Nuclear damaging factors. Medical and tactical characteristics of the damaging factors of modern types of weapons

Saratov Medical University Saratov State Medical University named after Razumovsky

Medical College Department of Nursing

Abstract on the topic:” Striking factors nuclear weapons ”

Students of group 102

Kulikova Valeria

Checked by Starostenko V.Yu

Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………...2

Damaging factors of nuclear weapons………………………………………..3

Shock wave……………………………………………………………......3

Light radiation……………………………………………………………….7

Penetrating radiation………………………………………………………..8

Radioactive contamination…………………………………………………………….........10

Electromagnetic pulse………………………………………………………......12

Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………......14

References……………………………………………………………15

Introduction.

A nuclear weapon is a weapon whose destructive effect is caused by the energy released during nuclear fission and fusion reactions. It is the most powerful type of weapon of mass destruction. Nuclear weapons are intended for mass destruction of people, destruction or destruction of administrative and industrial centers, various objects, structures and equipment.

The damaging effect of a nuclear explosion depends on the power of the ammunition, the type of explosion, and the type of nuclear charge. The power of a nuclear weapon is characterized by its TNT equivalent. Its unit of measurement is t, kt, Mt.

In powerful explosions, characteristic of modern thermonuclear charges, the shock wave causes the greatest destruction, and the light radiation spreads farthest.

I'll consider damaging factors ground nuclear explosion and their impact on humans, industrial facilities, etc. And I will give a brief description of the damaging factors of nuclear weapons.

Damaging factors of nuclear weapons and protection.

The damaging factors of a nuclear explosion (NE) are: shock wave, light radiation, penetrating radiation, radioactive contamination, electromagnetic pulse.

For obvious reasons, an electromagnetic pulse (EMP) does not affect people, but it does damage electronic equipment.

During an explosion in the atmosphere, approximately 50% of the explosion energy is spent on the formation of a shock wave, 30-40% on light radiation, up to 5% on penetrating radiation and electromagnetic pulse, and up to 15% on radioactive contamination. The effect of the damaging factors of a nuclear explosion on people and elements of objects does not occur simultaneously and differs in the duration of the impact, nature and scale.

Such a variety of damaging factors suggests that a nuclear explosion is much more dangerous phenomenon than an explosion of a similar amount of conventional explosives in terms of energy output.

Shock wave.

A shock wave is an area of sharp compression of the medium, which propagates in the form of a spherical layer in all directions from the explosion site at supersonic speed. Depending on the propagation medium, a shock wave is distinguished in air, water or soil.

An air shock wave is a zone of compressed air spreading from the center of an explosion. Its source is high blood pressure and temperature at the point of explosion. Basic parameters shock wave, determining its damaging effect:

excess pressure in the shock wave front, ΔР f, Pa (kgf/cm2);

velocity pressure, ΔР ск, Pa (kgf/cm2).

Near the center of the explosion, the speed of propagation of the shock wave is several times higher than the speed of sound in air. As the distance from the explosion increases, the speed of wave propagation quickly decreases and the shock wave weakens. Air shock wave at nuclear explosion average power travels approximately 1000 meters in 1.4 seconds, 2000 meters in 4 seconds, 3000 meters in 7 seconds, 5000 meters in 12 seconds. Before the front of the shock wave, the pressure in the air is equal to atmospheric pressure P 0 . With the arrival of the shock wave front at a given point in space, the pressure sharply (jumps) increases and reaches a maximum, then, as the wave front moves away, the pressure gradually decreases and after a certain period of time becomes equal to atmospheric pressure. The resulting layer of compressed air is called compression phase. During this period, the shock wave has the greatest destructive effect. Subsequently, continuing to decrease, the pressure becomes below atmospheric pressure and the air begins to move in the direction opposite to the propagation of the shock wave, that is, towards the center of the explosion. This zone of low pressure is called the rarefaction phase.

Directly behind the shock wave front, in the compression region, air masses move. Due to the braking of these air masses, when they meet an obstacle, the pressure of the high-speed pressure of the air shock wave arises.

Velocity pressure ΔР с is a dynamic load created by an air flow moving behind the shock wave front. The propelling effect of high-speed air pressure has a noticeable effect in the area with overpressure more than 50 kPa, where the air speed is more than 100 m/s. At pressures less than 50 kPa, the influence of ΔР с quickly decreases.

The main parameters of the shock wave, characterizing its destructive and damaging effect: excess pressure in the front of the shock wave; velocity head pressure; the duration of the wave action is the duration of the compression phase and the speed of the shock wave front.

The shock wave in water during an underwater nuclear explosion is qualitatively similar to the shock wave in the air. However, at the same distances, the pressure in the shock wave front in water is much greater than in air, and the action time is shorter.

During a ground-based nuclear explosion, part of the explosion energy is spent on the formation of a compression wave in the ground. Unlike a shock wave in air, it is characterized by a less sharp increase in pressure at the wave front, as well as a slower weakening behind the front. When a nuclear weapon explodes in the ground, the main part of the explosion energy is transferred to the surrounding mass of soil and produces a powerful shaking of the ground, reminiscent of an earthquake in its effect.

When exposed to people, the shock wave causes injuries (injuries) of varying degrees of severity: straight- from excess pressure and velocity head; indirect- from impacts from fragments of enclosing structures, glass fragments, etc.

According to the severity of damage to people from the shock wave, they are divided into:

to the lungs at ΔР f = 20-40 kPa (0.2-0.4 kgf/cm 2), (dislocations, bruises, ringing in the ears, dizziness, headache);

average at ΔР f = 40-60 kPa (0.4-0.6 kgf/cm 2), (contusions, blood from the nose and ears, dislocations of the limbs);

heavy at ΔР f ≥ 60-100 kPa (severe contusions, hearing damage and internal organs, loss of consciousness, bleeding from the nose and ears, fractures);

fatal at ΔР f ≥ 100 kPa. There are ruptures of internal organs, bone fractures, internal bleeding, concussion, prolonged loss of consciousness.

Destruction zones

The nature of destruction of industrial buildings depending on the load created by the shock wave. A general assessment of the destruction caused by the shock wave of a nuclear explosion is usually given according to the severity of this destruction:

weak damage at ΔР f ≥ 10-20 kPa (damage to windows, doors, light partitions, basements and lower floors is completely preserved. It is safe to be in the building and it can be used after routine repairs);

average damage at ΔР f = 20-30 kPa (cracks in load-bearing structural elements, collapse of individual sections of walls. Basements are preserved. After clearing and repairs, part of the premises on the lower floors can be used. Restoration of buildings is possible during major repairs);

severe destruction at ΔР f ≥ 30-50 kPa (collapse of 50% of building structures. The use of premises becomes impossible, and repair and restoration are most often impractical);

complete destruction at ΔР f ≥ 50 kPa (destruction of all structural elements of buildings. It is impossible to use the building. Basements with severe and complete destruction can be preserved and after the rubble is cleared, they can be partially used).

Guaranteed protection of people from the shock wave is provided by sheltering them in shelters. In the absence of shelters, anti-radiation shelters, underground workings, natural shelters and terrain are used.

Light radiation.

