Petrov V. Maneuvering in air combat

Foreign Military Review, N1, 1985

According to the views of the NATO military leadership, one of the main tasks facing the aviation of this aggressive imperialist bloc is to gain and maintain air supremacy, which is considered an indispensable condition for the successful conduct of combat operations by all types of armed forces. It can be solved, for example, by destroying enemy aircraft in the air. In addition, the effectiveness of aviation operations in performing other missions also largely depends on the ability of the crews to conduct air combat.

Therefore, in the United States and other countries of the North Atlantic Alliance, the experience of using aviation in local wars in Southeast Asia, the Middle East, as well as in other military conflicts is very carefully studied. Analyzing this experience and taking into account the advantages and disadvantages of modern combat aircraft and their on-board weapons, Western military experts developed the so-called air combat formula (for more information about this formula, see: Foreign Military Review, 1984, N1, pp. 47-54 and N2, p. .53-58. - Ed.). It reflects the degree of influence various factors, mainly the capabilities of aviation technology, on the formation of tactics and achievement of success in battle. It also considers the maneuverability factor, which combines such indicators as thrust-to-weight ratio, specific wing load and a value reflecting the effect of wing mechanization.

The foreign press notes that the task of a pilot in air combat is to realize the advantages of his equipment. In addition, he must not give the enemy the opportunity to use it weaknesses. Therefore, when training pilots abroad for air combat, great attention is paid to practicing tactical elements, especially maneuvering.

In close combat, NATO experts have always considered the rear hemisphere of the target to be the most preferred area of possible attacks, within which guided missiles with infrared homing heads and guns are effectively used. This area is represented as a cone with an apex angle of 40° from the longitudinal axis of the aircraft and a height of about 2 km (Fig. 1).

Until now, air combat tactics in the air forces of NATO countries have been based on two important principles. Firstly, it is considered unacceptable for an enemy fighter to enter the area of possible attacks of its aircraft. Secondly, using a maneuver, it is recommended to enter a similar area of the enemy yourself. As the foreign military press emphasizes, many of the main types of maneuvers essentially remained the same as during the Second World War. However, their parameters have changed significantly. At the same time, with the entry into service of modern fighters, new types of maneuvers appeared.

Western experts divide maneuvers in air combat into three main groups: defensive, offensive and neutral. Typical defensive ones are considered to be separation from an airborne enemy and a “controlled barrel” with a large radius of rotation at maximum overload. Offensive ones include “high-speed Yo-Yo”, “lag pursuit roll” and “low-speed Yo-Yo”. Neutral ones include such types as “scissors” (in horizontal and vertical planes), a combination of “scissors” with a “barrel”.

The main goal of maneuvering is to take an advantageous position relative to the enemy. In close air combat, maneuvers are a complex of horizontal, vertical, as well as coordinated and forced turns. As foreign experts emphasize, when developing typical maneuvers, it is necessary to take into account the aircraft’s ability to perform them without any loss of energy (or with minimal energy), as well as the following main factors: weapons, electronics, maneuverability and invulnerability (personal protection).

According to Western press reports, fighter jets are currently armed with air-to-air missiles, which make it possible to attack a target from basically any angle. These include Sparrow (USA), Skyflash (Great Britain), as well as a number of others equipped with semi-active radar homing heads (HSH). But for their launch and guidance, a clear and stable radar signal reflected from the target is required. The capabilities of missile launchers with passive infrared seekers have expanded. In particular, launch American rocket AIM-9L "Sidewinder", equipped with an improved seeker, can be carried out in the area of possible attacks with an apex angle of 150 ° from the longitudinal axis of the target aircraft.

Foreign experts note that air battles, the conduct of which has always been particularly difficult, have become even more complex. To avoid defeat, it is no longer enough to simply prevent an enemy fighter from entering the rear hemisphere of its aircraft, since the area of possible attacks has expanded significantly and missile launches can be effectively carried out from almost any angle. The range of use of weapons has also increased significantly. Thus, a pilot losing sight of an enemy aircraft at a distance of 11-18 km can cause defeat, whereas a few years ago this would not have mattered much.

According to the English magazine "Flight", in modern conditions The actions of a fighter pilot are greatly facilitated by the installation on board of aircraft of advanced radio-electronic equipment, such as radar and electronic warfare equipment. The former provide automatic radar acquisition and tracking of air targets. The latter detect an enemy missile launch and interfere with their seeker. All this increases the survivability of the fighter, but ultimately the outcome of the battle still largely depends on the skill of the pilot.

In recent years, as the foreign military press reports, one of the areas for improving the characteristics of a fighter is to increase the number of maximum speed flight, but maneuverability and mainly due to increased thrust-to-weight ratio and improved load-bearing properties of the wing. Thus, the F-16 fighter, in order to take an advantageous position for attack, can reach large pitch angles while maintaining a controlled flight mode (the instantaneous change in this angle reaches 55°). The English Harrier aircraft has the same capabilities due to a change in the direction of the thrust vector.

NATO experts note that the new capabilities of air-to-air missiles and their carriers have led to the emergence of the problem of identifying aircraft at long distances. Before launching a missile at a target located in the middle long range, a fighter pilot must be sure that he is striking at the enemy, and not at his own aircraft. It is believed that it is dangerous for a modern fighter to approach a target in order to identify it, but in an air battle he will need to do this. It is proposed to solve this problem in several ways. The simplest of them is an attack by a pair of aircraft, one of which flies past the target at high speed and identifies it, and the other is at a great distance from the target in readiness to launch missiles. However, it is noted that this tactic will require the involvement of additional aircraft and, in addition, may lead to the loss of the element of surprise, which is also very important.

Judging by reports in the foreign press, to solve this problem, NATO countries are developing a new identification system. However, military experts from this unit note that such equipment will not provide an unambiguous identification of the aircraft’s identity, since the lack of a response to a request may mean the approach of not only an air enemy, but also a friendly aircraft with a faulty identification system.

In the UK military aviation, experiments are being carried out on visual identification of air targets using optical instruments coupled to the fighter's on-board radar. Such devices magnify the image of an approaching aircraft and, according to British experts, will prove to be very effective.

Taking into account the above and some other factors, the tactics of modern fighters abroad are built. According to some Western experts, depending on the situation in air combat, especially in close combat, fighters can use various types of maneuvers and tactics. Below, according to the Western press, are some of them.

The “separation” maneuver is used by a fighter who has lost his chance of success in an air battle, in order to prevent the enemy from entering the area of possible attacks of his aircraft. It is performed with maximum overload and maximum traction. If executed successfully, the enemy's attack may be thwarted. However, the latter can make a counter-maneuver.

Figure 2 shows the defensive maneuver “controlled barrel” with a large radius of rotation and maximum overload. Its main purpose is to deceive an attacker approaching the fighter at high speed. At a certain moment, the pilot puts his plane into a “controlled roll” with a large radius of rotation and the maximum possible overload. The fighter's flight speed gradually decreases. Due to the high speed of approach, the enemy is simply unable to follow the attacker and jumps forward. After completing the maneuver, the aircraft switch roles. The Western press notes that it is very important for the pilot of a maneuvering aircraft to correctly calculate the start and end time of the maneuver, since a late exit from the “barrel” can lead to defeat, and if you start the maneuver earlier, the enemy, having discovered this, can perform a “slide” and thereby maintain a favorable position for air combat.

