International outer space. International space law

International space law- is a set of international legal principles and rules that establish the regime of outer space and celestial bodies and regulate relations between states, international organizations and commercial firms in connection with the exploration and use of space.

The birth of international space law As a branch of public international law, it is associated with the beginning of the practical activities of states in outer space, in particular, with the launch of the first artificial Earth satellite in the USSR on October 4, 1957.

Currently engaged in space activities limited quantity highly developed states with appropriate capabilities. They are the main subjects of international space law. But as a result of such activities and in its international legal regulation, all states of the world, humanity as a whole, are interested. Therefore, legal regulation of space activities from the very beginning began to be carried out by concluding, mainly, universal international agreements, open to the participation of all states. The main role in the development of such treaties belongs to the UN, represented by General Assembly, its subsidiary body the Committee on the Wider Uses of Outer Space and its Subcommittee on Legal Affairs.

Many international regulations on international space law have been adopted, including:

Treaty on Principles for the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, Including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies 1967,

Agreement on the rescue of astronauts, the return of astronauts and the return of objects launched in space 1968,

Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused to Space Objects 1972,

Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space, 1976,

Agreement on the Activities of States on the Moon and Others celestial bodies 1979,

Agreement on financing procedure joint activities on the exploration and use of outer space 1992,

Memorandum of cooperation between the National Space Agency of Ukraine and the Russian Aviation and Space Agency in the field of development of global navigation satellite systems 2003 and others.

International space law is based on the following principles:

1. Freedom to explore and use outer space and celestial bodies.

3. Saving sovereign rights states on space objects launched by them.

4. Assistance to the crew spaceship in case of an accident or disaster.

5. International responsibility of states for their activities in space.

6. Promotion of international cooperation in the peaceful exploration and use of outer space.

Subject of international space law- is a participant, including a potential one, in international legal relations regarding activities in outer space or the use of space technology, a bearer of international rights and obligations.

Object of international space law- this is everything about which subjects of international space law can enter into international legal relations, i.e. outer space, the Moon and other celestial bodies, astronauts, artificial space objects, ground components space systems, results of practical space activities, space activities, forms of cooperation between states in outer space, liability for damage from lawful space activities, and the like.

Space~ synonym astronomical definition Universe. A distinction is made between near space, which includes “near-Earth” space, and deep space- the world of stars and galaxies.

Space- space that extends beyond earth's atmosphere. Sometimes they consider not outer space as a whole, but certain parts of it, characterized by different properties - near-Earth outer space, interplanetary space, interstellar space, etc. There is no treaty rule in international space law that establishes the boundary between airspace and outer space. The dominant point of view is that such a line should be installed at an altitude of approximately 100-1000 km above the Earth's surface.

Astronaut is a person who tests and operates space technology in space flight.

The basic principle defining legal regime outer space and celestial bodies, is that "outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, is not subject to national appropriation, either by declaration of sovereignty over it, or by use or occupation, or by any other means." Thus, outer space is open and free for exploration and use by all states, and state sovereignty does not apply to it.

At the same time, it is essential for the legal relations of states regarding Space that openness and freedom for the exploration and use of space is not absolute, but has restrictions enshrined in international legal acts, for example, in the Outer Space Treaty of 1967. In particular

1. The exploration and use of outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, is carried out for the benefit and in the interests of all countries, regardless of the degree of their economic or scientific development, and are the property of all humanity.

2. States parties shall be guided by the principle of cooperation and mutual assistance and carry out all their activities in outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, with due regard to the respective interests of all States parties to the treaty.

3. States parties to the treaty undertake not to place into Earth orbit any objects with nuclear weapons or any other types of weapons of mass destruction, not to install such weapons on celestial bodies, or to place such weapons in outer space in any other way.

In Art. III of this treaty emphasizes that the exploration and use of outer space is carried out in accordance with international law, including the Charter of the United Nations. The states parties to the agreement pledged to “establish an international regime, including appropriate procedures, to regulate the exploitation of the natural resources of the Moon.” At the same time, the main goals of such an international regime include:

Orderly and safe mastery natural resources Moon;

Rational regulation of these resources;

Expanding opportunities to use these resources;

Fair distribution among all participating States of the benefits obtained from these resources.

Responsibility in international space law includes two aspects:

1) international responsibility of states for violation of the norms and principles of international law;

2) material liability for damage caused as a result of space activities.