Light radiation from a nuclear explosion, when directly exposed, causes burns to exposed areas of the body, temporary blindness or burns to the retina. Burns are divided into four degrees according to the severity of damage to the body.

First degree burns are expressed in soreness, redness and swelling of the skin. They do not pose a serious danger and are quickly cured without any consequences.

Second degree burns(160-400 kJ/m2), bubbles are formed filled with a transparent protein liquid; If large areas of skin are affected, a person may lose ability to work for some time and require special treatment.

Third degree burns(400-600 kJ/m2) are characterized by necrosis of muscle tissue and skin with partial damage to the germ layer.

Fourth degree burns(≥ 600 kJ/m2): necrosis of the skin of deeper layers of tissue, possible temporary or complete loss of vision, etc. Damage to third and fourth degree burns of a significant part of the skin can lead to fatal outcome.

Protection from light radiation is simpler than from other damaging factors. Light radiation travels in a straight line. Any opaque barrier can serve as protection against it. Using holes, ditches, mounds, walls between windows for shelter, various types equipment and the like, burns from light radiation can be significantly reduced or completely avoided. Shelters and radiation shelters provide complete protection.

Radioactive contamination.

In a radioactively contaminated area, sources of radioactive radiation are: fission fragments (products) of a nuclear explosive (200 radioactive isotopes of 36 chemical elements), induced activity in the soil and other materials, and the undivided part of a nuclear charge.

Radiation radioactive substances consists of three types of rays: alpha, beta and gamma. Gamma rays have the greatest penetrating power, beta particles have the least penetrating power, and alpha particles have the least penetrating power. Radioactive contamination has a number of features: a large area affected, the duration of the damaging effect, difficulties in detecting radioactive substances that have no color, odor, etc. external signs.

Zones of radioactive contamination are formed in the area of a nuclear explosion and in the wake of a radioactive cloud. The greatest contamination of the area will be during ground (surface) and underground (underwater) nuclear explosions.

The degree of radioactive contamination of an area is characterized by the level of radiation for a certain time after the explosion and the exposure dose of radiation (gamma radiation) received during the time from the beginning of contamination to the time of complete decay of radioactive substances.

IN
depending on the degree of radioactive contamination and possible consequences external irradiation in the area of a nuclear explosion and on the trace of a radioactive cloud, zones of moderate, strong, dangerous and extremely dangerous contamination are distinguished.

Moderate Infestation Zone(zone A). (40 R) Work in open areas located in the middle of the zone or at its internal border must be stopped for several hours.

Highly infested area(zone B). (400 R) In zone B, work at facilities is stopped for up to 1 day, workers and employees take refuge in protective structures of civil defense, basements or other shelters.

Dangerous contamination zone(zone B). (1200 R) In this zone, work stops from 1 to 3-4 days, workers and employees take refuge in protective structures of the civil defense.

Extremely dangerous contamination zone(zone D). (4000 R) In zone G, work at facilities is stopped for 4 or more days, workers and employees take refuge in shelters. After the specified period, the radiation level on the territory of the facility decreases to values that ensure safe activities of workers and employees in production premises.

A radioactively contaminated area can cause damage to people both due to external γ-radiation from fission fragments, and from the ingress of radioactive products of α, β-radiation onto the skin and inside the human body. Internal damage to people by radioactive substances can occur when they enter the body, mainly through food. With air and water, radioactive substances will apparently enter the body in such quantities that will not cause acute radiation injury with loss of ability to work in people. The absorbed radioactive products of a nuclear explosion are distributed extremely unevenly in the body.

The main way to protect the population should be considered to be the isolation of people from external exposure to radioactive radiation, as well as the elimination of conditions under which radioactive substances can enter the human body along with air and food.

To protect people from getting radioactive substances into the respiratory system and onto the skin when working in conditions of radioactive contamination, personal protective equipment is used. When leaving the radioactive contamination zone, it is necessary to undergo sanitary treatment, that is, remove radioactive substances that have come into contact with the skin and decontaminate clothing. Thus, radioactive contamination of the area, although it poses an extremely great danger to people, but if protective measures are taken in a timely manner, it is possible to completely ensure the safety of people and their continued ability to work.

Electromagnetic pulse.

An electromagnetic pulse (EMP) is a non-uniform electromagnetic radiation in the form of a powerful short pulse (with a wavelength from 1 to 1000 m), which accompanies a nuclear explosion and affects electrical, electronic systems and equipment at considerable distances. The source of EMR is the process of interaction of γ-quanta with atoms of the medium. The most striking parameter of EMR is the instantaneous increase (and decrease) in the intensity of the electric and magnetic fields under the influence of an instantaneous γ-pulse (several milliseconds).

When designing systems and equipment, it is necessary to develop protection against EMP. Protection against EMI is achieved by shielding power supply and control lines, as well as equipment. All external lines must be two-wire, well insulated from the ground, with low-inertia spark gaps and fuse-links.

Depending on the nature of EMR exposure, the following methods of protection can be recommended: 1) the use of two-wire symmetrical lines, well insulated from each other and from the ground; 2) shielding of underground cables with copper, aluminum, lead sheath; 3) electromagnetic shielding of equipment units and components; 4) use various kinds protective input devices and lightning protection devices.

Conclusion.

Nuclear weapons are the most dangerous of all means of mass destruction known today. And despite this, its quantities are increasing every year. This obliges every person to know how to protect themselves in order to prevent death, and maybe even more than one. In order to protect yourself, you must have at least the slightest understanding of nuclear weapons and their effects. This is precisely the main task of civil defense: to give a person knowledge so that he can protect himself (and this applies not only to nuclear weapons, but in general to all life-threatening situations).

Damaging factors include:

1) Shock wave. Characteristic: high-speed pressure, sharp increase in pressure. Consequences: destruction by mechanical action of a shock wave and damage to people and animals by secondary factors. Protection:

2) Light radiation. Characteristic: very high temperature, blinding flash. Consequences: fires and burns to human skin. Protection: the use of shelters, simple shelters and protective properties of the area.

3) Penetrating radiation. Characteristic: alpha, beta, gamma radiation. Consequences: damage to living cells of the body, radiation sickness. Protection: the use of shelters, anti-radiation shelters, simple shelters and protective properties of the area.

4) Radioactive contamination. Characteristic: large affected area, duration of damaging effect, difficulties in detecting radioactive substances that have no color, odor and other external signs. Consequences: radiation sickness, internal damage from radioactive substances. Protection: the use of shelters, anti-radiation shelters, simple shelters, protective properties of the area and personal protective equipment.

5) Electromagnetic pulse. Characteristic: short-term electromagnetic field. Consequences: the occurrence of short circuits, fires, the effect of secondary factors on humans (burns). Protection: It is good to insulate the lines carrying current.

A nuclear explosion is accompanied by the release of a huge amount of energy, so in terms of destructive and damaging effects it can be hundreds and thousands of times greater than the largest explosions. aircraft bombs, equipped with conventional explosives.

The defeat of troops by nuclear weapons occurs on large areas and is widespread. Nuclear weapons make it possible in a short time to inflict large losses on the enemy in manpower and military equipment, and to destroy structures and other objects.

