Definition of damaging factors of a nuclear explosion. Damaging factors of nuclear weapons and their brief characteristics

Study questions:

Nuclear weapons and their damaging factors. Brief description of the source of nuclear damage, the possible magnitude and structure of sanitary losses.
Chemical weapons, classification and a brief description of foci of chemical damage.
Bacteriological (biological) weapons, brief description.
Brief characteristics of the focus of the combined lesion.
New types of weapons and their destructive effect

Introduction

Recently, there has been a turn of military theorists and historians towards the development of a new concept of war, new forms and methods of armed struggle. They proceed from the fact that with qualitatively new means of armed struggle created on the basis latest technologies, including precision weapons and weapons based on new physical principles, the nature of the war will inevitably change when the mass death of civilians decreases significantly (in Yugoslavia, the ratio of military deaths to civilian population was 1:15). However, the danger of nuclear missile war and wars using other types of weapons of mass destruction is still relevant today.

Question No. 1

Nuclear weapons (NW), damaging factors. Brief characteristics of the source of nuclear damage, the possible magnitude and structure of sanitary losses

Nuclear weapons are called ammunition (warheads of missiles and torpedoes, nuclear bombs, artillery shells, etc.), the destructive effect of which is based on the use of intranuclear energy released during explosive nuclear reactions.

Nuclear weapons, depending on the method of obtaining energy, are divided into three types:

1. actually nuclear (atomic), which uses the energy released as a result of the fission of nuclei of heavy elements (uranium, plutonium, etc.);

2. thermonuclear, using the energy released during the synthesis of light elements (hydrogen, deuterium, tritium);

3. neutron - a type of ammunition with a low-power thermonuclear charge, characterized by a high yield of neutron radiation.

Nuclear weapons are the most powerful means of mass destruction. It began to enter service with a number of states in large quantities from the mid-50s.

The nature of the destructive effect of nuclear weapons depends mainly on:

ammunition power.ammunition power,
type of explosion
type of ammunition.

Power nuclear explosion is measured by TNT equivalent, which is measured in tons, thousands of tons - kilotons (kt) and millions of tons - megatons (mt).

By power, nuclear weapons are conventionally divided into ultra-small (explosion power up to 1 kt), small (explosion power 1-10 kt), medium (explosion power 10 - 100 kt), large (explosion power 100 kt - 1 mt) and super-large (power - explosion rate is more than 1 MT).

Nuclear explosions can be carried out on the surface of the earth (water), underground (water) or in the air on different heights. In this regard, it is customary to distinguish the following types of nuclear explosions: ground, underground, underwater, surface, air and high-altitude.

The damaging factors of a nuclear explosion include: shock wave, light radiation, penetrating radiation (ionizing radiation), radioactive contamination of the area, electromagnetic pulse and seismic (gravitational) waves.

Shock wave- the most powerful damaging factor of a nuclear explosion. About 50% of the total explosion energy is spent on its formation. It is a zone of sharp compression of air, spreading in all directions from the center of the explosion at supersonic speed. As the distance increases, the speed quickly drops and the wave weakens. Source of origin shock wave is high pressure at the center of the explosion, reaching billions of atmospheres. The greatest pressure occurs at the front boundary of the compression zone, which is commonly called the shock wave front. Duration of action per person is 0.3 - 0.6 seconds.

The damaging effect of a shock wave is determined by excess pressure. It is measured in kilopascals (kPa) or kilograms-force per 1 cm 2 (kgf/cm 2).

The shock wave can cause traumatic injuries, concussions or death to unprotected people. Damages can be direct or indirect.

Direct defeat shock wave occurs as a result of the influence of:

Excessive pressure,

And high-speed air pressure.

Indirect damage people can be hit by debris from destroyed buildings and structures, glass shards, stones, trees and other objects flying at high speed.

When affecting people, the shock wave causes injuries of varying severity:

Mild lesions occur at excess pressure of 0.2-0.4 kgf/cm 2. They are characterized transient disorders body functions (ringing in the ears, dizziness, headache). Dislocations and bruises are possible;

Moderate lesions occur at excess pressure of 0.4-0.6 kgf/cm 2 . In this case there may be contusions, hearing damage, bleeding from the ears and nose, fractures and dislocations;

Severe lesions are possible with excess pressure of 0.6-1.0 kgf/cm 2, characterized by severe contusions of the whole body, loss of consciousness, multiple injuries, fractures, bleeding from the nose, ears; possible damage internal organs and internal bleeding;

Extremely severe lesions occur when excess pressure is more than 1 kgf/cm 2 . Marked ruptures of internal organs, fractures, internal bleeding, concussion, prolonged loss of consciousness. Tears are observed in organs containing a large number of blood (liver, spleen, kidneys) filled with fluid (ventricles of the brain, urinary and gall bladders).

Light radiation represents a stream of visible, infrared and ultraviolet rays emanating from the luminous area. Its formation consumes 30-35% of the total explosion energy of medium-caliber ammunition. The duration of light radiation depends on the power and type of explosion and can last up to ten seconds or more.

Infrared radiation has the greatest damaging effect. The main parameter characterizing light radiation is the light pulse. Light impulse is measured in calories per 1 cm 2 (cal/cm) or kilojoules per 1 m 2 (kJ/m 2) of surface.

Light radiation from a nuclear explosion upon direct exposure causes burns, including to the retina of the eyes. Secondary burns are possible, arising from the flames of burning buildings, structures, and vegetation.

In the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, approximately 50% of all deaths was caused by burns, of which 20-30% were caused directly by light radiation and 70-80% by burns from fires.

Depending on the magnitude of the light pulse, four degrees of burn are distinguished: a first degree burn causes a light pulse of 100-200 kJ/m 2 (2-6 cal/cm 2); II - 200-400 kJ/m2 (6-12 cal/cm2); III - 400-600 kJ/m2 (12-18 cal/cm2); IV degree - more than 600 kJ/m2 (more than 18 cal/cm2).

Penetrating radiation (ionizing radiation) represents a powerful stream of γ-rays and neutrons released at the moment of a nuclear explosion. Its share consumes about 5% total energy of a nuclear explosion. The damaging effect of γ - rays lasts about several seconds, and neutrons - for fractions of a second.

Neutrons and γ - rays have great penetrating power. As a result of exposure to penetrating radiation from a nuclear explosion, a person may develop radiation sickness.

Radioactive contamination of the area, water and air occurs as a result of the fallout of radioactive substances (RS) from the cloud of a nuclear explosion, accounting for up to 10-15% of the total energy of a ground-based nuclear explosion.

Main sources of radioactivity in nuclear explosions:

Nuclear fission products of substances that make up nuclear fuel (200 radioactive isotopes 36 chemical elements);

Induced activity resulting from the impact of the neutron flux of a nuclear explosion on some chemical elements that make up the soil (sodium, silicon, etc.);

Some part of the nuclear fuel that does not participate in the fission reaction and ends up as tiny particles into explosion products.

Radioactive contamination of the area has a number of features, distinguishing it from other damaging factors of a nuclear explosion are:

large affected area - thousands of square kilometers;
duration of preservation of the damaging effect (days, months or more);
impossibility of detecting radioactive substances without the use of special devices (stealth action).

Radioactive contamination is most pronounced during ground and low air explosions, when a huge amount of dust is entrained in the mushroom cloud. In this case, the soil raised with the cloud is mixed with radioactive substances and they fall out, both in the area of the explosion and along the path of the cloud, forming a so-called radioactive trace.

The area is considered contaminated radioactive substances at radiation levels of 0.5 R/h and above. The level of radiation in the contaminated area is constantly decreasing due to the transformation of short-lived isotopes into non-radioactive substances.

For every sevenfold increase in the time elapsed after the explosion, the level of radiation in the area decreases by 10 times. The radiation level drops especially quickly in the first hours and days after the explosion, and then substances with a long half-life remain, and the decrease in radiation level occurs slowly. So, if 1 hour after the explosion the radiation level is taken as the initial one, then after 7 hours it will decrease by 10 times, after 49 hours (about 2 days) by 100 times, and after 14 days by 1000 times compared to the initial one.

The damaging effect of radioactive substances on people is due to two factors: the external influence of γ-radiation and B-particles when they come into contact with the skin or inside the body.

Electromagnetic pulse causes the emergence of electric and magnetic fields as a result of the impact of γ-radiation from a nuclear explosion on the atoms of objects environment and the formation of a flow of electrons and positively charged ions. Impact electromagnetic pulse can lead to the failure of sensitive electronic and electrical elements, i.e. the operation of communication devices, electronic computer equipment, etc. is disrupted, which will negatively affect the work of headquarters and other control bodies. An electromagnetic pulse does not have a pronounced damaging effect on people.

One of the types of nuclear weapons is neutron weapon. In neutron ammunition of small and ultra-small calibers the action of the shock wave and light radiation is limited to a radius of 140 - 300m, and the effect of neutron radiation is brought to the same level as during the explosion of high-power thermonuclear ammunition, or even slightly increased (in conditions of a low air explosion).

In some neutron munitions, up to 80% of the energy can be carried away by penetrating radiation and only 20% is spent on the shock wave, light radiation and radioactive contamination of the area. People will die from the effects of a flux of neutrons (80-90%) and y-rays (10-20%) or suffer a severe form of acute radiation sickness.