Western experts consider a “coup on a hill” to be a complex type of maneuver (Fig. 3). It is carried out by a fighter approaching a maneuvering target at high speed or from a high angle. Doing it prevents the target from “overshooting.” When climbing, the fighter loses speed, which reduces the turning radius at the top of the maneuver trajectory.

According to the magazine "Flight", in an air battle between aircraft with the same power supply and angular speed of turn, the "half-barrel" maneuver with a combat turn can be used (Fig. 4). It allows one of the aircraft to gradually take a more advantageous position relative to the other. Due to the flight of a fighter, its kinetic energy increases with its descent. After this, the pilot performs a “half roll” followed by a turn, continuing until the target exits the maneuver.

Figure 5 shows the “barrel” maneuver with subsequent lag behind the pursued aircraft. It was widely used by Phantom fighter pilots, who are capable of turning with high speed. The purpose of the maneuver is to reach top part the rear hemisphere of the enemy at a distance of about 2 km and with a larger turning radius than his. The foreign press notes that an attacking aircraft can maintain this position for quite a long time (provided it has an advantage in speed). The advantage of this maneuver is that it is difficult for the enemy to observe the attacking fighter, and it is relatively easy for the latter to make a “barrel” climb and take an advantageous position for striking. The maneuver is recommended to be performed when the battle is being fought at too close a distance and it is advantageous for the attacker to move further away from the target in order to better use his weapon.

Fig.6. Scissor maneuver

Western military experts recommend performing the “scissors” or “snake” maneuver (Fig. 6) if the pilot detects a target following a course parallel to him. It is emphasized that if the enemy decides to take the fight, then most often he will be forced to use the same maneuver. Each of them, making a turn towards the enemy at the minimum possible speed, will strive to bring his plane into the rear hemisphere of the other. It is believed that skillful piloting and the use of flaps and air brakes of your vehicle are of great importance.

A more complex variation of this maneuver is the combination of “scissors” and “barrel” (Fig. 7), which is characterized by a continuous descent of two aircraft turning relative to each other and their longitudinal axes. The magazine "Flight" emphasizes that the one who is the first to emerge from a dive is defeated if the distance between the aircraft at that moment allows the use of weapons, for example, firing from cannons.

As reported in the foreign press, modern air combat can have not only a duel, but also a group character. The primary tactical unit in the fighter aviation of the NATO air forces is a pair of aircraft, which, as a rule, are dispersed along the front in combat formation at a distance of 2-5 km from each other. According to NATO military experts, such a formation ensures best conditions for mutual support if an enemy aircraft carries out a surprise attack, and can be used in en route flight, during patrols and when performing other tasks in anticipation of an air battle. They argue that while maintaining the integrity of the battle order, it is possible to short term identify and destroy enemy aircraft. In this case, the primary task is to detect the enemy aircraft, turn in its direction, capture it, identify it and try to predict its actions.

One of the simplest ways to solve the problem is considered to be the following: to direct your plane towards the enemy in such a way that, having flown past him at a minimum interval, he can identify and inform his wingman. Foreign experts note that, as a rule, the pilot of an oncoming plane makes a bank in order to determine what flashed past him. At this time, the second fighter turns around and approaches the enemy’s tail (Fig. 8). If the latter detects a pair of fighters approaching it in time, then it can make a turn towards one of them. However, if captured correctly, the fighters will have an advantage, since they can turn around opposite directions, and the target may come under fire from one of them. IN Western press this maneuver is called “sandwich” (Fig. 9).

If the enemy manages to avoid capture (Fig. 10, left), fighter pilots will have to decide whether to continue the attack or disengage and follow their route. It depends on the tasks assigned to them and the current situation.

Flight magazine notes that in air combat, especially oncoming combat, the combat formation of aircraft can take almost any form. It is believed that the principle of mutual support may be violated, and the battle formation "front" is transformed into a "bearing". To attack the enemy, they can use the “eye-shooter” maneuver (Fig. 10, right). Its goal is to identify and engage an aircraft in a minimum period of time, preventing it from deep invading controlled airspace. Identification is carried out by the first fighter (the “eye”), and the second one (the “gunner”) strikes.

According to Western military experts, in an air battle between two fighters with the same tactical and technical characteristics, armed with short-range guided missiles, the outcome largely depends on the relative position of the aircraft at the initial moment. If the sum of the sighting angles from both fighters, that is, from the attacker to the target and from the target to the attacker, is 180° (the planes are on parallel heading courses), effective missile firing is impossible. By changing these angles, when the attacking fighter comes to the tail of the target, the firing opportunities increase.

As reported in the foreign press, the results of modeling an air battle of fighters with similar characteristics on a bench simulator at the RAF Aviation Research Institute in Wharton showed that with an increase in the angle of missile fire, the likelihood of a battle outcome in favor of the attacking side increases.

The same effect is achieved by expanding the boundaries of aiming angles when firing missiles into the front hemisphere. At the same time, foreign experts conclude that when modern fighters are armed with all-aspect short-range air combat missiles, increasing the aircraft's acceleration characteristics due to the large engine power reserve has a limited impact. The dominant one, in their opinion, is the ability to make turns with long-term overload. According to foreign press reports, in the United States and other NATO member countries, taking into account the development of aviation technology, a significant number of types of maneuvers and tactical techniques for air combat have been developed, which are tested in the process of combat training. Much attention is given to instilling in pilots the skills to quickly and correctly select and execute them, as well as endure long-term overloads.

Bomber tactics

Stormtrooper tactics

Conclusion

BASIC MANEUVERS AND AEROBATIC FIGURES

Performing any aerobatics is necessary so that our position in relation to the enemy changes in a direction favorable to us. We must take an advantageous position and then use it to shoot at the enemy. The advantageous position is not only from the rear. For me the most advantageous position is from behind from above with equal speeds. With this position, I have a chance to dive onto the enemy and attack him, going upstairs again.

All maneuvers (aerobatic maneuvers) are divided into defensive and offensive. Accordingly, an offensive maneuver is an attempt to enter shooting range from a neutral position or a position that is advantageous, but not yet sufficient for shooting. A defensive maneuver is a way out of a losing situation, for example, when the enemy is behind you and has already started shooting at you.

Let's look at the main offensive maneuvers that I usually use.

Split.
Top YO-YO.
Combat turn.
Hammerhead.
Combat entry.
Spiral or holding in a climb.