The damaging factors of a nuclear explosion are:

Shock wave;
Light radiation;
Penetrating radiation;
Electromagnetic pulse (EMP);
Radioactive contamination.

Shock wave of a nuclear explosion- one of its main damaging factors. Depending on the medium in which the shock wave arises and propagates - in air, water or soil, it is called accordingly: air, underwater, seismic explosion.

Air shock wave called the area of sharp compression of air, spreading in all directions from the center of the explosion at supersonic speed. Possessing a large supply of energy, the shock wave of a nuclear explosion is capable of injuring people, destroying various structures, weapons and military equipment and other objects at considerable distances from the site of the explosion.

In a ground explosion, the front of the shock wave is a hemisphere; in an air explosion, at the first moment it is a sphere, then a hemisphere. In addition, during a ground and air explosion, part of the energy is spent on the formation of seismic explosion waves in the ground, as well as on the evaporation of the soil and the formation of a crater.

For objects of great strength, for example, heavy shelters, the radius of the zone of destructive action of the shock wave will be greatest during a ground explosion. For such low-strength objects as residential buildings, the largest radius of destruction will be in an air explosion.

Injury to people from an air shock wave can occur as a result of direct and indirect impact(flying debris of structures, falling trees, glass fragments, stones and soil).

In the zone where the excess pressure in the shock wave front exceeds 1 kgf/cm 2, extremely severe and fatal injuries to openly located personnel occur, in the zone with a pressure of 0.6...1 kgf/cm 2 - severe injuries, at 0.4 ...0.5 kgf/cm 2 - moderate lesions and at 0.2...0.4 kgf/cm 2 - mild lesions.

The radii of the affected areas for personnel in a lying position are significantly smaller than in a standing position. When people are located in trenches and crevices, the radii of the affected areas are reduced by approximately 1.5 - 2 times.

Closed underground and pit-type premises (dugouts, shelters) have the best protective properties, reducing the radius of shock wave damage by at least 3 to 5 times.

Thus, engineering structures provide reliable protection for personnel from shock waves.

The shock wave also disables weapons. Thus, weak damage to the missile defense system is observed at an excess pressure of the shock wave of 0.25 - 0.3 kgf/cm 2 . If the missiles are slightly damaged, local compression of the body occurs, and individual devices and assemblies may fail. For example, when an ammunition with a power of 1 Mt explodes, missiles fail at a distance of 5...6 km, cars and similar equipment - 4...5 km.

Light radiation A nuclear explosion is electromagnetic radiation in the optical range, including the ultraviolet (0.01 - 0.38 μm), visible (0.38 - 0.77 μm) and infrared (0.77-340 μm) regions of the spectrum.

The source of light radiation is the luminous region of a nuclear explosion, the temperature of which first reaches several tens of millions of degrees, and then cools down and goes through three phases in its development: initial, first and second.

Depending on the power of the explosion, the duration of the initial phase of the luminous region is a fraction of a millisecond, the first - from several milliseconds to tens and hundreds of milliseconds, and the second - from tenths of a second to tens of seconds. During the existence of the luminous region, the temperature inside it varies from millions to several thousand degrees. The main share of light radiation energy (up to 90%) falls on the second phase. The lifetime of the luminous area increases with increasing explosion power. During explosions of ultra-small caliber ammunition (up to 1 kt), the glow lasts for tenths of a second; small (from 1 to 10 kt) – 1 ... 2 s; medium (from 10 to 100 kt) – 2…5 s; large (from 100 kt to 1 Mt) – 5 ... 10 s; ultra-large (over 1 Mt) – several tens of seconds. The size of the luminous area also increases with increasing explosion power. During explosions of ultra-small-caliber ammunition, the maximum diameter of the luminous area is 20 ... 200 m, small - 200 ... 500, medium - 500 ... 1000 m, large - 1000 ... 2000 m and super-large - several kilometers.

The main parameter that determines the lethality of light radiation from a nuclear explosion is the light pulse.

Light pulse– the amount of light radiation energy falling during the entire radiation time per unit area of a stationary unshielded surface located perpendicular to the direction of direct radiation, without taking into account reflected radiation. Light impulse is measured in joules per square meter(J/m2) or in calories per square centimeter (cal/cm2); 1 cal/cm2 4.2*10 4 J/m2.

The light pulse decreases with increasing distance to the epicenter of the explosion and depends on the type of explosion and the state of the atmosphere.

The damage to people by light radiation is expressed in the appearance of burns of various degrees on open and protected areas of the skin, as well as damage to the eyes. For example, with an explosion with a power of 1 Mt ( U = 9 cal/cm 2) exposed areas of human skin are affected, causing a 2nd degree burn.

Under the influence of light radiation, various materials may ignite and fires may occur. Light radiation is significantly attenuated by clouds, residential buildings, and forests. However, in the latter cases, damage to personnel can be caused by the formation of extensive fire zones.

Reliable protection from light radiation of personnel and military equipment are underground engineering structures (dugouts, shelters, blocked cracks, pits, caponiers).

Protection against light radiation in units includes the following measures:

increasing the coefficient of reflection of light radiation by the surface of an object (use of materials, paints, coatings in light colors, various metal reflectors);

increasing the resistance and protective properties of objects to the action of light radiation (the use of humidification, snow sprinkles, the use of fire-resistant materials, coating with clay and lime, impregnation of covers and awnings with fire-resistant compounds);

carrying out fire-fighting measures (clearing areas where personnel and military equipment are located from flammable materials, preparing forces and means to extinguish fires);

the use of personal protective equipment, such as a combined arms integrated protective suit (OKZK), a combined arms protective kit (OZK), impregnated uniforms, safety glasses, etc.

Thus, the shock wave and light radiation of a nuclear explosion are its main damaging factors. Timely and skillful use of simple shelters, terrain, engineering fortifications, personal protective equipment, preventive measures will make it possible to weaken, and in some cases eliminate, the impact of shock waves and light radiation on personnel, weapons and military equipment.

Penetrating radiation A nuclear explosion is a flux of γ-radiation and neutrons. Neutron and γ-radiation are different in their physical properties, and what they have in common is that they can spread in the air in all directions over distances of up to 2.5 - 3 km. Passing through biological tissue, γ-quanta and neutrons ionize atoms and molecules that make up living cells, as a result of which normal metabolism is disrupted and the nature of the vital activity of cells, individual organs and systems of the body changes, which leads to the occurrence of a disease - radiation sickness. The distribution diagram of gamma radiation from a nuclear explosion is shown in Figure 1.

Rice. 1. Diagram of the distribution of gamma radiation from a nuclear explosion

The source of penetrating radiation is nuclear fission and fusion reactions occurring in ammunition at the moment of explosion, as well as radioactive decay fission fragments.

The damaging effect of penetrating radiation is characterized by the dose of radiation, i.e. the amount of ionizing radiation energy absorbed per unit mass of the irradiated medium, measured in glad (glad ).

Neutrons and γ-radiation from a nuclear explosion affect any object almost simultaneously. Therefore, the total damaging effect of penetrating radiation is determined by the summation of doses of γ-radiation and neutrons, where:

total radiation dose, rad;
γ-radiation dose, rad;
neutron dose, rad (zero in the dose symbols indicates that they are determined in front of the protective barrier).