The source of nuclear destruction is the territory within which, as a result of the impact of the damaging factors of a nuclear explosion, there were massive injuries to people, farm animals and plants, destruction and damage to buildings, structures, fires and radioactive contamination of the area.

The size of the outbreak depends on the power of the ammunition used, the type of explosion, the nature of the building, the terrain, etc.

The outer boundary of the source is considered to be a conditional outer line in the area where the excess pressure in the shock wave front does not exceed 0.1 kgf/cm 2 . Conventionally, the source of nuclear damage is divided into four circular zones: complete, strong, medium and weak destruction .

Zone of weak damage characterized by excess pressure in the shock wave front 0.1-0.2 kgf/cm 2. It accounts for up to 62% of the area of the entire outbreak. Within this zone buildings receive slight damage(cracks, destruction of partitions, door and window fillings). From light radiation separate fires occur.

People located in this area outside of shelters may be injured by falling debris and breaking glass, and burns. There are no losses in shelters. May arise secondary lesions from fires, explosions of containers with flammable and lubricating materials, contamination of the territory of the emergency storage facility, etc.

The total losses among the population in this zone are 15%, all of them will be sanitary.

The main rescue operations in this area are carried out to extinguish fires and rescue people from partially destroyed and burning buildings. Conditions for the work of medical units are relatively favorable.

Medium Damage Zone characterized by excess pressure in the shock front waves 0.2-0.3 kgf/cm 2 and occupies about 15% of the lesion.

In this zone wooden buildings will be severely or completely destroyed, stone buildings will receive medium and weak damage. Shelters and basement-type shelters are preserved. Formed on the streets separate rubble. From light radiation massive fires may occur(more than 25% of burning buildings).

Characteristic massive sanitary losses among the unprotected population, which may amount to 40%, of which 10% will be irrevocable. These are the dead and missing.

Rescue and other urgent work involves putting out fires and rescuing people from rubble, destroyed and burning buildings. Working conditions for rescue teams to provide first aid medical care limited and possible only after the work of fire fighting and engineering units. Conditions for the work of medical teams are unfavorable and impossible for medical teams.

Nuclear damage zones

Zone of severe destruction formed by excess pressure in the shock wave front 0.3-0.5 kgf/cm 2 and makes up about 10% of the total area of the outbreak. In this zone ground buildings and structures receive severe damage, parts of walls and ceilings are destroyed. Shelters, most basement-type shelters and underground utilities and energy networks, as a rule, are preserved. As a result of the destruction of buildings continuous or local blockages are formed. From light radiation arise continuous fires(90% of burning buildings). People in open areas receive moderate injuries from the shock wave. They can be affected by a light pulse, which often leads to III-IV degree burns. People may be poisoned in this area carbon monoxide, characterized by massive irreversible losses among the unprotected population. Total losses can be 50% of which 15% are irrecoverable losses.

Zone of complete destruction occurs when there is excess pressure in the front of the shock wave 0.5 kgf/cm 2 or more. It accounts for about 13% of the entire area of the lesion. In this zone, residential and industrial buildings, anti-radiation shelters and up to 25% of shelters are completely destroyed, underground utilities and energy networks are destroyed and damaged, continuous rubble is formed. Fires do not occur, since the flame is knocked down by the shock wave. There may be isolated pockets of combustion and smoldering in the rubble.

Unprotected people experience severe and extreme severe injuries and burns. During a nuclear explosion on land, there is also severe radioactive contamination of the area.

For this zone characterized by massive losses among vulnerable populations. Total losses can be up to 90% of which, 80% are irrevocable.

People who are in well-equipped and sufficiently deep shelters will remain unaffected. The nature of the damage and destruction determines the main content of rescue operations. The working conditions for medical units are extremely unfavorable, and for hospital-type medical units they are excluded.

In the source of nuclear damage, medical units can begin work, as a rule, after extinguishing fires, clearing rubble and opening shelters and basements. Victims located in destroyed shelters, shelters and basements have traumatic injuries of a predominantly closed nature, outside shelters - combined injuries in the form of burns and open injuries, impact on them is possible ionizing radiation. In places where radioactive substances fall out, radiation injuries are likely.

Knowledge of the characteristics of the destruction zones in the source of nuclear damage allows the head of the medical service of civil defense (MSGO) to make an approximate calculation of the likely sanitary losses in the source of damage, the need for the number of forces of the MSGO required to provide medical care to the affected people, and to properly organize this assistance.

When a person is simultaneously exposed to several damaging factors of a nuclear explosion, so-called combined injuries are observed. The following combinations are distinguished:

Mechanical injury and burns;

Mechanical trauma and radiation injury;

Burns and radiation injury;

Mechanical trauma, burns and radiation damage.

Combined lesions have a number of features, the main ones being they are the following:

1. The presence of the so-called mutual burden syndrome, which manifests itself in the fact that the course and outcomes of mechanical injuries and burns worsen in those exposed to radiation. At the same time, the latent period of radiation sickness is reduced, and it itself proceeds in a severe form.

2. Development of shock and secondary infection due to weakening of the body’s protective properties after irradiation.

3. A decrease in the regenerative capacity of irradiated cells and tissues, as a result of which the healing of wounds and burns or the healing of fractures occurs slowly and with various complications.

All these features of combined lesions should be taken into account when providing medical care and treatment.

Zones of radioactive contamination of the area.

Radioactive cloud trail(the dimensions of which depend on the power of the explosion and wind speed) on flat terrain with constant wind directions and speed has the shape of an elongated ellipse and conditionally divided into four zones: moderate, severe, dangerous and extremely dangerous infestation .

The boundaries of these zones are determined by the exposure dose until complete decay (P) or (for the convenience of solving problems of assessing the radiation situation) by the radiation level for a given time (R/h).

Moderate pollution zone (zone A) occupies about 60% of the total footprint area. At the outer boundary of this zone, the exposure dose of radiation during the complete decay will be 40 R, and at the inner boundary - 400 R. The radiation level an hour after the explosion at the outer boundary of this zone will be 8 R/h, after 10 hours - 0.5 R/h. During the first day of stay in this zone, unprotected people may receive a higher radiation dose acceptable standards, and 50% of them will get radiation sickness. Work on sites, as a rule, does not stop. Work in open areas located in the middle of the zone or at its internal border must be stopped.

Heavy pollution zone (zone B) occupies about 20% of the total footprint area. The exposure dose during the complete decay at the outer boundary of the zone will be equal to 400 R, and at the inner boundary - 1200 R. The radiation level 1 hour after the explosion will be 80 R/h at the outer boundary of the zone, after 10 hours - 5 R/h. The risk of injury to unprotected people in this area persists for up to 3 days. Losses in this zone among the unprotected population will be 100%. Work at the facilities is stopped for up to 1 day, workers and employees take refuge in protective structures, basements or other shelters.

Dangerous pollution zone (zone B) occupies about 13% of the total footprint area. On the outer border of this zone, the exposure dose until complete decay will be 1200 R, and on the inner border - 4000 R. The radiation level 1 hour after the explosion on its outer border will be 240 R/h, after 10 hours - 15 R/h. Severe injuries to people are possible even with a short stay in this area. Work at the facilities is stopped for a period of 1 to 3-4 days, workers and employees take refuge in protective structures.

Extremely hazardous pollution zone (zone D) occupies about 7% of the footprint area. At the outer boundary, the exposure dose of radiation during the complete decay will be equal to 4000 R, and in the middle of this zone - up to 10,000 R. The radiation level an hour after the explosion at the outer boundary of the zone will be 800 R/h, after 10 hours - 50 R/h. Damage to people can occur even when they are in anti-radiation shelters. In the zone, work at facilities is stopped for 4 days or more, workers and employees take refuge in shelters. After the specified period, the radiation level on the territory of the facility decreases to values that ensure safe activities of workers and employees in production premises.

In zones radioactive contamination The working conditions of medical units are becoming significantly more complicated. Therefore, anti-radiation protection regimes must be observed to prevent overexposure of people.

When units move through contaminated areas, measures are taken to protect personnel from radiation: routes with the lowest level of radiation are selected, vehicles move at high speeds, radioprotective drugs, respirators and other protective equipment are used.

The personnel of the sanitary squads must take all measures to protect themselves from the effects of penetrating radiation. The work of sanitary teams in areas contaminated with radioactive substances is planned based on the possible radiation dose (max. 0.5 Gray). Before entering the specified areas, it is necessary to ensure that personnel receive the radioprotective agent contained in the individual first aid kit. After finishing work, the personnel of the san brigades must undergo special treatment.

The working hours of sanitary squads in contaminated areas are set by senior civil defense commanders in accordance with accepted safe radiation doses. To carry out individual dosimetric monitoring, sanitary guards are given individual or group dosimeters before entering a contaminated area. At the end of the work, these dosimeters are collected and the radiation doses are recorded in a special journal.

To deploy functional units of a medical detachment (OPM), shelters and premises are used in areas not contaminated with radioactive substances, or (in extreme cases) in contaminated areas with a radiation level of no more than 0.5 R/h.

MSGO formations, in particular OPM, located outside the source in the direction of movement of the radioactive cloud, must be removed from this area in a timely manner, before its approach, preserving them for subsequent entry into the lesion site.

The personnel of medical service institutions must be promptly sheltered in anti-radiation shelters for a period determined by the conditions of the specific situation.