Split– this maneuver is used both offensively and defensively. It is also often called a withdrawal coup. I usually use it as an offensive maneuver. It is associated with a sharp loss of altitude and a gain in speed. Typically, it is used with boom-zoom. So, we are flying straight into the horizon at an altitude of about 4000 meters. Next we do a half roll (turn the plane upside down using the ailerons) and end up head down. Then we pull the steering wheel towards ourselves and begin to dive down. When diving, we keep pulling and pulling the steering wheel towards ourselves. As a result, we come out of the dive, take a normal position (upside down) and fly in the opposite direction at a higher speed, but with a lower altitude. As I already said, I almost always use split during boom-zoom, when I see an enemy below me going on a collision course. At the moment when he passes directly under me, I do a split and begin to dive at him. Split also helps in vertical combat, when you have already occupied a high altitude and the enemy is below you. Split is a way to start diving at an enemy who is below you and flying on a collision course. An example of a split is shown on the track:

Throughout the history of military aviation, speed, maneuver and fire have been the key factors determining the combat effectiveness of a fighter aircraft. Being in close interrelation, they had a decisive influence on the main directions of development of military aviation equipment. At the same time, at each successive stage of the evolution of the fighter, when forming tactical and technical requirements, designing and mastering new aviation complexes, as well as when developing tactics for air combat and striking ground targets, the tasks of finding the optimal balance between the requirements for increasing the speed, maneuverability and power of the aircraft were solved. weapons.

When creating jet fighters of the second and third generations - MiG-21, MiG-23, Su-15, F-4, Mirage III, Mirage F.1 and others - the main attention was paid to improving the speed and altitude characteristics of the machines, and also the effectiveness of missile weapons. However, the experience of Vietnam and other armed conflicts of the 60-70s. demonstrated the danger of neglecting maneuverability: close air combat was still the main form of “showdown” between fighters. As a result, the world's leading aviation countries had to modernize existing types of aircraft in the direction of increasing their maneuverability, which resulted in the emergence of such fighters as the F-4E, MiG-21bis, MiG-23ML, Kfir and others. At the same time, work began on the creation of fourth-generation aircraft (Su-27, MiG-29, F-15, F-16, etc.), the main difference from their predecessors was a sharp increase in maneuverability while maintaining the same speed and altitude characteristics and “ evolutionary" improvement of weapons. Increased maneuverability was achieved both by the use of new generation engines, providing the ability to obtain a thrust-to-weight ratio of more than one, and by advances in aerodynamics, which made it possible to significantly increase the load-bearing properties of the aircraft with a fairly small increase in drag.

Analytical studies with extensive use of mathematical modeling, carried out in the 70-80s. German (MBV company), and somewhat later - American specialists, allowed us to conclude that beginning of XXI century, the nature of air combat between fighters will undergo new significant changes.
Improving missile weapons and radar will lead to a relative increase in the number of effective air battles at long and medium distances. At the same time, the fighter will be required to be able to maneuver at supersonic speeds to evade enemy missiles. If decisive results are not achieved at a distance exceeding the line-of-sight range, the air battle will most likely enter the phase using short-range missiles and guns.

Western experts associated the expected changes in the nature of close maneuver combat with the advent of all-aspect missiles with improved thermal homing heads, making it possible to attack the enemy in the forward hemisphere on a collision course. Simulations carried out in the USA using the PACAM, TAC BRAWLER, CATEM, MULTAC programs, as well as in Germany (SILCA program) showed that the use of new missiles and guns in combination with independent control of the fuselage orientation and the fighter’s velocity vector will lead to In close air combat, frontal attacks will prevail. To survive in such conditions, the aircraft will need the ability to perform intensive maneuvers in unsteady conditions. At the same time, the duration of high overloads and the spatial scope of maneuvering will decrease, at the same time the speed of relative movement of aircraft will increase, and the available time for using weapons will decrease.

Of particular importance for a fighter will be the ability to aim the fuselage for a short time regardless of the direction of flight, especially in the pitch plane. In many cases, such targeting will be associated with reaching supercritical angles of attack.
Thus, according to the views prevailing in the West in the mid-80s, a fifth-generation fighter should have high performance in two very different flight areas. When conducting combat at an “extra-visual” range, an increase in supersonic maneuvering speed in steady-state conditions acquired particular importance, and in close maneuver air combat, an increase in maneuverability due to the aircraft’s thrust-to-weight ratio.
One of the main characteristics influencing the outcome of close air combat is the turning radius of the aircraft. At existing restrictions according to the specific wing load, the minimum turning radius the best fighters fourth generation is approximately 500 m.
A further significant reduction in this parameter (by about two to three times) can be achieved only when the aircraft reaches supercritical angles of attack, significantly exceeding the angles of attack corresponding to Cymax. Large-scale analytical studies with computer modeling carried out by American specialists showed that such a “super-maneuverable” fighter would have significant superiority over aircraft maneuvering in traditional flight modes. To practically test this concept, the United States, together with Germany, built an experimental Rockwell/MVV X-31 aircraft with an engine thrust vector control system (ETV).

This concept was partially implemented in the creation of the fifth-generation Lockheed-Martin F-22 Raptor fighter (also equipped with a UVT system), which combines a slight increase in maneuverability characteristics at supersonic and subsonic speeds with a supersonic cruising speed and a significant reduction in radar signature. It should be noted that the term “super-maneuverability” was introduced in the West in the second half of the 80s. and had a very arbitrary interpretation, boiling down mainly to the ability of the aircraft to maintain stability and controllability at supercritical angles of attack.

The modern concept of a fifth-generation fighter, announced at many aviation exhibitions and shows, is also based on the principles of a radical improvement in maneuverability in air combat, combined with a sharp decrease in radar and thermal signature.
The practical implementation of this concept became possible thanks to a number of fundamental scientific and technical achievements in the fields of aerodynamics, engine building, radio electronics, etc. New aerodynamic designs and layouts of aircraft, the emergence of the possibility of direct control of lateral and lift forces, engine thrust vector, as well as the creation of control systems, which no longer correct, but form the aircraft as a control object, provided the fifth generation fighter with significantly more high level mobility - “super maneuverability”. Domestic experts understand this term as a combination of such properties of an aircraft as the possibility of separate control of angular and trajectory motion (separate control of the overload vectors and the aircraft’s own angular velocity), as well as the ability to perform spatial maneuvers with large angular velocities and angles of attack (more than 90° ) and sliding, at low (close to zero) speeds.
A large amount of research on the study and modeling of aerodynamics and flight dynamics at “super-maneuverability” was carried out by TsAGI specialists in the 80-90s. The significance of this work is evidenced by the fact that a large group of its participants was awarded the Prize. N.E. Zhukovsky.
Despite the fact that “super-maneuverability” was considered one of the foundations of the concept of promising fighters, in the 90s. - largely under the influence of economic and political factors - statements appeared about the inappropriateness of further struggle to improve the maneuverability of promising combat aircraft. At the same time, references are made to excessive costs caused by the complexity of the design and not leading to a noticeable increase in combat effectiveness aviation complex. It is argued that the improvement of guided missiles negates the value of increasing aircraft maneuverability.

A highly maneuverable fighter, according to supporters of this approach, is a very expensive and generally useless “toy.” It should be noted that, to a certain extent, a similar approach prevailed in the United States, where they went to a certain reduction in the capabilities of the F-22A fighter in close maneuver air combat (according to Thomas Burbage, general manager of the program, “if the F-22A aircraft had to engage in close air combat with an overload of nine, it means we made some kind of mistake”), and also included in the requirements for the promising JSF light fighter “maneuverability at the level of existing fourth-generation aircraft.”