The radiation dose depends on the type of nuclear charge, the power and type of explosion, as well as the distance to the center of the explosion.

Penetrating radiation is one of the main damaging factors in explosions of neutron munitions and ultra-low and low-power fission munitions. For high-power explosions, the radius of damage by penetrating radiation is much smaller than the radius of damage by shock waves and light radiation. Penetrating radiation becomes especially important in the case of explosions of neutron munitions, when the bulk of the radiation dose is generated by fast neutrons.

The damaging effect of penetrating radiation on personnel and on the state of their combat effectiveness depends on the dose of radiation received and the time elapsed after the explosion, which causes radiation sickness. Depending on the radiation dose received, there are four types: degreesradiation sickness.

Radiation sickness I degree (mild) occurs at a total radiation dose of 150 – 250 rad. The latent period lasts 2–3 weeks, after which malaise, general weakness, nausea, dizziness, and periodic fever appear. The content of leukocytes and platelets in the blood decreases. Stage I radiation sickness can be cured within 1.5 – 2 months in hospital.

Radiation sickness II degree (moderate) occurs at a total radiation dose of 250 – 400 rad. The latent period lasts about 2 - 3 weeks, then the signs of the disease are more pronounced: hair loss is observed, the composition of the blood changes. With active treatment, recovery occurs in 2 - 2.5 months.

Radiation sickness degree III (severe) occurs at a radiation dose of 400 – 700 rad. The latent period ranges from several hours to 3 weeks.

The disease is intense and difficult. In case of a favorable outcome, recovery may occur in 6–8 months, but residual effects are observed much longer.

Radiation sickness IV degree (extremely severe) occurs at a radiation dose of over 700 rad, which is the most dangerous. Death occurs within 5 to 12 days, and at doses exceeding 5,000 rads, personnel lose their combat effectiveness within a few minutes.

The severity of the damage depends to a certain extent on the state of the body before irradiation and its individual characteristics. Severe overwork, starvation, illness, injury, burns increase the body's sensitivity to the effects of penetrating radiation. First, a person loses physical performance, and then mental performance.

With large doses of radiation and fluxes of fast neutrons, the components of radio electronics systems lose their functionality. At doses of more than 2000 rad, the glass of optical instruments darkens, turning violet-brown, which reduces or completely eliminates the possibility of their use for observation. Radiation doses of 2–3 rad render photographic materials in light-proof packaging unusable.

Protection against penetrating radiation is provided by various materials that attenuate γ-radiation and neutrons. When addressing protection issues, one should take into account the difference in the mechanisms of interaction of γ-radiation and neutrons with the environment, which determines the choice of protective materials. Radiation is most attenuated by heavy materials with high electron density (lead, steel, concrete). The neutron flux is better attenuated by light materials containing nuclei of light elements, such as hydrogen (water, polyethylene).

In moving objects, protection from penetrating radiation requires combined protection consisting of light hydrogen-containing substances and high-density materials. A medium tank, for example, without special anti-radiation screens, has a reduction factor of penetrating radiation of approximately 4, which is not enough to provide reliable protection for the crew. Therefore, issues of personnel protection must be resolved by implementing a set of various measures.

Fortifications have the highest attenuation factor from penetrating radiation (covered trenches - up to 100, shelters - up to 1500).

Various anti-radiation drugs (radioprotectors) can be used as agents that weaken the effect of ionizing radiation on the human body.

Nuclear explosions in the atmosphere and in higher layers lead to the emergence of powerful electromagnetic fields with wavelengths from 1 to 1000 m or more. Due to their short-term existence, these fields are usually called electromagnetic pulse (EMP).

The damaging effect of EMR is caused by the occurrence of voltages and currents in conductors of various lengths located in the air, ground, weapons and military equipment and other objects.

The main reason for the generation of EMR with a duration of less than 1 s is considered to be the interaction of γ quanta and neutrons with gas in the shock wave front and around it. The emergence of asymmetry in the distribution of spatial electric charges associated with the peculiarities of radiation propagation and electron formation.

In a ground or low air explosion, γ quanta emitted from the flow zone nuclear reactions, knock out fast electrons from air atoms, which fly in the direction of motion of the quanta at a speed close to the speed of light, and positive ions (atom residues) remain in place. As a result of this separation of electric charges in space, elementary and resulting electric and magnetic fields, which represent EMR.

In ground and low air explosions, the damaging effects of EMP are observed at a distance of about several kilometers from the center of the explosion.

During a high-altitude nuclear explosion (H > 10 km), EMR fields can arise in the explosion zone and at altitudes of 20–40 km from the earth’s surface. EMR in the zone of such an explosion occurs due to fast electrons, which are formed as a result of the interaction of quanta of a nuclear explosion with the material of the shell of the ammunition and X-ray radiation with atoms of the surrounding rarefied air space.

The radiation emitted from the explosion zone towards the earth's surface begins to be absorbed in denser layers of the atmosphere at altitudes of 20 - 40 km, knocking out fast electrons from air atoms. As a result of the separation and movement of positive and negative charges in this area and in the explosion zone, as well as the interaction of charges with the geomagnetic field of the earth, electromagnetic radiation arises, which reaches the earth's surface in a zone with a radius of up to several hundred kilometers. The duration of the EMP is a few tenths of a second.

The damaging effect of EMR manifests itself, first of all, in relation to radio-electronic and electrical equipment located in weapons and military equipment and other objects. Under the influence of EMR, electric currents and voltages are induced in the specified equipment, which can cause insulation breakdown, damage to transformers, burnout of spark gaps, damage to semiconductor devices, burnout of fuse links and other elements of radio engineering devices.

Communication, signaling and control lines are most susceptible to EMR. When the amplitude of the EMR is not too large, it is possible that protective equipment (fuse links, lightning arresters) will operate and disrupt the operation of the lines.

In addition, a high-altitude explosion can interfere with communications over very large areas.

Protection against EMR is achieved by shielding both power supply and control lines and the equipment itself, as well as by creating an elemental base of radio equipment that is resistant to the effects of EMR. All external lines, for example, must be two-wire, well insulated from the ground, with low-inertia spark gaps and fuse-links. To protect sensitive electronic equipment, it is advisable to use arresters with a low ignition threshold. Proper operation of lines, monitoring the serviceability of protective equipment, as well as organizing maintenance of lines during operation are important.

Radioactive contamination terrain, the surface layer of the atmosphere, airspace, water and other objects arises as a result of the fallout of radioactive substances from the cloud of a nuclear explosion when it moves under the influence of wind.

The significance of radioactive contamination as a damaging factor is determined by the fact that high levels of radiation can be observed not only in the area adjacent to the explosion site, but also at a distance of tens and even hundreds of kilometers from it. Unlike other damaging factors, the effects of which manifest themselves within a relatively short time after a nuclear explosion, radioactive contamination of the area can be dangerous for several years or decades after the explosion.

The most severe contamination of the area occurs from ground-based nuclear explosions, when the areas of contamination with dangerous levels of radiation are many times greater than the size of the zones affected by the shock wave, light radiation and penetrating radiation. The radioactive substances themselves and those emitted by them ionizing radiation They are colorless, odorless, and the rate of their decomposition cannot be measured by any physical or chemical methods.