Dimensions of sanitary losses will depend from:

power and design of nuclear weapons;
type of explosion;
the number of people in the affected area;
provision of the population with individual and collective means of protection;
terrain;
the nature of the development and planning of the city;
weather conditions;
time of day, etc.

Possible structure of the san. losses in a nuclear explosion with a power of 20 kt

Damaging factors	Defeats
	character	frequency of occurrence,%
Shock wave	Mechanical damage
Light radiation	Thermal burns
Penetrating radiation and radioactive contamination	Radiation injuries
Simultaneous exposure to all damaging factors	Combined lesions

MTX of lesions when using nuclear weapons (Yu.M. Polumiskov, I.V. Vorontsov, 1980)

Type of ammunition	Ammunition caliber	Sanitary losses, %			Type of nuclear focus
		from combined lesions	from light radiation	from penetrating radiation
Neutron Atomic	Super small, small				Foci with predominantly radiation losses
Fission ammunition					Lesions with combined lesions
Thermonuclear ammunition	Large, extra large				Lesions with predominantly thermal lesions

If used suddenly nuclear weapons the total human losses in the source of nuclear destruction can reach 50-60% of the city’s population. When using protective equipment, losses are reduced by half or more. It is believed that from total number 1/3 of human losses are irretrievable (dead) and 2/3 are sanitary losses (lost ability to work). Of the sanitary losses, about 20-40% will be lightly affected and 60-80% will be moderately and severely affected. Shock may occur in 20 - 25% of those affected. 65 - 67% of those affected will require hospitalization.

Question No. 2

Chemical weapons, classification and brief characteristics of chemical agents. Problems of storage and destruction of chemical agents stocks

Chemical weapons (CW) is a type of weapon of mass destruction, the destructive effect of which is based on the use of toxic chemical warfare agents (BTC).

To combat toxic chemicals(XO) relate:

Toxic substances (OS),

Toxins,

Phytotoxicants that can be used for military purposes to damage various types of vegetation.

As delivery means chemical weapons Aviation, missiles, artillery, engineering and chemical troops (aerosol generators, smoke bombs, grenades) are used to attack targets.

Features of chemical weapons:

CW causes massive and immediate injuries to people over a large area;

CW is capable of creating foci of chemical damage over large areas;

The use of chemical weapons is not accompanied by the destruction of material assets, but can lead to long-term dangerous pollution of the environment;

Many BTXVs are highly persistent, toxic, and rapidly act on the human body;

BTXV causes predominantly severe and moderate lesions;

The use of chemical weapons necessitates the use of personal protective equipment and special treatment;

Those affected need first aid as soon as possible.

In all cases, prompt evacuation from the outbreak is necessary to provide medical care.

The types of combat conditions of BTXV are: steam, aerosol and drops. Injuries to people as a result of direct exposure to BTXV particles are called primary, and injuries resulting from contact with a contaminated surface are called secondary.

Toxic substances (OS)- chemical compounds that have certain toxic and physical and chemical properties, which, when used in combat, are capable of infecting people, animals and plants, polluting the air, clothing, equipment and terrain.

Chemical agents form the basis of chemical weapons. While in combat condition, OV affect the body by penetrating through: respiratory system, skin and wounds with fragments of chemical ammunition. In addition, lesions can occur as a result of consuming contaminated food and water.

Currently accepted the following types classifications OV.

1. For tactical purposes:

Lethal: VX, soman, sarin, mustard gas, hydrocyanic acid, phosgene

Temporarily incapacitating manpower: BZ;

Irritants: chloroacetophenone, adamsite, CS, CR.

2. According to the duration of the damaging effect:

Persistent, the damaging effect lasts for long periods - days, weeks and even months (mustard gas, VX);

Unstable damaging effects last from several tens of minutes to 2-4 hours (hydrocyanic acid, cyanogen chloride, phosgene, diphosgene, sarin).

3. According to the speed of onset of the damaging effect:

Fast-acting (sarin, soman, VX, hydrocyanic acid, CS, CR);

Slow-acting (mustard gases, BZ, phosgene, diphosgene).

4. By likelihood of use:

Service records (VX, sarin, BZ, CS, CR);

Spare service cards (nitrogen mustard, lewisite);

Limited standard (sulfur mustard, hydrocyanic acid, cyanogen chloride).

5. According to the leading clinical symptom of the lesion(toxicological classification) :

Nerve agents or neurotoxicants (sarin, soman, VX);

Blistering action or cytotoxic action (mustard gas, nitrogen mustard gas, lewisite);

Generally toxic (hydrocyanic acid, cyanogen chloride);

Asphyxiating or pulmotoxicants (phosgene, diphosgene);

Irritant action - lachrymators and sternites (chloroacetophenone, chloropicrin, CS, CR);

Psychotomimetic action (BZ).

As a result of the use of chemical weapons, a zone of chemical contamination is formed, within which a source of chemical damage occurs.

Chemical contamination zone includes: the zone of use of chemical weapons and the territory into which a cloud contaminated with chemical agents in damaging concentrations has spread.

The source of chemical damage is a territory within which mass casualties of people, farm animals and plants occurred as a result of exposure to chemical weapons.

The size and nature of the source of chemical damage depend on the type and quantity of the chemical agent, methods of its combat use, meteorological conditions, terrain, density of settlements, etc.

The magnitude of losses depends on the degree of surprise, scale, methods of using chemical agents and their properties, population density, the degree of its protection, the availability of personal protective equipment and the ability to use them.

Sanitary losses with fast-acting agents are formed within a period of 5 to 40 minutes; If first aid is not provided in a timely manner, there is a high mortality rate. When using slow-acting agents, sanitary losses occur within 1-6 hours.

Site of chemical damage

You will learn about protoxins and phytotoxicants in the toxicology course.

Question No. 3

Bacteriological (biological) weapons, brief description

BO (biological)- these are pathogenic microorganisms with delivery means intended for mass destruction of people, farm animals and plants.

Representatives of all classes of microorganisms that spread artificially into the external environment can be used as biological agents.

The following infectious diseases are used to infect people:

Viruses are the causative agents of smallpox, yellow fever, many types of encephalitis (encephalomyelitis), hemorrhagic fevers, etc.;

Bacteria - pathogens anthrax, tularemia, plague, brucellosis, glanders, melioidosis, etc.;

Rickettsia is the causative agent of Q fever, typhus, Tsutsugamu-shi fever, Dengue fever, Rocky Mountain spotted fever, etc.;

Fungi are the causative agents of coccidioidomycosis, histoplasmosis, blastomycosis and other deep mycoses.

To infect farm animals, pathogens that are equally dangerous to animals and humans (anthrax, foot-and-mouth disease, Rift Valley fever, etc.) or that only affect animals (rinderpest, African plague) can be used as BS. pigs and other epizootic diseases).

The damaging effect of biological weapons does not appear immediately, but after a certain time (incubation period), depending both on the type and quantity of pathogenic microbes that have entered the body, and on physical condition body.

Features of biological weapons:

High potential efficiency.
The presence of a latent period (incubation period).
Contagiousness (the ability to be transmitted from person to person).
Duration of action.
Difficult to detect.
Selectivity.
Cheap production.
Strong psychological impact.
Possible use of multiple infectious agents.
Silence.

According to epidemiological danger, infectious agents are divided into:

Highly contagious (causative agents of plague, cholera, smallpox, hemorrhagic fevers, etc.)
Contagious ( typhoid fever, salmonellosis, shigelosis, anthrax, etc.)
Less contagious (meningoencephalitis, malaria, tularemia, etc.)
Non-contagious (brucillosis, botulism, etc.).

Based on this, the epidemiological features of the lesion will depend, and, consequently, the nature of anti-epidemic measures and the order of placement of the infected population. Finally, the type of pathogen used determines the general system of quarantine or observation measures and the timing of their cancellation.

Methods of combat use of BS:

Spraying biological formulations in the ground layer of air with aerosol particles - aerosol method. Leads to continuous morbidity. In the form of an epidemiological explosion;

Dispersion of vectors artificially infected with biological agents - transmission method. The incidence is increasing gradually. The lesion has irregular shapes;

Contamination of air and water with biological agents in confined spaces (volumes) using sabotage equipment - sabotage method.

The causative agents of anthrax, glanders, melioidosis, Rocky Mountain spotted fever, yellow fever and tularemia can be used as fast-acting BDs with a relatively short incubation period and leading to high mortality.

The causative agents of plague, cholera and smallpox are considered especially dangerous, since they cause diseases that are highly contagious, quickly spread, have a severe course of the disease and have a high mortality rate.

When using bacteriological (biological) weapons, zone of bacteriological (biological) contamination, which is formed as a result of contamination of the area pathogenic microorganisms. Within this zone, a focus of bacteriological (biological) damage appears.

The source of bacteriological (biological) damage called territorywith populated areas and objects of the national economy, within which, as a result of the impact of BW, massive injuries occurred to people, farm animals and plants.

Cities, settlements, and separate national economic facilities are of particular epidemic significance, that is, the territory where people live and work. In the rest of the territory there is no rapid development of the epidemic process and no protective anti-epidemic measures are required.

With the aerosol method of infecting a territory, the incidence of disease is continuous, in the form of an epidemiological explosion, and severe forms of the disease are often observed.