The presence of such wide range opinions about the benefits of “super-maneuverability” are apparently due to the lack of a systematic approach to analyzing its impact on the combat effectiveness of a fighter.
The starting point when creating aircraft is not the means, but the goals to achieve which it is being developed. Based on the purposes for which a modern fighter is being created, we can conclude that the aircraft itself can be considered as a combat platform for delivering weapons and providing conditions for their high-precision use. All other tasks, although important, are not basic (i.e., non-system-forming). Therefore, within the framework of a systems approach, it is necessary to consider a single targeted system “aircraft - weapons - airborne complex - crew,” which can be called an “aviation combat complex” (ACS). The results of the system analysis allow us to conclude that in recent years a number of contradictions have arisen between the flight characteristics of the aircraft, the capabilities of the on-board complex, weapons and crew. This, in turn, leads to irrational use of the capabilities of individual elements of the administrative and administrative complex and, as a consequence, to a decrease in its effectiveness.

One of the most promising areas for overcoming the contradictions that have arisen is the implementation of interactive methods of aiming and controlling aircraft and weapons, developed within the framework of a single concept and aimed at maximizing the use of maneuverable and “super-maneuverable” capabilities of aircraft and their crews when operating both in air and ground goals.
There is an opinion that “super maneuverability” increases the effectiveness of a fighter only in close air combat, the relative probability of which, according to a number of estimates, is steadily decreasing (remember the statement of T. Burbage). Leaving aside the validity of these forecasts, it can be argued that “super-maneuverability” can ensure victory even when conducting combat at long ranges, beyond the visual contact of opponents.

The effectiveness of a fighter in long-range group air combat is largely determined by the ability to outstrip the enemy in the use of weapons, as well as the intensity of the attack. missile strike. Leading is achieved mainly by increasing the detection and acquisition range of an air target, improving the energy-ballistic characteristics of missiles, optimizing their guidance methods, as well as the acceleration and speed characteristics of the aircraft. Thus, an increase in the speed of a fighter at the moment of launch by one and a half times, followed by intense dynamic braking (an element of super-maneuverability that ensures that the guidance of enemy missiles is disrupted) makes it possible to increase the efficiency of the aviation complex by 1.5-2.0 times.

The effectiveness of the lethal effect of air-to-air missiles depends on their accuracy characteristics, the conditions of the missile's approach to the target, the type of warhead, the characteristics of the fuse, and the degree of vulnerability of enemy aircraft. Research has shown the existence of rational (guaranteed) missile use zones, which ensure maximum implementation of capabilities missile weapons. These zones depend on enemy opposition and a number of other factors that determine the effectiveness of the aviation complex in long-range group air combat.
This fact necessitated the need to both improve the techniques and methods of using air-to-air missiles, ensuring maximum implementation of their capabilities, and to practice the fighter’s anti-missile maneuvers through the use of “super-maneuverability” modes.
The growth in the maneuverability of fourth-generation fighters has led to a change in a number of characteristics of close air combat - its spatial scope, range of altitudes and speeds, and the duration of combat contact. In modern close group air combat, it is no longer necessary for a fighter to enter the rear hemisphere of the target. Today, it has become possible to launch missiles with a thermal homing head on a collision course, and as weapons and sighting systems improve, the proportion of such attacks is increasing. If earlier - during a collision between second or third generation aircraft - the majority of missile launches in close air combat fell on the range of target heading angles of 180-120°, now the launches are distributed over the entire area of space around the enemy aircraft , and their number in the range of heading angles 120-60° (48%) exceeds the number of launches in the range of angles 180-120° (31%). In addition to expanding the possibilities of using weapons according to the conditions of the target heading angle, modern missiles with TGS allow launching in a wide range of target designation angles (fighter heading angles). IN modern combat only a quarter of the missile launchers are launched at target designation angles of less than 10°, and the rest of the launches are carried out at target designation angles of 10-30° or more.

The expansion of the capabilities of weapons has significantly increased the proportion of situations in which conditions arise for their use. The average time from the start of a battle to the defeat of one of its participants is reduced. Situations close to dueling have become more frequent, when the difference in the time the opponents use weapons is only a few seconds. All this increases in modern close maneuver air combat the role of factors that contribute to pre-empting the enemy in opening fire. Such factors primarily include: high characteristics of unsteady maneuvering of the fighter, angular velocity of target designation, target acquisition time by the seeker, as well as the time the missile leaves the launcher.

The experience of recent local wars shows that the increase in the speed of an unsteady turn caused a decrease in the average speed of air combat. This is due to the need for the aircraft to quickly reach the maximum angular velocity mode. Compared to third-generation fighters, fourth-generation aircraft have an average speed of close maneuverable air combat that is 150-200 km/h less. Despite this, the average level of overloads with which maneuvers modern aircraft, not only did not decrease, but even increased somewhat. A decrease in average speed and an increase in overloads led to a reduction in the space in which close-in air combat takes place: while third-generation aircraft had an average maneuvering radius of about 2000 m, and the battle itself between two pairs of fighters took place, as a rule, in a space of 10...15 x 10...15 km at average difference minimum and maximum altitudes of 6...8 km, then fourth generation fighters maneuver with an average radius of 800...1000 m, and the maneuvering space has been reduced to a “piece of sky” 4...6 x 4...6 km with an altitude range of 4 km.

The reduction in the size of the “battlefield” with the increase in the maneuverability of fighters led to an increase in the speed of relative angular movement of rivals. This was the reason for the increase in the proportion of short-term situations in which it is possible to use weapons according to the parameters of the permitted range, heading angles of the target and the fighter. However, time pressure and high angular speed of sight make it difficult to aim and launch missiles. The way out of this situation is seen in a short-term achievement of a high angular velocity of turn (again
"super maneuverability"!).

The increase in the acceleration characteristics of fighters, the increase in the launch range of air-to-air missiles and the likelihood of attacks from the forward hemisphere have reduced the time for aircraft to approach each other in close maneuverable air combat. This “compressed” the period of time from the moment the target was detected until it was defeated, which, in turn, reduced the average duration of such a battle. Therefore, of all the particular characteristics of maneuverability in close air combat, the most important role is played by angular speed and turning radius, which influence the speed of taking an attack position and the enemy’s advance in the use of weapons.

Thus, one of the most important areas for increasing the effectiveness of the combat use of modern aviation combat systems has become the struggle for the fullest use of the maneuverable characteristics of the aircraft.

The use of super-maneuverability modes in close air combat can significantly increase the effectiveness of short-range missile launchers within the near border of the area of possible launches. An assessment of the conditions for using weapons when performing tactical techniques with braking at supercritical angles of attack shows that the orientation of the missile seeker in the direction of the target, allowing for target designation and capture, can be carried out at high angles of attack. However, the short available time and high angular rates of change in pitch angle practically exclude this possibility given the existing limitations of the sighting system and missiles.

It should be noted that one of the disadvantages of tactical techniques with braking at supercritical angles of attack is the loss of energy, which limits the possibilities of intensive maneuvering for some time. In order to reduce the acceleration time after braking, with sufficient headroom, the “Flip, Cobra” and “Half-flip, Cobra” maneuvers can be used. In this case, the attacked fighter performs part of a flip (half-flip) towards the attacker, and then, on a downward trajectory, makes sharp braking at supercritical angles of attack, leading to the enemy energetically jumping forward. The defender in this case finds himself in an advantageous position for using weapons and, in addition, has the opportunity to quickly increase speed while descending for further maneuvers.