The contaminated area along the path of the cloud, where radioactive particles with a diameter of more than 30 - 50 microns fall, is usually called a near trace of infection. At long distances, a long-distance trail is a slight contamination of the area, which for a long time does not affect the combat effectiveness of personnel. A diagram of the formation of a trace of a radioactive cloud from a ground-based nuclear explosion is shown in Figure 2.

Rice. 2. Scheme of the formation of a trace of a radioactive cloud from a ground-based nuclear explosion

Sources of radioactive contamination during a nuclear explosion are:

fission products (fission fragments) of nuclear explosives;
radioactive isotopes (radionuclides) formed in soil and other materials under the influence of neutrons - induced activity;
the undivided part of a nuclear charge.

In a ground-based nuclear explosion, the luminous area touches the surface of the earth and an ejection crater is formed. A significant amount of soil that falls into the glowing area melts, evaporates and mixes with radioactive substances.

As the glowing area cools and rises, the vapors condense, forming radioactive particles different sizes. Strong heating of the soil and surface air layer contributes to the formation of rising air currents in the area of the explosion, which form a dust column (the “leg” of the cloud). When the air density in the explosion cloud becomes equal density surrounding air, the rise of the cloud stops. At the same time, on average in 7 - 10 minutes. the cloud reaches maximum height rise, sometimes called the cloud stabilization altitude.

Boundaries of radioactive contamination zones with to varying degrees dangers to personnel can be characterized both by the radiation dose rate (radiation level) for a certain time after the explosion, and by the dose until the complete decay of radioactive substances.

According to the degree of danger, the contaminated area following the explosion cloud is usually divided into 4 zones.

Zone A (moderate infestation), the area of which is 70–80% of the area of the entire footprint.

Zone B (heavy infestation). Radiation doses at the outer border of this zone D external = 400 rad, and at the internal border - D internal. = 1200 rad. This zone accounts for approximately 10% of the area of the radioactive trace.

Zone B (dangerous contamination). Radiation doses at its outer boundary D external = 1200 rad, and at the inner boundary D internal = 4000 rad. This zone occupies approximately 8–10% of the area of the explosion cloud trail.

Zone D (extremely dangerous contamination). The radiation dose at its outer boundary is more than 4000 rad.

Figure 3 shows a diagram of the predicted contamination zones for a single ground-based nuclear explosion. Zone G is painted in blue, zone B in green, zone C in brown, and zone G in black.

Rice. 3. Scheme of drawing predicted zones of contamination during a single nuclear explosion

Losses of people caused by the damaging factors of a nuclear explosion are usually divided into irrevocable And sanitary.

Irreversible losses include those killed before rendering medical care, and to sanitary workers - those affected who were admitted for treatment to medical units and institutions.

During a ground-based nuclear explosion, about 50% of the energy goes to the formation of a shock wave and a crater in the ground, 30-40% to light radiation, up to 5% to penetrating radiation and electromagnetic radiation, and up to 15% to radioactive contamination of the area.

During an air explosion of a neutron munition, the energy shares are distributed in a unique way: shock wave up to 10%, light radiation 5 - 8% and approximately 85% of the energy goes into penetrating radiation (neutron and gamma radiation)

The shock wave and light radiation are similar to the damaging factors of traditional explosives, but the light radiation in the event of a nuclear explosion is much more powerful.

The shock wave destroys buildings and equipment, injures people and has a knockback effect with a rapid pressure drop and high-speed air pressure. Subsequent vacuum (drop in air pressure) and reverse stroke air masses towards the developing nuclear fungus can also cause some damage.

Light radiation affects only unshielded objects, that is, objects not covered by anything from an explosion, and can cause ignition of flammable materials and fires, as well as burns and damage to the vision of humans and animals.

Penetrating radiation has an ionizing and destructive effect on human tissue molecules and causes radiation sickness. Especially great value has in the explosion of neutron ammunition. Basements of multi-storey stone and reinforced concrete buildings, underground shelters with a depth of 2 meters (a cellar, for example, or any shelter of class 3-4 and higher) can be protected from penetrating radiation; armored vehicles have some protection.

Radioactive contamination - during an air explosion of relatively “pure” thermonuclear charges (fission-fusion), this damaging factor is minimized. And vice versa, in the event of an explosion of “dirty” versions of thermonuclear charges, arranged according to the principle of fission-fusion-fission, a ground, buried explosion, in which neutron activation of substances contained in the ground occurs, and even more so the explosion of a so-called “dirty bomb” can have a decisive meaning.

An electromagnetic pulse disables electrical and electronic equipment and disrupts radio communications.

Depending on the type of charge and the conditions of the explosion, the energy of the explosion is distributed differently. For example, during the explosion of a conventional nuclear charge without an increased yield of neutron radiation or radioactive contamination there may be the following ratio of the shares of energy output at different altitudes:

Height / Depth	X-ray radiation	Light radiation	Heat fireball and clouds	Shock wave in the air	Deformation and ejection of soil	Compression wave in the ground	Heat of a cavity in the earth	Penetrating radiation	Radioactive substances
Energy shares of the influencing factors of a nuclear explosion
100 km	64 %	24 %						6 %	6 %
70 km	49 %	38 %	1 %					6 %	6 %
45 km	1 %	73 %	13 %	1 %				6 %	6 %
20 km		40 %	17 %	31 %				6 %	6 %
5 km		38 %	16 %	34 %				6 %	6 %
0 m		34 %	19 %	34 %	1 %	less than 1%	?	5 %	6 %
Depth of camouflage explosion					30 %	30 %	34 %		6 %

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Light radiation is a stream of radiant energy, including ultraviolet, visible and infrared regions of the spectrum. The source of light radiation is the luminous area of the explosion - heated to high temperatures and evaporated parts of the ammunition, surrounding soil and air. In an air explosion, the luminous area is a ball; in a ground explosion, it is a hemisphere.
The maximum surface temperature of the luminous region is usually 5700-7700 °C. When the temperature drops to 1700 °C, the glow stops. The light pulse lasts from fractions of a second to several tens of seconds, depending on the power and conditions of the explosion. Approximately, the duration of the glow in seconds is equal to the third root of the explosion power in kilotons. In this case, the radiation intensity can exceed 1000 W/cm² (for comparison, the maximum intensity sunlight 0.14 W/cm²).
The result of light radiation can be the ignition and combustion of objects, melting, charring, and high temperature stresses in materials.
When a person is exposed to light radiation, damage to the eyes and burns to open areas of the body occur, and damage to areas of the body protected by clothing may also occur.
An arbitrary opaque barrier can serve as protection from the effects of light radiation.
In the presence of fog, haze, heavy dust and/or smoke, the impact of light radiation is also reduced.