When using infected vectors (transmissible method), the boundaries of the outbreak are unclear, the incidence increases slowly.

To infect air and water with germs in a confined space, a sabotage method is used.

The methodology for assessing the situation in the outbreak involves taking into account the following factors: the type of pathogen used and the method of its application, timeliness of detection, the area of the infection zone and the area of the possible spread of infectious diseases, meteorological conditions, time of year, number and density of population, nature and the density of settlements, the provision of the population with individual and collective means of protection and the timeliness of their use, the number of immunized population, the provision of means of nonspecific and specific prevention and treatment.

Taking these factors into account makes it possible to determine sanitary losses and organize measures to localize and eliminate the source of bacteriological damage.

Sanitary losses from biological weapons can vary significantly depending on the type of microbes, their virulence, contagiousness, the scale of application and the organization of antibacterial protection. Of the total number of people at the site of bacteriological damage, The primary incidence can be 25-50%.

The medical situation in the source of bacteriological damage will be largely determined not only by the magnitude and structure of sanitary losses, but also by the availability of forces and means intended to eliminate the consequences, as well as their preparedness.

Question No. 4

Brief characteristics of the focus of combined lesions

Combined injuries are those caused by different types of weapons or different damaging factors of the same type of weapon.

Availability probable enemy nuclear, chemical and bacteriological weapons and other means of attack allows him to simultaneously or sequentially use several types of weapons of mass destruction.

The following options are possible:

combination of nuclear and chemical weapons;
nuclear and bacteriological weapons;
chemical and bacteriological weapons;
nuclear, chemical and bacteriological weapons.
The combined use of weapons of mass destruction with various types of conventional weapons is also not excluded.

The focus of a combined lesion (OKP) is a territory within which, as a result of the simultaneous or sequential impact of two or more types of weapons of mass destruction or other means of attack by the enemy, a situation has arisen that requires emergency rescue and other urgent work (AS and DPR) with disinfection of places -ness and the objects located on it.

NCP will be characterized by a more complex general and medical situation compared to outbreaks caused by any one type of weapon of mass destruction.

When assessing the situation in the OKP, one should proceed from the characteristics of the destructive effect of a particular type of weapon used. Thus, the high toxicity of modern 0V, the rapidity of their impact on humans requires the implementation of all measures, including medical ones, first and foremost short time. On the other hand, timely detection of the use of bacteriological (biological) weapons, one of the features of the damaging effect of which is the presence of a latent period, makes it possible to carry out some activities (identification of patients and their hospitalization) at a later date.

Taking into account the characteristics of weapons of mass destruction, the work of MS Civil Defense units in the OKP should be focused on injuries from that type of weapon (or damaging factors) that require immediate medical assistance.

The most difficult tasks for MSDF arise when the enemy uses nuclear and chemical weapons.

This is due to the fact that in such a PCO it is necessary to quickly provide medical care to many people affected by both nuclear and chemical weapons. At the same time, searching for the injured and promptly providing medical assistance will be greatly hampered due to fires, destruction, radioactive and chemical contamination of the area, as well as the use of personal protective equipment during rescue operations.

As a result of the impact on the human body of different types of weapons or different damaging factors of one type of weapon combined lesions occur.

It is known that injuries from one type of weapon can aggravate the course of injuries from another type of weapon. This feature of combined lesions is called "mutual burden syndrome".

Thus, radiation sickness reduces the body’s protective functions, which greatly complicates the diagnosis and treatment of injuries caused by bacteriological (biological) weapons.

At the same time, infectious diseases will not only aggravate the condition of those affected by radiation sickness, but also impair the healing of wounds and burns.

In addition, various wounds and burns open up additional pathways for the introduction of BS and OM into the human body.

Damage to highly toxic agents (sarin, Vx, mustard gas) will sharply worsen the condition of the affected people.

Thus, the occurrence of OKP will lead to:

To a sharp increase in losses (including sanitary ones),

Complicates the structure of lesions,

It will complicate the search and provision of medical care to the injured, their evacuation from the source of damage,

Will aggravate the course of the lesions,

And it will complicate the treatment of those affected.

Question No. 5

The latest types of weapons and their destructive effects

It is believed that of the new types of weapons possible in the near future, the greatest real danger is posed by beam, radio frequency, infrasonic, radiological and geophysical weapons.

1. Beam weapon. These weapons include:

A). Lasers are powerful emitters of electromagnetic energy in the optical range. The damaging effect of a laser beam is achieved as a result of heating the object’s materials to high temperatures, leading to their melting and even evaporation, damage to hypersensitive elements, damage to the organs of vision and thermal burns to the skin of a person.

The action of a laser beam is characterized by secrecy (the absence of external signs in the form of fire, smoke, sound), high accuracy, straightness of propagation, and almost instantaneous action.

The use of lasers with the greatest efficiency can be achieved in outer space to destroy intercontinental ballistic missiles and artificial Earth satellites, as envisaged in the American Star Wars plans.

B). Acceleration weapon. The damaging factor of an accelerator weapon is a high-precision, highly directed beam of charged or neutral particles saturated with energy (electrons, protons, neutral hydrogen atoms), accelerated to high speeds. Accelerator weapons are also called beam weapons.

Objects of destruction can be artificial earth satellites, intercontinental, ballistic and cruise missiles various types, and different kinds ground weapons and military equipment,

2 . Radio frequency weapons- means whose destructive effect is based on the use of electromagnetic radiation of ultra-high (microwave) or extremely low frequency (ELF). The ultra-high frequency range ranges from 300 MHz to 30 GHz; extremely low frequencies include frequencies less than 100 Hz.

The object of destruction by radio frequency weapons is manpower, which means known ability radio emissions of ultra-high and extremely low frequencies cause damage (functional dysfunction) to vital human organs and systems - such as the brain, heart, central nervous system, endocrine system and circulatory system.

Radio frequency radiation can also influence the human psyche, disrupt perception, cause auditory hallucinations, (synthesize disorienting speech messages introduced directly into a person’s consciousness).

3. Infrasonic weapons- means of mass destruction based on the use of directed radiation of powerful infrasonic vibrations with a frequency below 16 Hz.

Such fluctuations may influence the central nervous system and digestive organs humans, cause headaches, pain in internal organs, disrupt breathing rhythm .

At higher levels of radiation power and very low frequencies, symptoms such as dizziness, nausea, intestinal upset and loss of consciousness appear. Infrasound radiation also has psychotropic effect on a person, causes loss of control over oneself, a feeling of fear and panic.

4. Radiological weapons- one of the possible types of weapons of mass destruction, the action of which is based on the use of radioactive military substances. Radioactive warfare agents are understood as substances specially obtained and prepared in the form of powders or solutions that contain radioactive isotopes of chemical elements that produce ionizing radiation.

The effect of radiological weapons can be comparable to the effect of radioactive substances that are formed during a nuclear explosion and contaminate the surrounding area.

The main source of radioactive substances is waste generated during the operation of nuclear reactors. They can also be obtained by irradiating previously prepared substances in nuclear reactors or ammunition.

The use of military radioactive substances can be carried out using aerial bombs, aerial spray devices, unmanned aircraft, cruise missiles and other ammunition and military devices.

5. Geophysical weapons- a conventional term adopted in a number of foreign countries, denoting a set of various means that allow the use of destructive forces for military purposes inanimate nature through artificially induced changes in the physical properties and processes occurring in the atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere of the Earth.

In the US and other NATO countries, attempts are also being made to explore the possibility impact on the ionosphere, causing artificial magnetic storms and auroras that disrupt radio communications and interfere with radar observations over a wide area. The possibility of large-scale changes temperature regime by spraying substances that absorb solar radiation, reducing the amount of precipitation designed for weather changes unfavorable to the enemy (for example, drought). Destruction of the ozone layer in the atmosphere can presumably make it possible to direct the destructive effects of cosmic rays and ultraviolet radiation from the Sun into areas occupied by the enemy.

The term “geophysical weapon” essentially reflects one of the combat properties of nuclear weapons - providing influence on geophysical processes in the direction of initiating them dangerous consequences for troops and population. In other words, the damaging (destructive) factors of geophysical weapons are natural phenomena, and the role of their purposeful initiation is performed mainly by nuclear weapons.

6. Volumetric explosion ammunition- fundamentally the new kind ammunition, the effectiveness of which, according to evidence foreign press, significantly higher than that of ammunition filled with conventional explosives,

They were developed in the USA in 1966. The effect of volumetric explosion ammunition is as follows: the charge (liquid formulation) is sprayed into the air, the resulting aerosol is converted into a gas-air mixture, which is then detonated. The effect of such a charge, according to foreign experts, is comparable to the damaging effect of the shock wave of a tactical nuclear weapon.

7. Incendiary means - based on petroleum products - napalms. In my own way appearance napalms resemble rubber glue, stick well to various surfaces, burn for 3-5 minutes, and a temperature of 900-1100 ° C occurs. The introduction of white phosphorus into the composition of napalms makes them self-igniting, and the addition of metallic sodium gives them the property of igniting on contact with moisture. Such mixtures are called supernapalms. average temperature their burning temperature is 1100-1200 °C, they hold well on vertical and inclined surfaces.