Certain elements of “super-maneuverability” have already been successfully used during training air battles, including with Air Force aircraft foreign countries. An example is the air battle carried out on September 16, 1995 during joint Russian-South African exercises on the territory of South Africa. This is how one of its participants, the head of the Center for Combat Use and Retraining of Frontline Aviation Flight Personnel, Major General A.N. Kharchevsky, describes it: “In the first air battle that I conducted on a MiG-29 fighter with the Chita D (advanced) aircraft variant of the IAI Kfir S.7 fighter, created in South Africa in the late 80s), piloted by a nice guy named Casino, I was convinced that the South African pilot controlled his fighter to perfection. He was not afraid of losing speed, he had excellent orientation... What I immediately “bought” it on was the “Bell” - a piece that allows you to quickly gain a tactical advantage. At the same time, “Chita” jumped forward, I fell on top of her, and my opponent did not immediately understand what had happened. There was still a risk on my part: after all, a loss of speed in an air battle, as a rule, is tantamount to a loss of advantage. But if you use the Bell correctly, in just 20 seconds you can gain a complete advantage in battle.” As they say, comments are unnecessary.....

The maneuverability of aircraft also significantly affects the effectiveness of hitting ground targets. Due to navigation errors, the randomness of the detection, identification and capture processes, the position of the aircraft relative to the ground target at the time of its detection is also random. However, there is a certain area of airspace in which a moving attack is possible, providing the greatest effectiveness of the strike. The size of the possible attack zone (PAA) depends on the characteristics of the on-board weapons, the field of view of the surveillance and sighting systems, the crew’s ability to view the terrain, as well as the maneuvering characteristics of the aircraft. Increasing maneuverability allows you to expand the air defense zone (and, consequently, the likelihood of an attack on the move) by reducing the turning radius. The use of “super-maneuverability” elements - dynamic braking and maneuvering at speeds of 200-400 km/h - can significantly increase the target detection range and significantly reduce the minimum range of weapons.
However, “super-maneuverability” requires the development and mastery of new tactics and methods of searching and attacking ground targets, especially when using unguided weapons. Entering a ground target, preparing for its attack, and the attack itself are carried out, as a rule, under conditions of simultaneously overcoming enemy air defenses. This, on the one hand, necessitates intensive anti-aircraft maneuvering, and on the other hand, imposes restrictions on the tactics of the strike itself. Both aircraft and ground-based radars of air defense systems currently use a pulse-Doppler operating mode. This leads to the existence of so-called “blind” approach speed zones, at which radar stations lose their target. When the enemy intensively changes the speed and direction of movement (“jumps” in speed and coordinates) in the automatic tracking system of the air defense system, long transient processes are inevitable, characterized by a sharp increase in errors and loss of stability of operation. Thus, an intensive maneuver, which can be supplemented by electronic jamming, significantly reduces the effectiveness of enemy ground-based air defense systems.

The main directions for implementing elements of “super-maneuverability” when solving strike tasks are: the use of guided weapons of large and medium range(missiles and gliding bombs) with complex species maneuver with minimal entry into the enemy air defense zone; reducing the probability of auto-tracking a target by an air defense missile system radar due to intensive maneuvering, leading to the effect of a “speed jump”; reducing the probability of an anti-aircraft missile hitting an aircraft when the “jump in coordinate” effect appears, the appearance of fluctuation errors and “swaying” of the missile defense control system, as well as the use of terrain closure angles and “dead zones” of the air defense system when attacking a target with unguided weapons.

However, in order for “super-maneuverability” to “work” as a real means of increasing the efficiency of aviation combat systems, a lot of and multifaceted work must be done. In particular, it is necessary to work out the safety issues of separating aircraft weapons from the aircraft at high angles of attack and glide. The peculiarities of the combat use of “super-maneuverable” fighters necessitate the solution of a number of psychophysiological problems associated with the functioning of the pilot. Finally, the issues of tactics and control of group air combat of promising “super-maneuverable” fighters need in-depth study.

Here we will give some tips for beginners on using fighter maneuvers in the game. War Thunder. We will look at maneuvers that are used when attacking an enemy, as well as in defense to avoid attacks from enemy aircraft.

Attack maneuvers

Let's start the guide to combat maneuvers with actions when you need to attack the enemy.

How not to fly past the enemy

The most common mistake made by beginners is when they, having an advantage in energy, go into a dive, attack the enemy, fly past him and expose themselves to attack. How can we prevent this? It's very simple. You need to dive at the enemy, attack him and go up, dampening your speed with height. After this, we find ourselves in superiority over the enemy and make a second approach.

How to cut corners

Imagine this game situation: you and the enemy take different turns, and the enemy’s plane is more maneuverable than yours. In this case, you will need to cut the corner "vertical". This will give you the opportunity to reach the shooting point before the enemy or even get in his way.

How to attack bombers

The main principle of attacking a bomber is that you should not hit it in the “six”, that is, do not fall into the range of action of the bomber’s onboard gunners. To do this, you need to fly a little over the enemy bomber and dive right onto its roof, so you can attack the cockpit or wings. If the first approach is unsuccessful, then do the next approach according to the same principle.

Maneuvers in defense

Let's continue the guide on combat maneuvers and look at the actions in defense when you are attacked by the enemy.

How to avoid a head-on attack

The easiest way to avoid an attack on the enemy's forehead is to maneuver down under the enemy. We go down under the enemy, it is inconvenient for him to reach us, and we change the trajectory of movement to the desired one. Then you can start a maneuver battle with him, etc.

How to get away from the boom-zoom

The simplest technique for avoiding the boom-zoom in War Thunder is to perform a half roll with a half loop. When you see that the enemy is approaching you, then from a distance of about 800 meters do a half-roll and leave using a half-loop down. The enemy will fly past you or break your wings (if we are talking about a realistic battle mode).

How to remove "six" and go on the attack

If the enemy is closely following you at “six”, then from about two hundred meters away from the enemy, turn off the engine thrust and start making a smeared barrel. As a rule, the enemy does not expect such actions and will fly past you. Then you can go on the attack, making semi-horizontal and semi-vertical turns.

Special thanks to the player Libertus for creating the video guide.

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Candidate of Technical Sciences Yu. ZHELNIN.

The title of the article was suggested by the enthusiastic reaction of spectators watching the spectacular maneuvers of domestic fighters at an air show, when the plane flies tilted back 120 degrees. Behind this maneuver is serious work to create a new direction in improving fighter aircraft, called “super-maneuverability.” The non-professional term - tail-first flight - has become a reason for discussion and popular presentation of a number of physical and technical foundations of aerodynamics, flight dynamics and control of modern fighters.

Science and life // Illustrations

Rice. 1. “Pugachev’s Cobra”, or tail-first flight.

Rice. 2. Diagram of aerodynamic forces acting on the plate in the air flow at different angles of attack.

Rice. 3. Diagram of the aerodynamic forces acting on the aircraft when reaching supercritical angles of attack.

Rice. 4. Cyclogram of aircraft positions when performing the Cobra maneuver.

Aerobatics using super-maneuverability mode. “Hook” (above - top view, bottom - side view).

Aerobatics using super-maneuverability mode. On the left is “The Bell”. On the right is Cobra.