The responsibility of states for space activities is established by Art. VI of the 1967 Outer Space Treaty, which states that states parties to the treaty bear international responsibility for national activities in outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, regardless of whether they are carried out by governmental organizations and non-governmental legal entities. If space activities are carried out by an international organization, responsibility for the implementation of the provisions of the treaty is borne, along with the international organization, by the states parties to the treaty that are members and organizations.

In accordance with Art. VII of the Outer Space Treaty, international liability for damage caused by space objects or their components on Earth, in the air and in outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, is borne by the state that carries out or organizes the launch, as well as the state from whose territory or installations the launch is carried out.

Liability arises when damage is caused to another state by individuals or legal entities.

States bear absolute responsibility for damage caused by space objects on the surface of the Earth or to an aircraft in flight; For damage caused by one space object to another, the state is liable only if there is fault. Exemption from liability is provided in case of gross negligence or intent of the victim and a one-year limitation period is established.

The amount of compensation shall be calculated in accordance with international law and principles of equity so as to ensure restoration of the state of affairs that would have existed had the damage not occurred.

Controversial situations are regulated by specially created ad hoc commissions consisting of representatives of the plaintiff state; launching a space object, and their jointly chosen head. The decision of the commission is binding if an agreement is reached between the parties. In other cases it is only a recommendation. These provisions apply to international organizations carrying out space activities if such organization declares that it assumes the rights and obligations provided for by the convention, and provided that the majority of the member states of the organization are parties to the 1972 convention and the 1967 Outer Space Treaty. the organization itself, and keeping you members.

Nowadays, the active activities of the private sector in outer space require a revision of the basic principles and norms of international space law and strengthening the position of the national space legal regulation. One of characteristic features This area is characterized by the heterogeneity of space activity subjects. Subjects of national space law can be both national and foreign individuals and legal entities, international organizations and states.

For example, the Law of Ukraine “On Space Activities” dated November 15, 1996 includes enterprises, institutions and organizations, including international and foreign ones, carrying out space activities as subjects of space activities. Individuals, according to the Law, are not subjects of space activities. A Law Russian Federation dated August 20, 1993 “On Space Activities” does not contain a definition of the term “subjects of space activities”, but, analyzing it, such entities can include organizations and citizens of the Russian Federation; foreign citizens and organizations carrying out space activities under the jurisdiction of the Russian Federation; international organizations and foreign states.

Since states and international organizations are subjects of international space law, they can directly carry out activities for the exploration and use of outer space. Individuals and legal entities are not subjects of international space law and can carry out space activities regulated by international space law only on behalf of the state of their jurisdiction.

Ukraine, as a subject of international space law, carries out its space activities on terms of equality with other states, taking into account its national interests. Ukraine ensures the fulfillment of its international obligations in the field of space activities and is responsible for the generally recognized norms of international law and regulations international treaties Ukraine (Article 17 of the Law).

Space activities in Ukraine are carried out on the basis of the State (National) Space Program of Ukraine, which is being developed for five years. it is created by the National Space Agency of Ukraine together with the relevant central executive authorities and the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine based on the purpose and basic principles of space activities in Ukraine. Based on the National Space Program, the following is carried out:

determining the needs for civil, defense and dual-use space technology, as well as concluding contracts in accordance with current legislation for research and development and production of space technology for the current year, which are approved by the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine;

allocation of funds from the State Budget of Ukraine to finance space activities under government orders; training of personnel at the expense of the State Budget and taking measures to social protection personnel of space activities;

ensuring support and improvement of space activities and ground-based infrastructure, as well as the required level of safety of space activities;

ensuring international cooperation in the space sector, including Ukraine in international space projects.

International space law is a branch of international law, the principles and norms of which determine the legal regime of outer space, including celestial bodies, and regulate the activities of states in the use of space.

The formation of international space law began with the launch of the first artificial Earth satellite, carried out by the USSR in 1957. A completely new sphere of human activity opened up, with great importance for his life on Earth. Appropriate legal regulation has become necessary, in which the main role, naturally, should be assigned to international law1. The creation of international space law is interesting in that it demonstrates the ability of the international community to quickly respond to the needs of life, using a wide arsenal of rule-making processes.

The beginning was made by the usual norm, which appeared immediately after the launch of the first satellite. It arose as a result of the recognition by states of the right of peaceful flight over territory not only in space, but also in the corresponding section of airspace during the launch and landing of spacecraft. On this basis, the term “instant right” appeared.