Features of the action of incendiary agents: the possibility of hitting large concentrations of manpower and equipment; destruction and disablement for a long time of large military installations and populated areas; rendering psychological impact on people (the ability to resist decreases); painfulness of burns, duration of inpatient treatment of the affected people. Low cost compared to other types of weapons, as well as the availability of a sufficient raw material base, make incendiary weapons preferable.

8. Firearms. The main type of damage that occurs from exposure to firearms is injury. Wounding projectiles can be bullets or fragments of artillery shells, bombs, mines and hand grenades.

Using the M-16 5.56 caliber automatic rifle with a high initial bullet speed contributes to the occurrence of injuries, characterized by a large amount of destruction and foci of necrosis around the wound channel.

Cluster munitions are used to increase the combat effectiveness of conventional attack weapons, allowing the affected area to be increased tens of times. Cassettes are equipped with many small bombs designed to destroy manpower.

Cluster munitions are also being created abroad for artillery and systems volley fire, guided tactical missiles. Their effectiveness is 5 times higher than that of high-explosive fragmentation shells.

For the mass destruction of manpower, ball bombs are intended, containing 250 metal balls weighing 0.7-1.0 g. When the bomb is opened, the balls are scattered over an area of 100 m 2. A fighter-bomber can carry 1,000 bombs and hit open personnel over 10 hectares. The destructive effect of such a bomb load, according to the calculations of American experts, is equivalent to the firepower of 13,160 rifles, each firing a magazine of cartridges.

High explosive ammunition are intended for the destruction of industrial, residential and administrative buildings, railways and highways, destruction of equipment and people. The main damaging factor of high-explosive ammunition is the air shock wave that occurs during the explosion of the conventional explosive with which these ammunition is loaded.

Shelters, shelters of various types, and blocked crevices effectively protect against shock waves and fragments of high-explosive and fragmentation ammunition. You can hide from ball bombs in buildings, trenches, folds of the terrain, and sewer wells.

Cumulative ammunition designed to destroy armored targets. Their operating principle is based on burning through an obstacle with a powerful jet of explosive detonation products.

Concrete-piercing ammunition designed to destroy high-strength reinforced concrete structures, as well as to destroy airfield runways. The ammunition body contains two charges (shaped-charge and high-explosive) and two detonators. When meeting an obstacle, an instantaneous detonator is triggered, which detonates the shaped charge. With some delay (after the ammunition passes through the ceiling), the second detonator is triggered, detonating the high-explosive charge, which causes the main destruction of the object.

Improvements in the design of ammunition are also in the direction of increasing the accuracy of hitting the target (high-precision weapons).

9. Precision weapons. This reconnaissance and strike complexes, which combine two elements:

. lethal means - airplanes with cluster bombs, missiles equipped with homing warheads are capable of selecting targets against the background of other objects and local objects;

. technical means - providing combat use destructive weapons: reconnaissance, communications, navigation, control systems, processing and displaying information, generating commands.

So integrated automated system control involves completely excluding a person (operator) from the process of pointing a weapon at a target.

TO precision weapons also apply managed aerial bombs. In appearance, they resemble conventional aircraft bombs and differ from the latter by the presence of a control system and small wings. These bombs are designed to destroy small targets that require high precision. Bombs are dropped from airplanes that are many kilometers away from reaching the target, and are aimed at the target using radio and television control systems.

The development of means of armed struggle in comparison with past wars can lead to a manifold increase in the size of sanitary losses, a change in their structure, and the emergence of new types of combat pathology, which, in turn, will complicate the working conditions of all levels of the medical service.

Art. Lecturer at the Department of Medical and Mechanical Engineering A. Shabrov

Nuclear weapons are one of the most dangerous species existing on Earth. The use of this tool can solve various problems. In addition, the objects that must be attacked may have different locations. In this regard, a nuclear explosion can be carried out in the air, underground or water, above the earth or water. This one is capable of destroying all objects that are not protected, as well as people. In this regard, the following damaging factors of a nuclear explosion are distinguished.

1. This factor accounts for about 50 percent of the total energy released during an explosion. The shock wave from a nuclear weapon explosion is similar to that of a conventional bomb. Its difference is its more destructive power and longer duration of action. If we consider all the damaging factors of a nuclear explosion, then this is considered the main one.

The shock wave of this weapon is capable of hitting objects that are far from the epicenter. It is a strong process. The speed of its spread depends on the pressure created. The farther from the explosion site, the weaker the impact of the wave. The danger of a blast wave also lies in the fact that it moves objects in the air that can lead to death. Damages by this factor are divided into mild, severe, extremely severe and moderate.

You can take shelter from the impact of the shock wave in a special shelter.

2. Light radiation. This factor accounts for about 35% of the total energy released during an explosion. This is a stream of radiant energy, which includes infrared, visible and hot air and hot explosion products as sources of light radiation.

The temperature of the light radiation can reach 10,000 degrees Celsius. The level of lethality is determined by the light pulse. It's an attitude total number energy to the area it illuminates. The energy of light radiation turns into heat. The surface heats up. It can be quite strong and lead to charring of materials or fires.

People get numerous burns as a result of light radiation.

3. Penetrating radiation. Damaging factors include this component. It accounts for about 10 percent of all energy. This is a stream of neutrons and gamma rays that emanate from the epicenter of the use of weapons. They spread in all directions. The further the distance from the point of explosion, the lower the concentration of these flows in the air. If the weapon was used underground or underwater, then the degree of their impact is much lower. This is due to the fact that part of the flux of neutrons and gamma quanta is absorbed by water and earth.

Penetrating radiation covers a smaller area than shock wave or radiation. But there are types of weapons in which the effect of penetrating radiation is significantly higher than other factors.

Neutrons and gamma rays penetrate tissue, blocking the functioning of cells. This leads to changes in the functioning of the body, its organs and systems. Cells die and decompose. In humans this is called radiation sickness. In order to assess the degree of exposure to radiation on the body, the radiation dose is determined.

4. Radioactive contamination. After the explosion, some of the matter does not undergo fission. As a result of its decay, alpha particles are formed. Many of them are active for no more than an hour. The area at the epicenter of the explosion is most exposed.

5. It is also part of the system formed by the damaging factors of nuclear weapons. It is associated with the emergence of strong electromagnetic fields.

These are all the main damaging factors of a nuclear explosion. Its action has a significant impact on the entire territory and people who fall into this zone.

Nuclear weapons and their damaging factors are being studied by humanity. Its use is controlled by the world community to prevent global disasters.

air shock wave, light radiation, penetrating radiation, electromagnetic pulse, radioactive contamination of the area (only in case of a ground (underground) explosion).

The distribution of the total explosion energy depends on the type of ammunition and the type of explosion.
During an explosion in the atmosphere, up to 50% of the energy is spent on the formation of an air shock wave, 35% on light radiation, 4% on penetrating radiation, 1% on an electromagnetic pulse. Another about 10% of the energy is released not at the moment of the explosion, but over a long period of time during the decay of the fission products of the explosion. During a ground explosion, nuclear fission fragments fall to the ground, where they disintegrate. This is how radioactive contamination of the area occurs.

Air shock wave- this is an area of sharp compression of air, spreading in all directions from the center of the explosion at supersonic speed.

The source of the air wave is high pressure in the explosion area (billions of atmospheres) and temperatures reaching millions of degrees.

Hot gases, trying to expand, strongly compress and heat the surrounding layers of air, as a result of which a compression wave or shock wave propagates from the center of the explosion. Near the center of the explosion, the speed of propagation of the air shock wave is several times higher than the speed of sound in air.
As the distance from the center of the explosion increases, the speed decreases and the shock wave transforms into a sound wave.

The greatest pressure in the compressed region is observed at its leading edge, which is called the front of the shock air wave.

Difference between normal atmospheric pressure and the pressure at the leading edge of the shock wave is the value of the excess pressure.
Directly behind the shock wave front, strong air currents are formed, the speed of which reaches several hundred kilometers per hour. (Even at a distance of 10 km from the explosion site of a 1 Mt ammunition, the air speed is more than 110 km/h.)
When meeting an obstacle, a velocity pressure load or load is created
braking, which enhances the destructive effect of the air shock wave.
The effect of an air shock wave on objects is quite complex nature and depends on many reasons: the angle of incidence, the reaction of the object, the distance from the center of the explosion, etc.

When the front of the shock wave reaches the front wall of the object,
her reflection. The pressure in the reflected wave increases several times,
which determines the degree of destruction of a given object.

To characterize the destruction of buildings and structures,
four degrees of destruction: complete, strong, medium and weak.

Complete destruction - when all the main elements of the building are destroyed, including supporting structures. The basements may be partially preserved.

Severe destruction - when the supporting structures and floors of the upper floors are destroyed, the floors of the lower floors are deformed. The buildings cannot be used and restoration is impractical.

Medium destruction - when roofs, internal partitions and partially covering the upper floors are destroyed. After clearing, some of the premises on the lower floors and basements can be used. Restoration of buildings is possible during major repairs.

Weak destruction - when window and door fillings, roofing and light internal partitions are destroyed. There may be cracks in the walls of the upper floors. The building can be used after current repairs.

Degree of destruction of equipment (equipment):

Complete destruction - the object cannot be restored.

Severe damage - damage that can be repaired major repairs in factory conditions.

Moderate damage - damage that can be repaired by repair shops.

Weak damage is damage that does not significantly affect
use of equipment and are eliminated by routine repairs.