Aerobatics using super-maneuverability mode. On the left is the “Helicopter” figure, on the right is the “J-turn” (shown twice: above - side view, below - top view).

Rice. 5. Diagram of the forces acting on the aircraft when the engine nozzle deflects.

Fig.6. A picture of an air battle between two fighters, when one of them (“red”) uses super-maneuverability (“Hook”).

For nearly twenty years, since 1989, domestic Su-27 and MiG-29 fighters have been performing the memorable “Cobra” maneuver, which has actually become a trademark of domestic fighters. Aircraft aerobatics usually occur at angles of attack not exceeding 10-15° (the angle between the longitudinal axis of the aircraft and its speed vector), while the nose of the aircraft is oriented in the direction of flight. When performing the Cobra maneuver, the angles of attack can reach 120°, the plane leans back, and the viewer gets the impression that it is flying “tail first” (Fig. 1).

Foreign fighters, including serial American F-15, F-16, F-18, could not perform this maneuver at that time, and only a few years later it began to be performed by specially equipped F-15 and F-16 fighters, at that time like the Su-27 and MiG-29 were production vehicles. Moreover, the Cobra maneuver has become to a certain extent a sign of the quality of the fighter; for example, emphasizing the broad capabilities of the new American F-22 Raptor fighter, foreign press mentioned his ability to perform this maneuver.

The spectacular Cobra maneuver, first performed by test pilot V. G. Pugachev and demonstrated by him in 1989 at the Le Bourget air show, was preceded by theoretical and experimental work carried out at TsAGI since the late 1970s. Later, at TsAGI, with the participation of the Sukhoi Design Bureau, the Mikoyan Design Bureau, GosNIIAS and LII, a large volume calculations, tests in wind tunnels, modeling on flight stands, flight tests on dynamically similar models and on the Su-27 aircraft. The next stage of research ended in 1989 with the development and mastery of the so-called dynamic approach to supercritical angles of attack, which later became known as “Cobra”. A group of TsAGI employees - Yu. N. Zhelnin, V. L. Sukhanov, L. M. Shkadov - and test pilot V. G. Pugachev for the theoretical development and mastery of this maneuver were awarded the N. E. Zhukovsky Prize for 1990 .

When performing the Cobra maneuver, the aircraft reaches angles of attack that were previously unattainable and, strictly speaking, prohibited in flight practice. The fact is that when angles of the order of 20-25°, which are called “critical” are reached, the picture of the aerodynamic flow changes significantly, the so-called separation flow occurs, the plane loses stability, it stalls and then goes into a tailspin. This phenomenon is extremely undesirable and dangerous, therefore there is a system of measures that do not allow the pilot to exceed the critical angle of attack.

This limitation significantly hampered the ability of the aircraft to evolve in space and was especially acute in air combat, when the pilot sometimes “lacked” the angle of attack for successful combat. Therefore, in the late 1970s - early 1980s, both in our country and abroad, research began to be carried out on the development of angles of attack of more than 60°. Later, the term “supermaneuverability” appeared, which was borrowed from foreign sources (supermaneurability), although in the first domestic studies this mode was called “flight at supercritical angles of attack.” These terms were used by the German specialist W.B. Herbst in his 1980 work, which a year later became known in our country. Today, the term “super-maneuverability” means the ability of an aircraft to maneuver without restrictions on the angle of attack, although it does not fully reflect all the capabilities of a fighter. Among them there are those that can, by analogy, be called “supercontrollability” - the ability to almost unlimitedly change the orientation of the aircraft relative to the direction of flight.

Testing of models of promising fighters at angles of more than 60° in the T-105 TsAGI wind tunnel showed the presence of dynamic lateral stability of devices of some aerodynamic designs. It became clear that it is possible to fly in such modes, but ensuring controllability is a very difficult task. Before starting to solve it, it was necessary to evaluate what their use provides in terms of combat effectiveness, to check whether it is high enough.

The first stage of work was devoted to assessing the effectiveness. The results of mathematical modeling showed the significant superiority of the super-maneuverable fighter. They were confirmed by semi-realistic modeling carried out in 1982-1983 at TsAGI together with GosNIIAS on the KPM-2300 flight stand: a fighter using supercritical angles of attack in close air combat actually gains an advantage due to an energetic turn and a decrease in the radius of the turn. Simulation of long-range air combat has shown that a super-maneuverable fighter after a missile launch can use high-angle angles just as effectively for intensive braking.

At the next stage of research, the possibility of implementing such modes was analyzed, ensuring the stability and controllability of the aircraft. In the T-105 wind tunnel at TsAGI in 1987, models of the Su-27 aircraft were tested in the range of angles of attack from 0 to 180° and glide angles of ±90°. Analysis of the test results allowed the author to draw an important conclusion. It turned out that with the horizontal tail fully deflected to pitch up, the aircraft could reach high angles of attack in the rapid dynamic “throw” mode and return to its original position. And this despite the fact that the efficiency of the aerodynamic longitudinal control elements in the region of high angles of attack is practically “zero”.

Mathematical modeling of the maneuver showed the validity of the assumption made. The plane reached angles of attack of more than 60-90° in 5-7 seconds and independently returned to the region of small angles. At the same time, the speed decreased by almost half, and the altitude changed only by 100-150 meters. The pitch angular velocity reached 60 degrees/s, and lateral disturbance did not develop.

Let's take a closer look at the mechanics of this maneuver. Figuratively speaking, the action of aerodynamic forces on an airplane corresponds to the very common principle of oscillation of a pendulum or a spring with a load: when an object deviates from its equilibrium position, forces should arise that tend to bring it back. During any oscillation, the minimum and maximum amplitude values are reached, and the change in the angle of attack during the Cobra maneuver has the same nature. The minimum amplitude value corresponds to “normal” angles of attack of 10-15°, the maximum to supercritical angles of 90-120°.

The diagram of aerodynamic forces acting on an aircraft can be illustrated using the example of air flow around a plate (Fig. 2). At small angles of attack with continuous flow around the plate, the point of application of the total aerodynamic force (center of pressure) lies in its front part, ahead of the geometric center of gravity of the plate. As a result, a moment of force is created aimed at increasing the angle of attack (pitching up). When 90° is reached, the point of application of the aerodynamic force will coincide with the center of gravity and the moment of force will become equal to zero. With a further increase in the angle, the aerodynamic force will be applied to a point behind the center of gravity (indicated in the figure by the letter “a”) and directed downward. Due to this, an opposite moment is created, causing a decrease in the angle of attack (dive). There is a pattern of forces corresponding to stable oscillations around an equilibrium position equal to an angle of about 90°. This creates the prerequisites for the oscillatory process - periodically reaching a large angle of attack and returning to the region of the original angles.

The dynamics of aircraft motion under the influence of aerodynamic forces are similar (Fig. 3). It is achieved both by deflecting the controls (in particular, the rotary stabilizer), and thanks to the aerodynamic configuration of the aircraft, which includes the concept of its static instability. But unlike the plate, the point of application of the total aerodynamic force coincides with the center of mass of the aircraft at an angle of 50-60° - the so-called balancing angle of attack.