The activities of states in outer space were automatically covered by the basic principles of international law: the prohibition of the threat or use of force, peaceful resolution of disputes, sovereign equality, etc. The next stage of “rapid legal response” was the resolutions of the UN General Assembly, among which special place was occupied by the Declaration of Legal Principles of the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space of 1963. Its provisions acquired the status of generally recognized customary norms of international law.

All this paved the way for treaty regulation, in which the central position is occupied by the Treaty on Principles for the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, Including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, 1967 (hereinafter referred to as the Outer Space Treaty), which established the principles of international space law. Even before this, the Moscow Treaty of 1963 banned testing nuclear weapons in space.

This was followed by a series agreements:

• on the rescue of astronauts - Agreement on the rescue of astronauts, the return of astronauts and the return of objects launched into outer space, 1968;
• on liability for damage - Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused to Space Objects, 1972;
• on registration of space objects - Convention on the Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space, 1975;
• on activities on celestial bodies - Agreement on the activities of states on the Moon and other celestial bodies of 1979 (Russia does not participate in this Agreement).

A separate group consists of numerous agreements on scientific and technical cooperation in space. Another direction in the formation of international space law is the establishment international bodies and organizations. The UN created the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space with a Legal Subcommittee, in which, according to Professor V.S. Vereshchagin, the main process of developing the norms of international space law is taking place2. Organizations have been created to regulate space communications, the International Organization of Satellite Communications (INTELSAT), the International Organization of Maritime Satellite Communications (INMARSAT). Regional organizations have also been established.

Within the CIS, in 1991, an Agreement was adopted on joint activities in the exploration and use of outer space. Based on the Agreement, an Interstate Council was created to guide this activity. The agreement is intended to regulate the joint efforts of the parties in the exploration and use of space. A number of provisions are devoted to space complexes, financing, etc. Responsibility for interstate programs that have military or dual (i.e., both military and civilian) significance is assigned to the Joint Strategic Armed Forces.

International space law is created by the international community as a whole, but the decisive role belongs to spacefaring powers, which have committed themselves to sharing the results with other countries.

The subjects of space law, like other branches of international law, are states and international organizations. At the same time, individuals and legal entities also participate in space activities. International law places full responsibility for their activities on the relevant states. This activity is regulated by domestic law.

A number of countries, for example the USA, Great Britain, and France, have issued special laws regarding space activities. In other countries, the norms of other laws are devoted to it. Laws regulate activities such as government agencies, and individuals. The US legislation is the most developed in this regard. Back in 1958, the US Aeronautics and Space Act was passed, followed by the US Communications Satellite Act of 1962, the US Commercial Space Launch Act of 1982 with subsequent amendments, etc.

In Russia, since 1993, the Law on Space Activities was published. He defined the goals, objectives and principles of this activity, as well as organizational and economic fundamentals. The Russian Space Agency was established. A number of provisions are devoted to astronauts, international cooperation, and liability for damage caused by space activities.

Concept, essence and main features of international space law

From the very beginning of space activities, it turned out that any of its types can affect the interests of one or more foreign states, and most types of space activities affect the interests of the entire international community. This entailed the need, firstly, to separate the concepts of “legitimate space activity” and “illegal space activity” and, secondly, to establish certain order carrying out space activities that are permissible from the point of view of international communication.

The implementation of any activity affecting the interests of other states inevitably leads to the emergence of international legal relations. In such cases, subjects of international law become bearers of the corresponding rights and obligations.

Recognition that international legal relations may arise in the process of space activities was already contained in UN General Assembly Resolution 1348 (XIII) of December 13, 1958, which noted “the general interest of mankind in outer space” and the need to discuss within the UN the nature of “ legal problems problems that may arise during space exploration programs.”

The development of international legal norms regulating relations arising in the process of space exploration initially took place on the basis of the concept of space activity as an object of legal relations. At the same time, there was a need to establish a legal regime for outer space, a new environment in which human activities became possible.

The UN General Assembly resolution “Question of the peaceful uses of outer space”, adopted on December 13, 1958, speaks of legal status outer space, and about the nature of space activities (the desire to use outer space exclusively for peaceful purposes, for the benefit of humanity; the need for international cooperation in a new area).

The 1967 Outer Space Treaty establishes the regime of outer space (Articles I and II) and at the same time defines the rights and obligations of states in the process of activities not only in space itself, but also in all other environments, if their activities there are related to research and use of space.

If the norms and principles of international space law related only to the regulation of activities in outer space itself, then the corresponding legal relations on Earth related to activities in outer space would be artificially removed from the scope of space law.