When assessing the impact of an air shock wave on people and animals, a distinction is made between direct and indirect damage.

Direct damage occurs as a result of the action of excess
pressure and velocity pressure, as a result of which a person can be thrown back and injured.

Indirect damage can be caused by debris
buildings, stones, glass and other objects flying under the influence of high-speed pressure.
The impact of a shock wave on people is characterized by mild,
moderate, severe and extremely severe lesions.

Mild lesions occur at excess pressure of 20-40 kPa. They are characterized by temporary hearing loss, mild contusions, dislocations, and bruises.

Moderate lesions occur at excess pressure of 40-60 kPa. They manifest themselves in brain contusions, damage to the hearing organs, bleeding from the nose and ears, and dislocations of limbs.

Severe injuries are possible at excess pressures from 60 to 100 kPa. They are characterized by severe contusions of the whole body, loss of consciousness, fractures; damage to internal organs is possible.

Extremely severe lesions occur when excess pressure exceeds 100 kPa. People experience injuries to internal organs, internal bleeding, concussions, and severe fractures. These lesions often lead to fatal outcome.

Shelters provide protection from the shock wave. In open areas, the effect of the shock wave is reduced by various depressions and obstacles.
It is recommended to fall on the ground with your head in the direction of the explosion, preferably in a depression or behind a fold in the terrain, cover your head with your hands, ideally so that there are no open areas of skin that may be exposed to light radiation.

Light radiation is a stream of radiant energy, including ultraviolet, visible and infrared regions of the spectrum.
The source is the luminous area of the explosion, consisting of heated to
high temperature of vapors of structural materials of ammunition and air, and in case of ground explosions and evaporated soil.

The size and shape of the luminous area depend on the power and type of explosion.
In an air explosion it is a ball, in a ground explosion it is a hemisphere.

The maximum surface temperature of the luminous region is approximately 5700-7700°C. When the temperature drops to 1700 °C, the glow stops.

The result of light radiation can be melting, charring, high temperature stress in materials, as well as ignition and combustion.

The damage to people by a light pulse is expressed in the appearance of burns on open areas of the body protected by clothing, as well as damage to the eyes.
Regardless of the cause of burns, the damage is divided into four
degrees:

First degree burns are characterized by superficial damage to the skin: redness, swelling and pain. They are not dangerous.

Second degree burns are characterized by the formation of blisters filled with liquid. Special treatment is required. When affected up to 50-60% of the surface
the body usually recovers.

Third degree burns are characterized by necrosis of the skin and germ layer, as well as the appearance of ulcers.

Fourth degree burns are accompanied by necrosis of the skin and damage to deeper tissues (muscles, tendons and bones).

Significant third and fourth degree burns
parts of the body can be fatal.

Eye damage manifests itself in blindness from 2 to 5 minutes during the day, up to 30 and
more than minutes at night if a person was looking in the direction of the explosion. Up to complete blindness and fundus burns.

Any opaque barrier can serve as protection from light radiation.

Penetrating radiation represents
gamma radiation and the flux of neutrons emitted from the zone of a nuclear explosion.
The duration of action of penetrating radiation is 15-20 seconds. The damaging effect of penetrating radiation on materials is characterized by the absorbed dose, dose rate and neutron flux.
The radius of the damaging effect of penetrating radiation during explosions in the atmosphere is less than the radius of damage from light radiation and air shock waves.
However, at high altitudes, in the stratosphere and space, this is the main factor
defeats.
Penetrating radiation can cause reversible and irreversible changes in materials, elements of radio engineering, optical and other equipment due to disruption crystal lattice substances, as well as as a result of various physical and chemical processes under the influence of ionizing radiation.

The damaging effect on people is characterized by the dose of radiation.

The severity of radiation injury depends on the absorbed dose, as well as
from individual characteristics the body and its condition at the time of irradiation.

A radiation dose of 1 Sv (100 rem) in most cases does not lead to serious damage to the human body, but 5 Sv (500 rem) causes a very severe form of radiation sickness.

For ammunition power up to 100 kt, the radii of damage of the air shock wave and penetrating radiation are approximately equal, and for ammunition with a power of more than 100 kt, the zone of action of the air shock wave significantly overlaps the zone of action of penetrating radiation in dangerous doses.

From this we can conclude that during explosions of medium and high power, no special protection against penetrating radiation is required, since protective structures designed to shelter from a shock wave fully protect against penetrating radiation.

For explosions of ultra-low and low power, as well as for neutron munitions, where the affected areas by penetrating radiation are much higher, it is necessary to provide protection against penetrating radiation.

Protection against penetrating radiation is provided by various materials that attenuate radiation and neutron flux.

Radioactive contamination of the area

Its source is fission products of nuclear fuel, radioactive isotopes formed in soil and other materials under the influence of neutrons - induced activity, as well as the undivided part of the nuclear charge.

The radioactive products of an explosion emit three types of radiation: alpha particles, beta particles and gamma radiation.

Since a ground explosion involves a significant amount of
amount of soil and other substances, then upon cooling these particles fall out
in the form of radioactive fallout. As the cloud moves, following its trail
radioactive fallout occurs, and thus on the ground
a radioactive trace remains. Density of contamination in the area of the explosion and in
the trace of the movement of the radioactive cloud decreases as it moves away from the center
explosion.
The shape of the trace can be very diverse, depending on specific conditions. The configuration of the trace can actually be determined only after the end of the fall of radioactive particles on the ground.

An area is considered contaminated at radiation levels of 0.5 P/h or more.

Due to the natural decay process, radioactivity decreases,
especially sharply in the first hours after the explosion. Radiation level for one hour
after an explosion is the main characteristic when assessing radioactive contamination of an area.

Radioactive damage to people and animals in the wake of a radioactive cloud can be caused by external and internal radiation.
Radiation sickness can be a consequence of radiation exposure.

Radiation sickness of the first degree occurs with a single dose of radiation
100-200 R (0.026-0.052 C/kg). The latent period of illness can last
two to three weeks, after which malaise, weakness, dizziness, and nausea appear. The number of leukocytes in the blood decreases. After a few days, these phenomena disappear.
In most cases, no special treatment is required.

Radiation sickness of the second degree occurs at a radiation dose of 200-400
P (0.052-0.104 C/kg). The latent period lasts about a week. Then there is general weakness, headaches, fever, dysfunction nervous system, vomit. The number of white blood cells is reduced by half.
With active treatment, recovery occurs in one and a half to two months.
Deaths are possible - up to 20% of those affected.

Radiation sickness of the third degree occurs at radiation doses of 400-600
P (0.104-0.156 C/kg). The latent period lasts several hours. There is a general serious condition, severe headaches, chills, fever up to 40 ° C, loss of consciousness (sometimes severe agitation). The disease requires long-term treatment (6-8 months). Without treatment, up to 70% of those affected die.

Radiation sickness of the fourth degree occurs with a single dose
irradiation over 600 R (0.156 C/kg). The disease is accompanied by blackouts, fever, a sharp disturbance of water-salt metabolism and ends in death after 5-10 days.

Radiation diseases in animals occur at higher doses of radiation.

Internal exposure of people and animals is caused by radioactive decay isotopes that enter the body with air, water or food.

A significant part of isotopes (up to 90%) is eliminated from the body within
several days, and the rest are absorbed into the blood and distributed to the organs
and fabrics.

Some isotopes are distributed almost evenly in the body (cesium),
and others concentrate in certain tissues. Yes, in bone tissue
sources of a-particles (radium, uranium, plutonium) are deposited; b particles
(strontium, yttrium) and g-radiation (zirconium). These elements are very weak
are excreted from the body.

Iodine isotopes are predominantly deposited in the thyroid gland; isotopes of lanthanum, cerium and promethium - in the liver and kidneys, etc.

Electromagnetic pulse- causes the emergence of electric and magnetic fields as a result of the impact of gamma radiation from a nuclear explosion on the atoms of environmental objects and the formation of a flow of electrons and positively charged ions. The degree of damage from an electromagnetic pulse depends on the power and type of explosion. The most pronounced damage from electromagnetic pulses occurs during high-altitude (extra-atmospheric) explosions of nuclear weapons, when the affected area can be thousands of square kilometers. Exposure to an electromagnetic pulse can lead to the burning of sensitive electronic and electrical components with large antennas, damage to semiconductor devices, vacuum devices, capacitors, as well as serious disruption of digital and control devices. Thus, exposure to an electromagnetic pulse can lead to disruption of the operation of communication devices, electronic computer equipment, etc., which in war conditions will negatively affect the work of headquarters and other civil defense control bodies. An electromagnetic pulse does not have a pronounced damaging effect on people.
Characteristics of tactical and operational-tactical means of nuclear attack of NATO armed forces

Nuclear attack weapons	Firing range (flight), km	Nuclear weapon power, kt	Time to occupy the prepared OP and open fire	Removing a position area from leading edge, km
Ground troops
"Devi Croquet" (120- and 155-mm)
155 mm howitzer
203.2 mm howitzer			1 min - self-propelled guns; 20-30 minutes per fur. traction
NURS "Little John"
NURS "Onest John"
URS "Lance"
URS "Corporal"			Division 6-10 h
URS "Sergeant"
URS "Pershing"			About 30 min

Now imagine hundreds and thousands of explosions!

