread in different territories. Along with joining Moscow Principality other principalities, the economic, political, and cultural role of Moscow as the capital of the centralized Russian state grew. In this regard, the prestige of the Moscow dialect also grew. Its norms, including pronunciation, developed into national norms.

This process was facilitated by the fact that the dialect of Moscow is Central Russian, where the sharpest dialectal features of the northern and southern dialects are smoothed out. The norms of literary pronunciation finally took shape by the end of the 19th century. This was the pronunciation of the old Moscow intelligentsia; behind it stood the indisputable tradition of the Moscow Maly Theater. It is no coincidence that V.I. Chernyshev, linguist, corresponding member of the USSR Academy of Sciences (1931), one of the organizers of the seventeen-volume “Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language,” wrote in 1915: “ Educated people in all places in Russia they speak Moscow.”

But already in the second half. XIX century. The Moscow norm had a competitor - St. Petersburg pronunciation, which began to claim the role of a model. Its main difference from the Moscow norm was its bookish, “literal” pronunciation. Petersburg pronunciation did not become the orthoepic norm, it was not recognized by the scene, but its features had a huge impact on the development of the pronunciation system. And the change in the composition of the population of Moscow led to the fact that Moscow pronunciation, while retaining the main characteristic (akanye), changed significantly.

Linguistic norms, especially the norms of such a developed literary language as the Russian language, are a complex and multifaceted phenomenon, reflecting both social and aesthetic views on the word, and internal, independent of the taste and desire of the speakers, patterns of the language system in its continuous development and improvement.

At the same time, speech culture presupposes compliance with these norms to varying degrees mandatory, strict, there are fluctuations in norms, which is reflected in the assessment of speech, which occurs on a scale correct/acceptable/wrong. In this regard, it is customary to distinguish between two types of norms: imperative (mandatory) and dispositive (complementary). Violations of imperative and dispositive norms can be conceptualized as rude and non-rude.

Imperative norms in a language are rules that are mandatory for implementation and reflect the patterns of language functioning. An example of imperative norms are the rules of conjugation, declension, agreement, etc. Such norms do not allow variations (non-variant norms), and any other implementations are regarded as incorrect and unacceptable. For example: alphabet ( Not alphabet), accepted (did not accept), chicken ( Not chicken), thanks to which ( Not thanks to which).

Linguists note that variation in the norm is an objective and inevitable consequence of linguistic evolution. The presence of variation, i.e. the stage of coexistence of old and new quality, from their point of view, is even useful and expedient: options allow you to get used to the new form, make a change in the norm less noticeable and painful (for example , waves - waves, sparkling - sparkling, herbal - herbal). These options cover different levels of the language: there are variants of the orthoepic norm ( everyday and everyday), morphological and word-formation ( spasm husband. family and spasm wives genus, play a prank And play pranks), variants of grammatical forms ( tea And tea, caplet And drips), syntactic options ( filled with something And full of something, I'm waiting for a letter And I'm waiting for a letter).

Variation of form is not a constant property of specific linguistic units. The oscillation continues for a more or less long period, after which the options diverge in meaning, acquiring the status of independent words. For example, in the past of an uneducated person ( ignoramus) could be called ignorant.(In I. A. Krylov: The ignorant judge exactly this way. If they don’t understand the point, it’s all a trifle.) In another case, a productive option completely displaces its competitor (this happened, for example, with options turner and normative in the 18th–19th centuries. turner).

The transformation of complete, redundant variants into incomplete ones, differing from each other in stylistic or emotional coloring, is a clear indicator of the improvement of the Russian literary language.

What is taken into account when choosing one of the options as preferable, correct?

Recognition of the normativity (correctness) of a linguistic fact is usually based on the indispensable presence of three main features:

1) regular use (reproducibility) this method expressions;

2) compliance of this method of expression with the capabilities of the literary language system (taking into account its historical restructuring);

3) public approval of a regularly reproduced method of expression (and the role of a judge in this case usually falls to the lot of writers, scientists, and the educated part of society).