At the first stage, under the influence of the pitching moment, the aircraft develops an angular velocity of rotation, acquiring kinetic energy, by inertia it passes the equilibrium point (Fig. 4, a, b) and continues to rotate, increasing the angle of attack. When the angle of attack becomes greater than the trim angle, a counter-rotational diving moment occurs. Due to it, the rotation stops and the maximum angle of attack is achieved (Fig. 4, c). Under the influence of the diving moment, a turn in the opposite direction begins. At angles of attack less than the trim angle, a moment arises that counteracts the rotation and stops the aircraft in its original position (Fig. 4, d, e). In this case, intense braking of the aircraft occurs; with fixed aerodynamic characteristics, it is determined mainly by the load on the wing - the ratio of the weight of the aircraft to the area of its wing. A significant role is played by the moment of inertia of the aircraft, the distance between the center of pressure and the center of mass of the aircraft and other parameters. Their various combinations lead to various options for dynamically reaching supercritical angles of attack. In particular, the righting moment (during a dive) may be insufficient to return to its original position. Therefore, theoretically, the following three options can be assumed:

The plane reaches a certain maximum value of the angle of attack and returns to its original position (“Cobra”);

The plane develops a high angular velocity of rotation and, continuing it, returns to its original position, performing a 360° flip (“Somersault”);

The plane reaches high angles of attack, stops at the point where the moment is zero, and does not return to its original position (“Helicopter” or “Corkscrew”).

The ratio of the parameters of the Su-27 aircraft turned out to be the most favorable for the implementation of the first option. It should be noted that it was not pre-designed for this maneuver, but was revealed during the research and flight testing process. The main factors that determined his successful execution of the Cobra maneuver were the high efficiency of his rotary stabilizer and a small margin of static stability.

The area of instability of the aircraft is in the vicinity of the angle of attack of 30-40°. In this area, a lateral disturbance movement of the aircraft may develop and a stall may occur. However, its development requires a certain time, and if you leave the area of instability earlier, stalling will not occur. To successfully perform the Cobra maneuver, the aircraft must develop a sufficiently high angular velocity in pitch (in longitudinal motion) in order to quickly pass through the area of instability. This is to some extent analogous to a person moving along a narrow crossing without railings: it is safer to cross it by running, rather than slowly and carefully, trying to balance.

The short duration of the maneuver saves you from yet another trouble. The fact is that at high angles of attack, asymmetrical vortices are formed above the wing, along the fuselage of the aircraft. They cause the appearance of very unfavorable, so-called asymmetrical disturbing lateral moments in roll and yaw. And with the rapid passage of vortex formation zones, they do not have time to fully form.

The conclusion followed from this: to perform the maneuver, the pilot must extremely quickly deflect the horizontal tail to the maximum to pitch up. This places certain demands on the aircraft control system. In the Su-27 it contains negative feedbacks, preventing it from developing too high an angular velocity, slows down the stabilizer when the control stick is sharply deflected, and “softens” the aircraft’s reaction to sudden actions by the pilot. Therefore, it is necessary to eliminate feedback in the control system and switch to a mode with a “rigid” connection of the control stick with the rotary stabilizer: by taking the control stick towards himself at maximum speed, the pilot just as quickly deflects the stabilizer to the maximum position.

In this regard, it is appropriate to conduct some comparative analysis of the “Bell” and “Dynamic Exit” maneuvers. Essentially, they are the limiting elements of one family of maneuvers with access to large supercritical angles of attack with an intense loss of speed and a return to the region of small angles. Maneuvers of this type also include maneuvers with a “slow” approach to high angles of attack, which occupy an intermediate position in this family. They differ only in the way they achieve large supercritical angles of attack.

Another problem is related to engine operation. When reaching high angles of attack, the flow at the edges of the air intakes is disrupted and so-called surging occurs - pulsations of the air flow, due to which the engine stalls. The occurrence of surge effects is highly dependent on the location of the air intakes and their shape. The configuration of the air intakes on the Su-27 and MiG-29 fighters ensures stable engine operation when reaching high angles of attack, corresponding to tail-first flight. In addition, at this point the speed drops significantly, and the operating conditions of the air intake become close to the operation of the engine on a stationary stand, where there is no flow stall.

The speed of dynamic output is limited by another factor: the effect of overload on the pilot. The maximum permissible overload limits the range of speeds at which it is possible. For the Su-27, the rate at which it reaches overload significantly exceeds the permissible limit. However, the short-term overloads characteristic of this maneuver are tolerated by the pilot relatively easily. In this case, the main component of the overload acts in the usual direction - pelvis - head.

When the pilot's cockpit rotates relative to the center of mass at high angular velocities in pitch, an overload occurs in the chest-back direction, which causes the pilot to “nod” in the direction of the instrument panel and reaches a value of 2-2.5 g. This overload can also limit the speed range when performing a maneuver.

TsAGI and the Sukhoi Design Bureau carried out joint work to study the characteristics of the dynamic output on a specific aircraft, clarify the range of flight modes and other factors necessary for conducting flight tests.

At the end of 1988, the research was completed, and semi-realistic modeling of these modes was carried out on the TsAGI flight stand PSPK-1 with the participation of LII test pilot L. D. Lobos. At the same time, stall and spin tests of the Su-27 aircraft, carried out by specialists from the Sukhoi Design Bureau, LII and TsAGI, were completed. Flight tests of dynamic approach to high angles of attack included two programs.

The first one began to be carried out in February 1989 by Sukhoi Design Bureau test pilot Viktor Pugachev as part of the preparation for demonstration flights at the Le Bourget air show, where the Su-27 aircraft was first presented. Flight tests under the second program began two months later by LII test pilot Leonid Lobos. It was aimed at determining the boundaries and conditions for dynamically reaching supercritical angles of attack.

An essential point of the first program was the development of dynamic recovery from horizontal flight at low altitude - 400-500 meters. Test flights began at an altitude of 10,000 meters, lowering it as the maneuver was mastered. The first flights were carried out with a control system that limited angular speeds. Although they showed the fundamental possibility of performing this maneuver, the lateral movement that developed during this did not allow achieving a stable maneuver. Then they decided to switch to control in the “hard connection” mode. As a result, the stability of the maneuver improved significantly, and at the end of April, V. Pugachev confidently performed it at an altitude of 400 meters, having worked on the tail-first piloting technique, which he demonstrated in Le Bourget. This maneuver became known throughout the world under the name “Pugachev’s Cobra”.

Leonid Lobos also successfully mastered this maneuver, performing it not only from horizontal flight, but also with various roll and pitch angles. Later, this maneuver with roll angles of about 90° was mastered on aircraft with deflectable thrust vectoring (OTV), was repeatedly demonstrated in demonstration flights and was called “Hook”. After some time, similar maneuvers, although with some differences, began to be performed on MiG-29 aircraft, which have slightly different characteristics.

At first, research into super-maneuverability was somewhat abstract, and the time for its practical implementation seemed a very distant prospect. But when the dynamic output was successfully tested in flight practice, its practical usefulness became obvious, and the use of deflectable thrust vector finally made super-maneuverability a reality.