Shock wave

Much of the destruction caused by a nuclear explosion is caused by the shock wave. A shock wave is a shock wave in a medium that moves at supersonic speed (more than 350 m/s for the atmosphere). In an atmospheric explosion, a shock wave is a small zone in which there is an almost instantaneous increase in temperature, pressure and air density. Directly behind the shock wave front there is a decrease in air pressure and density, from a slight decrease far from the center of the explosion to almost a vacuum inside the fire sphere. The consequence of this decrease is the reverse movement of air and strong winds along the surface with speeds of up to 100 km/h or more towards the epicenter. The shock wave destroys buildings, structures and affects unprotected people, and close to the epicenter of a ground or very low air explosion it generates powerful seismic vibrations that can destroy or damage underground structures and communications, and injure people in them.
Most buildings, except specially fortified ones, are seriously damaged or destroyed under the influence of excess pressure of 2160-3600 kg/m² (0.22-0.36 atm).
The energy is distributed over the entire distance traveled, because of this the force of the shock wave decreases in proportion to the cube of the distance from the epicenter.
Shelters provide protection against shock waves for humans. In open areas, the effect of the shock wave is reduced by various depressions, obstacles, and folds in the terrain.

Penetrating radiation

Electromagnetic pulse

During a nuclear explosion as a result of strong currents in ionized by radiation and light radiation in the air creates a strong alternating electromagnetic field, called an electromagnetic pulse (EMP). Although it has no effect on humans, exposure to EMR damages electronic equipment, electrical appliances and power lines. Besides this large number ions generated after the explosion interferes with the propagation of radio waves and the operation of radar stations. This effect can be used to blind a missile attack warning system.
The strength of the EMP varies depending on the height of the explosion: in the range below 4 km it is relatively weak, stronger at an explosion of 4-30 km, and especially strong at a detonation altitude of more than 30 km (see, for example, the experiment on high-altitude detonation of a nuclear charge Starfish Prime) .
The occurrence of EMR occurs as follows:
1. Penetrating radiation emanating from the center of the explosion passes through extended conductive objects.
2. Gamma quanta are scattered by free electrons, which leads to the appearance of a rapidly changing current pulse in conductors.
3. The field caused by the current pulse is emitted into the surrounding space and propagates at the speed of light, distorting and fading over time.
Under the influence of EMR, a voltage is induced in all unshielded long conductors, and the longer the conductor, the higher the voltage. This leads to insulation breakdowns and failure of electrical appliances associated with cable networks, for example, transformer substations, etc.
EMR is of great importance during a high-altitude explosion of up to 100 km or more. When an explosion occurs in the ground layer of the atmosphere, it does not cause decisive damage to low-sensitive electrical equipment; its radius of action is covered by other damaging factors. But on the other hand, it can disrupt the operation and disable sensitive electrical equipment and radio equipment at considerable distances - up to several tens of kilometers from the epicenter of a powerful explosion, where other factors no longer have a destructive effect. It can disable unprotected equipment in durable structures designed to withstand heavy loads from a nuclear explosion (for example, silos). It has no harmful effect on people.

Radioactive contamination

Radioactive contamination is the result of a significant amount of radioactive substances falling out of a cloud lifted into the air. The three main sources of radioactive substances in the explosion zone are fission products of nuclear fuel, the unreacted part of the nuclear charge, and radioactive isotopes formed in the soil and other materials under the influence of neutrons (induced radioactivity).
As the explosion products settle on the surface of the earth in the direction of movement of the cloud, they create a radioactive area called a radioactive trace. The density of contamination in the area of the explosion and along the trace of the movement of the radioactive cloud decreases with distance from the center of the explosion. The shape of the trace can be very diverse, depending on the surrounding conditions.
The radioactive products of an explosion emit three types of radiation: alpha, beta and gamma. The time of their influence on environment very long.
Due to the natural decay process, radioactivity decreases, especially sharply in the first hours after the explosion.
Damage to people and animals due to radiation contamination can be caused by external and internal irradiation. Severe cases may be accompanied by radiation sickness and death.
Installation on combat unit a nuclear charge of a cobalt shell causes contamination of the territory with a dangerous isotope 60 Co (a hypothetical dirty bomb).

Epidemiological and environmental situation

A nuclear explosion in a populated area, like other disasters associated with a large number casualties, destruction of hazardous industries and fires, will lead to difficult conditions in the area of its action, which will be a secondary damaging factor. People who have not even received significant injuries directly from the explosion are likely to die from infectious diseases and chemical poisoning. There is a high probability of getting burned in fires or simply getting hurt when trying to get out of the rubble.

Psychological impact

People who find themselves in the area of the explosion, in addition to physical damage, experience a powerful psychological depressing effect from the frightening view of the unfolding picture of a nuclear explosion, the catastrophic nature of the destruction and fires, the disappearance of the familiar landscape, the many mutilated, charred, dying around and decomposing corpses due to the impossibility of their burial, the death of relatives and friends, awareness of the harm caused to one’s body and the horror of impending death from developing radiation sickness. The result of such an impact among survivors of the disaster will be the development of acute psychosis, as well as claustrophobic syndromes due to the awareness of the impossibility of going to the surface of the earth, persistent nightmare memories affecting all subsequent existence. In Japan there is separate word, denoting people who were victims nuclear bombings- “Hibakusha”.
Government intelligence services in many countries assume [ ] that one of the goals of various terrorist groups may be to seize nuclear weapons and use them against civilians for the purpose of psychological impact, even if the physical damaging factors of a nuclear explosion are insignificant on the scale of the victim country and all of humanity. A message about a nuclear terrorist attack will be immediately disseminated by means mass media(television, radio, internet, press) and will undoubtedly have a huge impact psychological impact on people, what terrorists can count on.

A nuclear explosion can instantly destroy or disable unprotected people, structures and various material assets.

The main damaging factors of a nuclear explosion are:

Shock wave;

Light radiation;

Penetrating radiation;

Radioactive contamination of the area;

Electromagnetic pulse;

This creates a growing fireball with a diameter of up to several hundred meters, visible at a distance of 100 - 300 km. The temperature of the glowing area of a nuclear explosion ranges from millions of degrees at the beginning of its formation to several thousand at the end and lasts up to 25 seconds. The brightness of light radiation in the first second (80-85% of light energy) is several times greater than the brightness of the Sun, and the resulting fireball during a nuclear explosion is visible for hundreds of kilometers. The remaining amount (20-15%) in the subsequent period of time from 1 to 3 seconds.

Infrared rays are the most damaging, causing instant burns to exposed areas of the body and blinding. The heat may be so intense that it may cause charring or combustion. different material and cracking or melting building materials, which can lead to huge fires within a radius of several tens of kilometers. People who were exposed to the fireball from "Little" Hiroshima at a distance of up to 800 meters were burned so much that they turned to dust.

In this case, the effect of light radiation from a nuclear explosion is equivalent to the massive use incendiary weapons, which is discussed in the fifth section.

The human skin also absorbs the energy of light radiation, due to which it can heat up to a high temperature and receive burns. First of all, burns occur on open areas of the body facing the direction of the explosion. If you look in the direction of the explosion with unprotected eyes, then eye damage may occur, leading to blindness and complete loss of vision.

Burns caused by light radiation are no different from ordinary burns caused by fire or boiling water; they are stronger the shorter the distance to the explosion and the greater the power of the ammunition. In an air explosion, the damaging effect of light radiation is greater than in a ground explosion of the same power.