Will there be a nuclear winter or not? The question remains open, but I would like to believe that there will be no experimental verification! Don't forget about potentially destroyed chemicals. factories, nuclear power plants dams! Plus the lack of uncontaminated water, electricity, heat, clean food, housing, medical care. The fact that not a single technical means, excluding antediluvian cars, steam locomotives and some military transport, will work or move; it will be possible to get out only on foot through the contaminated area.

The living will envy the dead!

Introduction

1. Sequence of events during a nuclear explosion

2. Shock wave

3. Light radiation

4. Penetrating radiation

5. Radioactive contamination

6. Electromagnetic pulse

Conclusion

The release of a huge amount of energy that occurs during the fission chain reaction leads to rapid heating of the substance of the explosive device to temperatures of the order of 10 7 K. At such temperatures, the substance is an intensely emitting ionized plasma. At this stage, in the form of energy electromagnetic radiation About 80% of the explosion energy is released. The maximum energy of this radiation, called primary, falls in the X-ray range of the spectrum. The further course of events during a nuclear explosion is determined mainly by the nature of the interaction of primary thermal radiation with the environment surrounding the epicenter of the explosion, as well as the properties of this environment.

If the explosion is carried out at a low altitude in the atmosphere, the primary radiation of the explosion is absorbed by the air at distances of the order of several meters. Absorption of X-rays results in the formation of an explosion cloud characterized by very high temperatures. In the first stage, this cloud grows in size due to the radiative transfer of energy from the hot interior of the cloud to its cold surroundings. The temperature of the gas in a cloud is approximately constant throughout its volume and decreases as it increases. At the moment when the temperature of the cloud drops to approximately 300 thousand degrees, the speed of the cloud front decreases to values comparable to the speed of sound. At this moment, a shock wave is formed, the front of which “breaks off” from the boundary of the explosion cloud. For an explosion with a power of 20 kt, this event occurs approximately 0.1 m/sec after the explosion. The radius of the explosion cloud at this moment is about 12 meters.

The intensity of the thermal radiation of the explosion cloud is entirely determined by the apparent temperature of its surface. For some time, the air heated as a result of the passage of the blast wave masks the explosion cloud, absorbing the radiation emitted by it, so that the temperature of the visible surface of the explosion cloud corresponds to the temperature of the air behind the shock wave front, which drops as the size of the front increases. About 10 milliseconds after the start of the explosion, the temperature in the front drops to 3000 ° C and it again becomes transparent to the radiation of the explosion cloud. The temperature of the visible surface of the explosion cloud begins to rise again and approximately 0.1 seconds after the start of the explosion reaches approximately 8000 °C (for an explosion with a power of 20 kt). At this moment, the radiation power of the explosion cloud is maximum. After this, the temperature of the visible surface of the cloud and, accordingly, the energy emitted by it quickly drops. As a result, the bulk of the radiation energy is emitted in less than one second.

The formation of a pulse of thermal radiation and the formation of a shock wave occurs at the earliest stages of the existence of the explosion cloud. Since the cloud contains the bulk of the radioactive substances formed during the explosion, its further evolution determines the formation of a trace of radioactive fallout. After the explosion cloud cools down so much that it no longer emits in the visible region of the spectrum, the process of increasing its size continues due to thermal expansion and it begins to rise upward. As the cloud rises, it carries with it a significant mass of air and soil. Within a few minutes, the cloud reaches a height of several kilometers and can reach the stratosphere. The rate at which radioactive fallout occurs depends on the size of the solid particles on which it condenses. If, during its formation, the explosion cloud reaches the surface, the amount of soil entrained as the cloud rises will be quite large and radioactive substances will settle mainly on the surface of soil particles, the size of which can reach several millimeters. Such particles fall to the surface in relative proximity to the epicenter of the explosion, and their radioactivity practically does not decrease during the fallout.

If the explosion cloud does not touch the surface, the radioactive substances contained in it condense into much smaller particles with characteristic sizes of 0.01-20 microns. Since such particles can exist for quite a long time in upper layers atmosphere, they are scattered over a very large area and during the time elapsed before they fall to the surface, they manage to lose a significant portion of their radioactivity. In this case, the radioactive trace is practically not observed. The minimum altitude at which an explosion does not lead to the formation of a radioactive trace depends on the power of the explosion and is approximately 200 meters for an explosion with a power of 20 kt and about 1 km for an explosion with a power of 1 Mt.

The main damaging factors - shock wave and light radiation - are similar to the damaging factors of traditional explosives, but much more powerful.

The shock wave, formed in the early stages of the existence of an explosion cloud, is one of the main damaging factors of an atmospheric nuclear explosion. The main characteristics of a shock wave are the peak overpressure and the dynamic pressure at the wave front. The ability of objects to withstand the impact of a shock wave depends on many factors, such as the presence of load-bearing elements, construction material, and orientation relative to the front. An overpressure of 1 atm (15 psi) occurring 2.5 km from a 1 Mt ground explosion could destroy a multi-story reinforced concrete building. The radius of the area in which a similar pressure is created during an explosion of 1 Mt is about 200 meters.

At the initial stages of the existence of a shock wave, its front is a sphere with its center at the point of explosion. After the front reaches the surface, a reflected wave is formed. Since the reflected wave propagates in the medium through which the direct wave has passed, its speed of propagation turns out to be slightly higher. As a result, at some distance from the epicenter, two waves merge near the surface, forming a front characterized by approximately twice the large values excess pressure.

Thus, during the explosion of a 20-kiloton nuclear weapon, the shock wave travels 1000 m in 2 seconds, 2000 m in 5 seconds, and 3000 m in 8 seconds. The front boundary of the wave is called the shock wave front. The degree of shock damage depends on the power and position of objects on it. The damaging effect of hydrocarbons is characterized by the magnitude of excess pressure.

Since for an explosion of a given power the distance at which such a front is formed depends on the height of the explosion, the height of the explosion can be selected to obtain maximum values of excess pressure at certain area. If the purpose of the explosion is to destroy fortified military installations, the optimal height of the explosion is very low, which inevitably leads to the formation of a significant amount of radioactive fallout.

Light radiation is a stream of radiant energy, including ultraviolet, visible and infrared regions of the spectrum. The source of light radiation is the luminous area of the explosion - heated to high temperatures and evaporated parts of the ammunition, surrounding soil and air. In an air explosion, the luminous area is a sphere; in a ground explosion, it is a hemisphere.

The maximum surface temperature of the luminous region is usually 5700-7700 °C. When the temperature drops to 1700°C, the glow stops. The light pulse lasts from fractions of a second to several tens of seconds, depending on the power and conditions of the explosion. Approximately, the duration of the glow in seconds is equal to the third root of the explosion power in kilotons. In this case, the radiation intensity can exceed 1000 W/cm² (for comparison, the maximum intensity of sunlight is 0.14 W/cm²).

A nuclear explosion can instantly destroy or disable unprotected people, structures and various material assets.

The main damaging factors of a nuclear explosion are:

Shock wave;

Light radiation;

Penetrating radiation;

Radioactive contamination of the area;

Electromagnetic pulse;

This creates a growing fireball with a diameter of up to several hundred meters, visible at a distance of 100 - 300 km. The temperature of the glowing area of a nuclear explosion ranges from millions of degrees at the beginning of its formation to several thousand at the end and lasts up to 25 seconds. The brightness of light radiation in the first second (80-85% of light energy) is several times greater than the brightness of the Sun, and the resulting fireball during a nuclear explosion is visible for hundreds of kilometers. The remaining amount (20-15%) in the subsequent period of time from 1 to 3 seconds.

Infrared rays are the most damaging, causing instant burns to exposed areas of the body and blinding. The heating can be so intense that various materials can char or ignite and building materials can crack or melt, which can lead to huge fires over a radius of several tens of kilometers. People who have been exposed fireball from "Little" Hiroshima at a distance of up to 800 meters were burned so much that they turned into dust.

In this case, the effect of light radiation from a nuclear explosion is equivalent to the massive use of incendiary weapons, which is discussed in the fifth section.

The human skin also absorbs the energy of light radiation, due to which it can heat up to a high temperature and receive burns. First of all, burns occur on open areas of the body facing the direction of the explosion. If you look in the direction of the explosion with unprotected eyes, then eye damage may occur, leading to blindness and complete loss of vision.

Burns caused by light radiation are no different from ordinary burns caused by fire or boiling water; they are stronger the shorter the distance to the explosion and the greater the power of the ammunition. In an air explosion, the damaging effect of light radiation is greater than in a ground explosion of the same power.

The damaging effect of light radiation is characterized by a light pulse. Depending on the perceived light pulse, burns are divided into three degrees. First-degree burns manifest themselves as superficial skin lesions: redness, swelling, and soreness. With second degree burns, blisters appear on the skin. With third degree burns, skin necrosis and ulceration occur.

With an air explosion of ammunition with a power of 20 kt and an atmospheric transparency of about 25 km, first-degree burns will be observed within a radius of 4.2 km from the center of the explosion; with the explosion of a charge with a power of 1 Mt, this distance will increase to 22.4 km. Second degree burns appear at distances of 2.9 and 14.4 km and third degree burns at distances of 2.4 and 12.8 km, respectively, for 20 kt and 1 Mt ammunition.

Light radiation can cause massive fires in populated areas, forests, steppes, and fields.