The very idea of dynamically reaching high angles of attack as a targeted maneuver was first formulated and substantiated in the works of TsAGI in 1987. At first, it raised great doubts among experts. The active support of this idea by the leadership of TsAGI and leading specialists G. S. Byushgens, G. I. Zagainov, L. M. Shkadov, V. L. Sukhanov made it possible to obtain convincing results of theoretical research. However, it was impossible to bring the idea to life without the involvement of specialists from TsAGI, LII, Sukhoi Design Bureau and Mikoyan Design Bureau. Particularly noteworthy is the role of the General Designer of the Sukhoi Design Bureau, M.P. Simonov: he made a responsible and, to a certain extent, risky decision to conduct flight tests of the maneuver, contrary to the opinion of many experts. Mastering super-maneuverability modes on existing-generation fighters Su-27 and MiG-29 attracted the attention of a wide range of aviation specialists and gave new impetus to research. In the United States, the experimental X-31A aircraft and F-15, F-16 and F-18 fighters equipped with deflectable thrust vectoring (OVT) were tested in this mode. Similar studies were carried out on the Su-27 aircraft with OVT, which made it possible to expand the class of maneuvers at supercritical angles of attack.

The use of OVT is due to the need to create additional aircraft control forces in super-maneuverability modes, when aerodynamic controls become ineffective - at high supercritical angles of attack and low flight speeds. Therefore, the range of such modes for aircraft without OVT is quite narrow and is practically limited only by the “Cobra” maneuver, when the aircraft is practically uncontrollable, and its stability is determined mainly by the short duration of the maneuver. It is possible to radically improve controllability by deflecting the jet stream using a rotating engine nozzle. When the jet is deflected, the engine thrust acquires two components: one passes through the center of mass and is directed along the axis of the aircraft, the other is perpendicular to it. Depending on the orientation of the nozzle rotation axis, when it is deflected, control moments are created in longitudinal and lateral motion (Fig. 5, a, b). For a twin-engine aircraft, deflecting the nozzles in opposite directions allows you to create roll moments (Fig. 5, c).

Creating and controlling a rotary nozzle is a very complex technical task. The simplest single-axis scheme is implemented on the Su-30MKI and F-22 aircraft. A more complex two-axis scheme is used on the MiG-29OVT, F-16 MATV “VISTA”, F-15 “ACTIV” and provides independent control of pitch, yaw and roll. And the V-shaped position of the uniaxial round nozzles of the Su-30MKI aircraft (Fig. 5, d), developed jointly by TsAGI and the Sukhoi Design Bureau, allows, within the framework of a uniaxial scheme, to create a control torque along all three axes of a twin-engine aircraft. The use of OVT allows you to significantly expand the range of maneuvers (some of them are presented in the figures).

The “Bell” and “Cobra” maneuvers can also be performed by aircraft with aerodynamic control, but with OVT they are more precise in nature, increasing the safety of their execution.

The “Helicopter” maneuver is performed with the aircraft descending and rotating in the roll plane along a small radius helix, along appearance resembling a corkscrew. However, this is a controlled maneuver; the plane easily exits it into straight flight or begins to rotate in the opposite direction.

The J-turn maneuver is designed to perform a vigorous 180° turn in tight spaces. It received its name because of the similarity of the trajectory to the Latin capital letter “J” and was first proposed by W. Herbst.

“Somersault”, or “360° flip”, in a certain sense serves as a development of the “Cobra” maneuver: the plane returns to its original position not through a reverse movement, but by continuing to rotate.

The “hook” in its concept is a “Cobra” maneuver performed at a roll of 90°. Similar maneuvers at different bank angles are different options"combat" maneuver.

All the maneuvers described above are performed by test pilots and demonstrated at air shows. All of them can be combined to create spectacular cascades of aerobatics, for example “Cobra” + “Helicopter”, “Hook” + “Helicopter” and others, including their combat variants.

New fighters with increased maneuverability are naturally created to conduct air combat with superiority over the enemy. Indeed, turning the aircraft at a large angle, almost regardless of the direction of flight, allows you to get ahead of the enemy, who does not have such capabilities, in using weapons, but the advanced launch of a missile essentially determines the outcome of the battle. This is certainly a positive feature of a super-maneuverable fighter. On the other hand, such a maneuver leads to a significant loss of speed, which deprives the pilot of the ability to actively maneuver for some time and can have dangerous consequences. In addition, reaching high angles of attack is only possible at speeds when the maximum overload does not exceed the permissible one - 600-650 km/h, which is slightly lower than the typical speed of the start of an air battle. It is precisely this ambiguity in the effects of using super-maneuverability that remains the subject of debate about the advisability of its use in air combat. However, all newly created fighters, both here and abroad, still have super-maneuverability.

Obviously, the use of all these modes is associated with a certain risk, which can be justified if the probability of victory is maximum and defeat is minimal. In fact, this means that in air combat there are situations where the use of super-maneuverability guarantees both success and safety. Otherwise, these modes should not be used, remaining on equal terms with the enemy.

In Fig. Figure 6 shows a picture of an air battle obtained on the basis of mathematical modeling, which illustrates an option for the effective use of super-maneuverability. From equal conditions a super-maneuverable fighter (“red”) performs a “hook” maneuver and launches a missile that reaches the target at a time when its opponent (“blue”), who does not have super-maneuverability, cannot do so. After this, the “red” fighter, thanks to a decrease in the turning radius due to the loss of speed, leaves the zone of possible missile launches by the enemy (if he was unhit): in a dive, moving almost straight, he increases speed - and the enemy’s missiles do not reach the target.

In combat conditions, the role of “hints” given to the pilot by on-board “intelligence” systems, which are increasingly being introduced into flight practice, becomes essential. Based on an analysis of the situation in combat and a forecast of its development, the system should prompt the pilot to the moment of the most effective and safe use super-maneuverability or report its impossibility due to dangerous consequences caused by loss of speed.

In conclusion, it should be said that the use of super-maneuverability poses, in addition to those mentioned above, a number of problems associated with the aircraft control system, the operation of the on-board weapons system, air combat tactics, and many others. Some of them have now been successfully overcome, the rest are at the research stage. In general, super-maneuverability occupies a strong place among the new technical solutions used in the creation of a promising fighter.

GLOSSARY FOR THE ARTICLE

Pitching (from the French cabrer - to rear up) is a rotation of the aircraft around its transverse axis, leading to an increase in the angle of attack.

Roll is the position of the aircraft in which the vertical plane of its symmetry is at an angle to the Earth’s surface other than 90°.

A dive (from the French piquer une těte - to fall upside down) is a descent of an aircraft along a trajectory inclined at an angle of 30-90° to the Earth's surface, leading to a rapid loss of altitude and an increase in speed. A dive at an angle of 80-90° is called vertical.

Yaw - small periodic angular deviations of the aircraft horizontally in both directions from the direction of its movement when upright position steering wheel

Stall is a critical condition in which uncontrolled lateral movement of the aircraft occurs.

Pitch is the movement of an aircraft, leading to a change in the angle between its longitudinal axis and the horizontal plane. An increase in this angle leads to pitching, a decrease - to a dive.

Angle of attack is the angle between a certain conventional line, for example the chord of an airplane wing, and the direction of the speed of the oncoming air flow.

A spin is a descent of an aircraft along a steep helical line while simultaneously rotating around a vertical axis. A controlled spin is one of the aerobatics maneuvers.