The damaging effect of light radiation is characterized by a light pulse. Depending on the perceived light pulse, burns are divided into three degrees. First-degree burns manifest themselves as superficial skin lesions: redness, swelling, and soreness. With second degree burns, blisters appear on the skin. With third degree burns, skin necrosis and ulceration occur.

With an air explosion of ammunition with a power of 20 kt and an atmospheric transparency of about 25 km, first-degree burns will be observed within a radius of 4.2 km from the center of the explosion; with the explosion of a charge with a power of 1 Mt, this distance will increase to 22.4 km. Second degree burns appear at distances of 2.9 and 14.4 km and third degree burns at distances of 2.4 and 12.8 km, respectively, for 20 kt and 1 Mt ammunition.

Light radiation can cause massive fires in populated areas, in forests, steppes, fields.

Any obstacle that does not allow light to pass through can protect against light radiation: shelter, the shadow of a house, etc. The intensity of light radiation strongly depends on meteorological conditions. Fog, rain and snow weaken its effect, and conversely, clear and dry weather favors the occurrence of fires and the formation of burns.

To assess the ionization of atoms in the medium, and therefore the damaging effect of penetrating radiation on a living organism, the concept of radiation dose (or radiation dose) was introduced, the unit of measurement of which is the x-ray (r). Radiation dose 1 r. corresponds to the formation of approximately 2 billion ion pairs in one cubic centimeter of air. Depending on the radiation dose, there are four degrees of radiation sickness.

The first (mild) occurs when a person receives a dose of 100 to 200 rubles. It is characterized by: no vomiting or after 3 hours, once, general weakness, mild nausea, short-term headache, clear consciousness, dizziness, increased sweating, and periodic increases in temperature.

The second (medium) degree of radiation sickness develops when receiving a dose of 200 - 400 r; in this case, signs of damage: vomiting after 30 minutes - 3 hours, 2 times or more, constant headache, clear consciousness, dysfunction nervous system, increased temperature, more severe malaise, gastrointestinal upset manifest themselves more sharply and faster, the person becomes incapacitated. Possible fatalities (up to 20%).

The third (severe) degree of radiation sickness occurs at a dose of 400 - 600 rubles. Characterized by: severe and repeated vomiting, constant headache, sometimes severe, nausea, severe general condition, sometimes loss of consciousness or sudden agitation, hemorrhages in the mucous membranes and skin, necrosis of the mucous membranes in the gum area, temperature may exceed 38 - 39 degrees, dizziness and other ailments; Due to the weakening of the body's defenses, various infectious complications appear, often leading to death. Without treatment, the disease ends in death in 20-70% of cases, most often from infectious complications or bleeding.

Extremely severe, at doses over 600 rubles, the primary symptoms appear: severe and repeated vomiting after 20 - 30 minutes for up to 2 or more days, persistent severe headache, consciousness may be confused, without treatment usually ends in death within up to 2 weeks.

In the initial period of ARS frequent manifestations is nausea, vomiting, and only in severe cases diarrhea. General weakness, irritability, fever, and vomiting are manifestations of both brain irradiation and general intoxication. Important signs of radiation exposure are hyperemia of the mucous membranes and skin, especially in areas of high radiation doses, increased heart rate, increase and then decrease blood pressure up to collapse, neurological symptoms (in particular, loss of coordination, meningeal signs). The severity of symptoms is adjusted with the radiation dose.

The radiation dose can be single or multiple. According to foreign press data, a single irradiation dose of up to 50 r (received over a period of up to 4 days) is practically safe. A multiple dose is a dose received over a period of more than 4 days. A single exposure of a person to a dose of 1 Sv or more is called acute exposure.

Each of these more than 200 isotopes has a different half-life. Fortunately, most fission products are short-lived isotopes, that is, they have half-lives measured in seconds, minutes, hours or days. This means that after a short time (about 10-20 half-lives), the short-lived isotope decays almost completely and its radioactivity will not pose a practical danger. Thus, the half-life of tellurium -137 is 1 minute, i.e. after 15-20 minutes there will be almost nothing left of it.

In an emergency situation, it is important to know not so much the half-life of each isotope, but the time during which the radioactivity of the entire sum of radioactive fission products decreases. There is a very simple and convenient rule that allows you to judge the rate of decrease in the radioactivity of fission products over time.

This rule is called the seven-ten rule. Its meaning is that if the time elapsed after the explosion of a nuclear bomb increases seven times, then the activity of the fission products decreases by 10 times. For example, the level of contamination of the area with decay products an hour after the explosion of a nuclear weapon is 100 conventional units. 7 hours after the explosion (time increased 7 times) the level of pollution will decrease to 10 units (activity decreased 10 times), after 49 hours - to 1 unit, etc.

During the first day after the explosion, the activity of fission products decreases almost 6000 times. And in this sense, time turns out to be our great ally. But over time, the decline in activity is becoming slower. A day after the explosion, it will take a week to reduce activity by 10 times, a month after the explosion - 7 months, etc. However, it should be noted that the decline in activity according to the “seven-ten” rule occurs in the first six months after the explosion. Subsequently, the decline in the activity of fission products occurs faster than according to the “seven to ten” rule.

The amount of fission products formed during the explosion of a nuclear bomb is small in weight terms. Thus, for every thousand tons of explosion power, about 37 g of fission products are formed (37 kg per 1 Mt). Fission products entering the body in significant quantities can cause high level exposure and corresponding changes in health status. The amount of fission products formed during an explosion is often estimated not in weight units, but in units of radioactivity.

As you know, the unit of radioactivity is the curie. One curie is the amount of radioactive isotope that gives 3.7-10 10 decays per second - (37 billion decays per second). To imagine the value of this unit, (Recall that the activity of 1 g of radium is approximately 1 curie, and the permissible amount of radium in the human body is 0.1 μg of this element.

Moving from weight units to units of radioactivity, we can say that the explosion of a nuclear bomb with a power of 10 million tons produces decay products with a total activity of the order of 10"15 curies (1000000000000000 curies). This activity constantly, and at first very quickly, decreases, Moreover, its weakening during the first day after the explosion exceeds 6000 times.

Radioactive fallout falls at large distances from the site of a nuclear explosion (significant contamination of the area can be at a distance of about several hundred kilometers). They are aerosols (particles suspended in the air). The sizes of aerosols are very different: from large particles with a diameter of several millimeters to the smallest, not visible to the eye particles measured in tenths, hundredths and even smaller fractions of a micron.

Most of the radioactive fallout (about 60% from a ground explosion) falls in the first day after the explosion. This is local precipitation. Subsequently, the external environment can be additionally polluted by tropospheric or stratospheric precipitation.

Depending on the “age” of the fragments (i.e., the time that has passed since the moment of the nuclear explosion), their isotopic composition also changes. In “young” fission products, the main activity is represented by short-lived isotopes. The activity of “old” fission products is represented mainly by long-lived isotopes, since by this time the short-lived isotopes have already decayed, turning into stable ones. Therefore, the number of isotopes of fission products is constantly decreasing over time. So, a month after the explosion, only 44 isotopes remain, and a year later - 27 isotopes.