Any obstacles that do not allow light to pass through can protect against light radiation: shelter, the shadow of a house, etc. The intensity of light radiation strongly depends on meteorological conditions. Fog, rain and snow weaken its effect, and conversely, clear and dry weather favors the occurrence of fires and the formation of burns.

To assess the ionization of atoms in the medium, and therefore the damaging effect of penetrating radiation on a living organism, the concept of radiation dose (or radiation dose) was introduced, the unit of measurement of which is the x-ray (r). Radiation dose 1 r. corresponds to the formation of approximately 2 billion ion pairs in one cubic centimeter of air. Depending on the radiation dose, there are four degrees of radiation sickness.

The first (mild) occurs when a person receives a dose of 100 to 200 rubles. It is characterized by: no vomiting or after 3 hours, once, general weakness, mild nausea, short-term headache, clear consciousness, dizziness, increased sweating, and periodic increases in temperature.

The second (medium) degree of radiation sickness develops when receiving a dose of 200 - 400 r; in this case, signs of damage: vomiting after 30 minutes - 3 hours, 2 times or more, constant headache, clear consciousness, dysfunction of the nervous system, fever, more severe malaise, gastrointestinal upset appear more sharply and faster, the person becomes incompetent. Possible fatalities (up to 20%).

The third (severe) degree of radiation sickness occurs at a dose of 400 - 600 rubles. Characterized by: severe and repeated vomiting, constant headache, sometimes severe, nausea, severe general state, sometimes loss of consciousness or sudden agitation, hemorrhages in the mucous membranes and skin, necrosis of the mucous membranes in the gum area, temperature may exceed 38 - 39 degrees, dizziness and other ailments; Due to the weakening of the body's defenses, various infectious complications appear, often leading to death. Without treatment, the disease ends in death in 20-70% of cases, most often from infectious complications or bleeding.

Extremely severe, at doses over 600 rubles, the primary symptoms appear: severe and repeated vomiting after 20 - 30 minutes for up to 2 or more days, persistent severe headache, consciousness may be confused, without treatment usually ends in death within up to 2 weeks.

IN initial period ARS common manifestations are nausea, vomiting, and only in severe cases diarrhea. General weakness, irritability, fever, and vomiting are manifestations of both brain irradiation and general intoxication. Important signs of radiation exposure are hyperemia of the mucous membranes and skin, especially in areas of high radiation doses, increased heart rate, an increase and then a decrease in blood pressure until collapse, neurological symptoms (in particular, loss of coordination, meningeal signs). The severity of symptoms is adjusted with the radiation dose.

The radiation dose can be single or multiple. According to foreign press data, a single irradiation dose of up to 50 r (received over a period of up to 4 days) is practically safe. A multiple dose is a dose received over a period of more than 4 days. A single exposure of a person to a dose of 1 Sv or more is called acute exposure.

Each of these more than 200 isotopes has a different half-life. Fortunately, most fission products are short-lived isotopes, that is, they have half-lives measured in seconds, minutes, hours or days. This means that after a short time (about 10-20 half-lives), the short-lived isotope decays almost completely and its radioactivity will not pose a practical danger. Thus, the half-life of tellurium -137 is 1 minute, i.e. after 15-20 minutes there will be almost nothing left of it.

In an emergency situation, it is important to know not so much the half-life of each isotope, but the time during which the radioactivity of the entire sum of radioactive fission products decreases. There is a very simple and convenient rule that allows you to judge the rate of decrease in the radioactivity of fission products over time.

This rule is called the seven-ten rule. Its meaning is that if the time elapsed after the explosion of a nuclear bomb increases seven times, then the activity of the fission products decreases by 10 times. For example, the level of contamination of the area with decay products an hour after the explosion of a nuclear weapon is 100 conventional units. 7 hours after the explosion (time increased 7 times) the level of pollution will decrease to 10 units (activity decreased 10 times), after 49 hours - to 1 unit, etc.

During the first day after the explosion, the activity of fission products decreases almost 6000 times. And in this sense, time turns out to be our great ally. But over time, the decline in activity is slower. A day after the explosion, it will take a week to reduce activity by 10 times, a month after the explosion - 7 months, etc. However, it should be noted that the decline in activity according to the “seven-ten” rule occurs in the first six months after the explosion. Subsequently, the decline in the activity of fission products occurs faster than according to the “seven to ten” rule.

The amount of fission products formed during the explosion of a nuclear bomb is small in weight terms. Thus, for every thousand tons of explosion power, about 37 g of fission products are formed (37 kg per 1 Mt). Fission products entering the body in significant quantities can cause high levels of radiation and corresponding changes in health status. The amount of fission products formed during an explosion is often estimated not in weight units, but in units of radioactivity.

As you know, the unit of radioactivity is the curie. One curie is the amount of radioactive isotope that gives 3.7-10 10 decays per second - (37 billion decays per second). To imagine the value of this unit, (Recall that the activity of 1 g of radium is approximately 1 curie, and the permissible amount of radium in the human body is 0.1 μg of this element.

Moving from weight units to units of radioactivity, we can say that during the explosion of a nuclear bomb with a power of 10 million tons, decay products are formed with a total activity of the order of 10"15 curies (1000000000000000 curies). This activity constantly, and at first very quickly, decreases, Moreover, its weakening during the first day after the explosion exceeds 6000 times.

Radioactive fallout falls at large distances from the site of a nuclear explosion (significant contamination of the area can be at a distance of about several hundred kilometers). They are aerosols (particles suspended in the air). The sizes of aerosols are very different: from large particles with a diameter of several millimeters to the smallest, not visible to the eye particles measured in tenths, hundredths and even smaller fractions of a micron.

Most of the radioactive fallout (about 60% from a ground explosion) falls in the first day after the explosion. This is local precipitation. Subsequently, the external environment can be additionally polluted by tropospheric or stratospheric precipitation.

Depending on the “age” of the fragments (i.e., the time that has passed since the moment of the nuclear explosion), their isotopic composition also changes. In “young” fission products, the main activity is represented by short-lived isotopes. The activity of “old” fission products is represented mainly by long-lived isotopes, since by this time the short-lived isotopes have already decayed, turning into stable ones. Therefore, the number of isotopes of fission products is constantly decreasing over time. So, a month after the explosion, only 44 isotopes remain, and a year later - 27 isotopes.

According to the age of the fragments, the specific activity of each isotope in the total mixture of decay products also changes. Thus, the strontium-90 isotope, which has a significant half-life (T1/2 = 28.4 years) and is formed during an explosion in small quantities, “outlives” short-lived isotopes, and therefore its specific activity is constantly increasing.

Thus, the specific activity of strontium-90 increases in 1 year from 0.0003% to 1.9%. If a significant amount of radioactive fallout falls, the most severe situation will be during the first two weeks after the explosion. This situation is well illustrated by the following example: if an hour after the explosion the dose rate of gamma radiation from radioactive fallout reaches 300 roentgens per hour (r/h), then the total radiation dose (without protection) during the year will be 1200 r, of which 1000 r (i.e., almost the entire annual radiation dose) a person will receive in the first 14 days. Therefore, the highest levels of infection external environment There will be radioactive fallout in these two weeks.

The bulk of long-lived isotopes are concentrated in radioactive cloud, which is formed after the explosion. The height of the cloud rise for ammunition with a power of 10 kt is 6 km, for ammunition with a power of 10 Mt it is 25 km.

An electromagnetic pulse is a short-term electromagnetic field that occurs during the explosion of a nuclear weapon as a result of the interaction of gamma rays and neutrons emitted with the atoms of the environment. The consequence of its impact may be burnout and breakdowns of individual elements of radio-electronic and electrical equipment, electrical networks.

The most reliable means of protection against all damaging factors of a nuclear explosion are protective structures. In open areas and fields, you can use durable local objects, reverse slopes and folds of terrain for shelter.

When operating in contaminated areas, special protective equipment should be used to protect the respiratory system, eyes and open areas of the body from radioactive substances.

CHEMICAL WEAPON

Characteristics and combat properties

Chemical weapons are poisonous substances and agents used to kill humans.

The basis of the destructive effect of chemical weapons is toxic substances. They have such high toxic properties that some foreign military experts equate 20 kg of nerve agents in terms of their destructive effect to nuclear bomb, equivalent to 20 Mt of TNT. In both cases, a lesion area of 200-300 km may occur.

In terms of their damaging properties, explosive agents differ from other military weapons:

They are capable of penetrating together with air into various structures, including military equipment and inflict defeat on the people in them;

They can maintain their destructive effect in the air, on the ground and in various objects for some, sometimes quite a long time;

Spreading in large volumes of air and on large areas, they inflict defeat on all people within their sphere of action without means of protection;

Agent vapors are capable of spreading in the direction of the wind to significant distances from areas where chemical weapons are directly used.

Chemical munitions are distinguished by the following characteristics:

The durability of the agent used;

The nature of the physiological effects of OM on the human body;

Means and methods of use;

Tactical purpose;

The speed of the oncoming impact;

Definition of damaging factors of a nuclear explosion. Damaging factors of nuclear weapons and their brief characteristics

Introduction

Question No. 1

Possible structure of the san. losses in a nuclear explosion with a power of 20 kt

Question No. 3

Question No. 4

Question No. 5

CHEMICAL WEAPON

Characteristics and combat properties

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