The norm is characterized by consistency and connection with the structure of the language, stability, historical and social conditioning and, at the same time, dynamism and variability.

Thus, a norm can be strictly mandatory (not allow options) or not strictly mandatory. In this case, there can be three possible relationships between the norm and the option:

· the norm is mandatory, but the option is prohibited (outside the literary language);

· the norm is mandatory, but the option is acceptable;

· the norm and the option are equal.

We will proceed from the belief that the Russian literary language includes two different system formations: a codified literary language and colloquial speech, which only the power of tradition prevents us from naming spoken language. Spoken speech, as already said, is spontaneous; it, unlike texts of a codified literary language, primarily written ones, is not prepared in advance and is not thought out. And therefore, from the point of view of the culture of language proficiency, colloquial speech is a special object. Difficulty of learning colloquial speech in terms of speech culture is that its spontaneous implementation, the lack of control over execution, which is common when communicating in a codified literary language, leads to an inevitable certain percentage of errors and omissions, which must be distinguished from the norms of colloquial speech, in turn, in codified literary language rightly classified as non-normative phenomena.

Why exactly spelling standards are most often violated in speech and why do people pay attention to these errors in the first place?

Orthoepy (from the Greek orthos - correct and epos - speech) is a set of norms of the national language that ensure the unity of its sound design, the uniformity of which helps facilitate verbal communication.

Peculiarity spelling standards is that they relate exclusively to oral speech. Within the framework of orthoepic norms, pronunciation and stress norms are considered, i.e., specific phenomena of oral speech that are usually not reflected in writing.

In the field of orthoepy, the language system entirely determines the norm, for example: the phonetic alternation of “o” under stress with the unstressed “a”, deafening of voiced consonants at the end of a word and before voiceless consonants, etc., which society should be guided by.

Stress norms govern the choice of placement and movement options stressed syllable among the non-strikers. Can quarter, it is forbidden quarter. The norms of modern Russian stress in the literary language are closely related to the morphological properties of parts of speech and turn out to be one of their formal indicators. The mobility and diversity of stress cause difficulties in mastering accentological norms.

In the modern Russian language there are more than 5,000 commonly used words in which fluctuations in stress are recorded. Combinations of sounds present difficulties for speakers [CHN], [SHN], [WHAT], [SHTO], pronunciation of foreign and borrowed words, semantic and form-distinguishing stress.

Knowledge and compliance with orthoepic norms in the Russian language is very important, since word stress is a very sensitive instrument that performs several functions. The general cultural function is manifested in the pronunciation of words (especially proper names) related to the history and culture of a particular people ( Mussorgsky, Ivanov, Peshkov, Picasso). The semantic distinguishing function is realized in the use of homonyms ( CHAOS - CHAOS, happily - happily, language - language, busy - busy etc.).

Lexical norms include the use of a word in strict accordance with its dictionary meaning, as well as norms regarding the use of words in combination with other words.

Let us give an example of typical violations of lexical norms of this kind (hereinafter examples from the book by M.V. Gorbanevsky, Yu.N. Karaulov, V.M. Shaklein “Don’t speak in rough language: about violations of literary speech norms in electronic and print media”) :

We hoped to have an answer to these dangers. Dangers require no response. Therefore, a completely different word was meant: questions, warnings, threats.

Thus, if you know the lexical meanings of each word used, then it is difficult to make a mistake associated with the use of a word in an unusual meaning.

Second case lexical errors associated with a violation of the norms of lexical compatibility of words.

Violation of the norms of lexical compatibility, associated with the fact that the words used cannot complement each other, can be illustrated by the following examples:

She told everything his autobiography. An autobiography is written or told only by the author himself, so you cannot tell someone’s autobiography (you can only biography). Or: It will be for everyone dressed company shoes... In Russian shoes being put on, A clothes are put on, so this combination wearing shoes cannot be called correct.