According to the age of the fragments, the specific activity of each isotope in the total mixture of decay products also changes. Thus, the strontium-90 isotope, which has a significant half-life (T1/2 = 28.4 years) and is formed during an explosion in small quantities, “outlives” short-lived isotopes, and therefore its specific activity is constantly increasing.

Thus, the specific activity of strontium-90 increases in 1 year from 0.0003% to 1.9%. If a significant amount of radioactive fallout falls, the most severe situation will be during the first two weeks after the explosion. This situation is well illustrated by the following example: if an hour after the explosion the dose rate of gamma radiation from radioactive fallout reaches 300 roentgens per hour (r/h), then the total radiation dose (without protection) during the year will be 1200 r, of which 1000 r (i.e., almost the entire annual radiation dose) a person will receive in the first 14 days. Therefore, the highest levels of infection external environment There will be radioactive fallout in these two weeks.

The bulk of long-lived isotopes are concentrated in radioactive cloud, which is formed after the explosion. The height of the cloud rise for ammunition with a power of 10 kt is 6 km, for ammunition with a power of 10 Mt it is 25 km.

An electromagnetic pulse is a short-term electromagnetic field that occurs during the explosion of a nuclear weapon as a result of the interaction of gamma rays and neutrons emitted with the atoms of the environment. The consequence of its impact may be burnout and breakdowns of individual elements of radio-electronic and electrical equipment, electrical networks.

The most reliable means of protection against all damaging factors of a nuclear explosion are protective structures. In open areas and in the field, you can use durable local items, reverse slopes of heights and folds of terrain.

When operating in contaminated areas, special protective equipment should be used to protect the respiratory system, eyes and open areas of the body from radioactive substances.

CHEMICAL WEAPONS

Characteristics and combat properties

Chemical weapons are poisonous substances and agents used to kill humans.

The basis of the damaging effect chemical weapons constitute toxic substances. They have such high toxic properties that some foreign military experts equate 20 kg of nerve agents in terms of their destructive effect to nuclear bomb, equivalent to 20 Mt of TNT. In both cases, a lesion area of 200-300 km may occur.

According to their own damaging properties OBs differ from other combat weapons:

They are capable of penetrating together with air into various structures, including military equipment and inflict defeat on the people in them;

They can maintain their destructive effect in the air, on the ground and in various objects for some, sometimes quite a long time;

Spreading in large volumes of air and over large areas, they inflict damage on all people within their sphere of action without protective equipment;

Agent vapors are capable of spreading in the direction of the wind to significant distances from areas where chemical weapons are directly used.

Chemical munitions are distinguished by the following characteristics:

The durability of the agent used;

The nature of the physiological effects of OM on the human body;

Means and methods of use;

Tactical purpose;

The speed of the oncoming impact;

Nuclear weapons have five main destructive factors. The distribution of energy between them depends on the type and conditions of the explosion. The impact of these factors also varies in form and duration (contamination of the area has the longest impact).

Shock wave. A shock wave is a region of sharp compression of a medium that spreads in the form of a spherical layer from the explosion site at supersonic speed. Shock waves are classified depending on the propagation medium. A shock wave in the air occurs due to the transmission of compression and expansion of layers of air. With increasing distance from the explosion site, the wave weakens and turns into an ordinary acoustic one. Wave when passing through this point space causes changes in pressure, characterized by the presence of two phases: compression and expansion. The compression period begins immediately and lasts a relatively short time compared to the expansion period. The destructive effect of a shock wave is characterized by excess pressure at its front (front boundary), velocity pressure, and the duration of the compression phase. A shock wave in water is different from air values its characteristics (higher excess pressure and shorter exposure time). The shock wave in the ground, when moving away from the explosion site, becomes similar to a seismic wave. Exposure of people and animals to shock waves can result in direct or indirect injuries. It is characterized by mild, moderate, severe and extremely severe damage and injuries. The mechanical impact of a shock wave is assessed by the degree of destruction caused by the action of the wave (weak, medium, strong and complete destruction are distinguished). Energy, industrial and municipal equipment as a result of the impact of a shock wave can receive damage, also assessed by their severity (weak, medium and strong).

Exposure to a shock wave can also cause damage vehicles, waterworks, forests. Typically, the damage caused by a shock wave is very great; it is applied both to human health and to various structures, equipment, etc.

Light radiation. It is a combination of the visible spectrum and infrared and ultraviolet rays. The glowing area of a nuclear explosion is characterized by very high temperature. The damaging effect is characterized by the power of the light pulse. Exposure to radiation in humans causes direct or indirect burns, divided by severity, temporary blindness, and retinal burns. Clothing protects against burns, so they often occur on open areas of the body. Fires at facilities also pose a great danger national economy, in forests, resulting from the combined effects of light radiation and shock waves. Another factor in the impact of light radiation is the thermal effect on materials. Its nature is determined by many characteristics of both the radiation and the object itself.

Penetrating radiation. This is gamma radiation and a flux of neutrons emitted into the environment. Its exposure time does not exceed 10-15 s. The main characteristics of radiation are flux and particle flux density, dose and dose rate of radiation. The severity of radiation injury mainly depends on the absorbed dose. When ionizing radiation propagates through a medium, it changes its physical structure, ionizing the atoms of substances. When people are exposed to penetrating radiation, various degrees of radiation sickness can occur (the most severe forms are usually fatal). Radiation damage can also be caused to materials (changes in their structure can be irreversible). Materials with protective properties are actively used in the construction of protective structures.

Electromagnetic pulse. A set of short-term electric and magnetic fields resulting from the interaction of gamma and neutron radiation with atoms and molecules of the medium. The impulse does not have a direct effect on a person; the objects of its destruction are all conductive electric current bodies: communication lines, power transmission, metal structures, etc. The result of exposure to a pulse can be the failure of various devices and structures that conduct current, and damage to the health of people working with unprotected equipment. Exposure is especially dangerous electromagnetic pulse for equipment not equipped with special protection. Protection may include various “additives” to wire and cable systems, electromagnetic shielding, etc.

Radioactive contamination of the area. occurs as a result of the fallout of radioactive substances from the cloud of a nuclear explosion. This is the damage factor that has the longest effect (tens of years), acting over a huge area. Radiation from fallout radioactive substances consists of alpha, beta and gamma rays. The most dangerous are beta and gamma rays. A nuclear explosion creates a cloud that can be carried by the wind. The fallout of radioactive substances occurs within 10-20 hours after the explosion. The scale and degree of contamination depend on the characteristics of the explosion, surface, and meteorological conditions. As a rule, the radioactive trace zone has the shape of an ellipse, and the extent of contamination decreases with distance from the end of the ellipse where the explosion occurred. Depending on the degree of contamination and the possible consequences of external exposure, zones of moderate, severe, dangerous and extremely dangerous contamination are distinguished. The damaging effects are mainly caused by beta particles and gamma irradiation. Particularly dangerous is the ingestion of radioactive substances into the body. The main way to protect the population is isolation from external exposure to radiation and preventing the entry of radioactive substances into the body.

It is advisable to shelter people in shelters and radiation shelters, as well as in buildings whose design weakens the effect of gamma radiation. Personal protective equipment is also used.

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