The correctness of speech is often impaired and stable combinations, which cannot be unduly broken up without losing meaning, for example: takes great value (there is a phraseological unit be of great importance, But occupy value- wrong). Or: In this situation we wanted to flex our muscles(usually they say wave your fists).

Another type of lexical compatibility norms is associated with words that require a mandatory distributor with them. For example, go (where?) on vacation, to the country, to college etc. In oral speech we can sometimes say "I went", but at the same time, usually within the framework of a given situation, the distributor (where exactly he went) becomes clear from the context, and in written speech, semantic incompleteness and incompleteness of the structure are most often felt. Many words require this kind of distributors: know (who? what?), understand (who? what?), do (who? what?), diploma (who?), founder (of what?) etc.

Therefore, in order to comply lexical norms, it is not enough just to know the lexical meaning of the word used, you also need to have information about its lexical compatibility.

Word formation norms regulate the choice of morphemes, the rules for their placement and combination in a new word.

In the modern Russian language, the following violations of word-formation norms occur:

Errors associated with violation of the word-formation structure of words in the Russian language, the use of forms that are absent in the language. For example, there are no 1st person singular forms for verbs vacuum(it is forbidden vacuuming or vacuuming) And win(it is forbidden I'll win or I'll run) etc.

Artificially formed words- For example, admirer(instead of fan), courteous(instead of courteous), traditional(instead of traditional), stabilize situation (instead of stabilize), cancellation(instead of cancellation), charm(instead of charm), hospitality(instead of hospitality), etc.

Morphological norms regulate the choice of options morphological form words and variants of its connection with others: can be used officer s, engineer s, it is forbidden - officer A, engineer A ; Can too much to do, no room and it’s impossible - a lot to do ov, no places ov .

Violations of morphological norms are manifested:

in the formation of gender forms of a noun: delicious cocoa(instead of delicious cocoa) etc.;

in the use of number forms of a noun: preparations And for exams (instead of preparing A for exams), without finance s support (instead of without finance Ouch support) etc.;

in the use of case forms of nouns: what time is it I (need to what time is it eni ), speck in the eye e (need to speck in the eye at ), choice A (need to choice s) , chauffeur A (need to chauffeur s) , birthday e (need to birthday I) , with people I mi(need to with people b mi), etc.

There are common mistakes when changing verbs: and G no(instead of and and no), want ut (instead of hot yat ), lie(instead of put it down or luggage), go, go, go(instead of go), played(instead of played), come out(instead of get out) etc.

A lot of violations of norms occur when declension of numerals, using forms of degrees of comparison of adjectives, etc.

Thus, violation of morphological norms is primarily due to poor knowledge of the rules and requirements recorded in textbooks and dictionaries, and the low general cultural level of the speaker or writer.

Syntactic norms determine correct construction and the use of all syntactic structures.

The main violations of syntactic norms are associated with errors in following cases:

· when using a phrase with management. For example: review about what ( Not for what); review what ( Not about what); characteristic whom ( Not to whom); report what And about what; note, explain What(Not about what); state What ( Not about what);

· if the word order is incorrect. For example: He loved and was passionate about football(Right: he loved football and was passionate about it);

· when missing words. For example: They read different books written by one of the authors;

· in case of unmotivated duplication of the subject by a pronoun. For example: The goods that were supposed to be delivered were in the warehouse(Right: The goods that were supposed to be delivered were in the warehouse);

· when using participial and participial phrases. For example: He is the main person who came to the presentation... (Right: He is the main person who came to the presentation...) After watching the film, the writer became even closer and dearer to me(Right: When I watched the film, the writer became even closer and dearer to me).

Thus, syntactic norms dictate the need to know the features of syntactic structures and the ability to use them correctly in speech.

Therefore, caring about the correctness of speech is a concern not only about preserving the language, but also about ensuring that a communicative error does not arise as a result of a language error, and that the listener (reader) correctly understands everything that the author of the speech says (writes) .