There is an inextricable connection between the legal regime of outer space and the legal regulation of activities related to the use of this space. Even before the UN General Assembly recognized the need to develop special legal principles for space activities, legal scholars in many countries predicted that the system of international law would develop special group norms and principles designed to regulate legal relations in a new field of activity. The specificity of this group of norms and principles was justified by the characteristics of outer space itself as a new environment for human activity, as well as the characteristics of space activity, which differs significantly from activity in any other area.

Space law has following features: only outer space gives humanity the opportunity to go beyond the terrestrial environment in the interests of the further progress of civilization; in outer space there are celestial bodies whose territories do not belong to anyone and can be used by humans in the future; space is practically limitless; unlike land territory, the oceans and airspace, outer space cannot be divided into any zones in the process of its use; outer space poses a particular danger to human activity; In space and on celestial bodies there are physical laws that differ significantly from those on earth.

The peculiarities of space activity include the fact that it is carried out with the help of fundamentally new means - rocket and space technology; the use of space for military purposes poses an incomparable danger; all states without exception are interested in the results of space activities, and at present only a few of the most scientifically and industrially developed states can carry them out independently; the launch of spacecraft and their return to Earth may be associated with the use of the airspace of foreign states and spaces open sea; space launches can cause damage to foreign countries and their citizens.

Based on the specified specifics of outer space and space activities, the legal doctrine proposed various solutions to problems arising in connection with human activities in this area.

Some lawyers substantiated the specifics of international legal regulation of space activities and the regime of outer space. At the same time, they went so far in their reasoning that they formulated a conclusion either about the complete independence of the new type of legal relations and its isolation from the entirety of already existing international legal relations, or about the need to revise existing international law under the influence of a new type of activity.

An analysis of the nature and goals of space activities shows that there is no exclusivity from the point of view public relations in this new area human activity No.

There is an inextricable connection between law and foreign policy. Closely related to questions foreign policy and space exploration. The guiding principle in the conduct of foreign policy by states in any field today should be the principles of peaceful coexistence, which, of course, apply to space activities.

Special meaning general legal principles existed for space activities at a time when international space law was in the initial stages of its formation. The lack of special principles had to be compensated by the application general principles. This approach made it possible to reject unfounded allegations about a “legal vacuum” in the field of space activities.

From the very beginning of the emergence of the science of international space law, Soviet and other progressive lawyers proceeded from the fact that the basic principles and norms of international law also apply to space activities. As for its specificity, it must be taken into account in special norms, which, being based on generally recognized fundamental principles and norms, may constitute a new branch of international law, but by no means an independent legal system.

The Soviet and later Russian concept of international law is based on the close relationship between scientific and technological progress and law. The progress of science and technology cannot but affect the development of international law. The largest scientific and technological achievements have always caused the need for legal regulation of relations between states associated with the use of these achievements, due to the fact that the consequences of their application can become regional and even global character.

However, international law not only experiences the impact of scientific and technological progress, but also, in turn, influences the development of science and technology. The adoption of prohibitive norms slows down the improvement of some types of technology and stimulates the development of new ones, the use of which would not be subject to these prohibitions.

If, from the point of view of the science of nature, the cosmos is subject to its own special laws, then from the point of view of the science of society, it must obey principles common to all mankind, which apply to all types of activity. International law is a social historical institution, the existence of which is determined by the division of the world into independent states. Any activity is subject to regulation by this system of law if it affects the interests of more than one state. The norms of international law generally recognized in each specific era are subject to application wherever different states operate.

The legal regime of outer space and the regulation of space activities cannot be divorced from the basic principles of peace and peaceful coexistence of states. They must be built taking into account current problems development of modern international relations.

The extension of the basic principles of modern international law to space is also necessary because they include provisions on equality, peaceful coexistence, cooperation between states, non-interference in each other’s internal affairs, etc. All peoples are interested in their observance. These principles apply to all types of space activity, despite its specificity. Only on the basis of these principles is it possible to organize broad international cooperation and accelerated progress in the field of space exploration and use.

The theoretical debate among legal scholars ended with the official recognition by states of the applicability of international law, including the UN Charter, to outer space and celestial bodies [p. 1a of UN General Assembly resolution 1721 (XVI) of December 20, 1961]. A year later, states recognized the applicability of international law, including the UN Charter, to the activities of states in the exploration and use of outer space [preamble to UN General Assembly resolution 1802 (XVII) of December 14, 1962]. The 1967 Outer Space Treaty already contains binding substantive rules according to which outer space is open to exploration and use by all States in accordance with international law (Article I), and activities for the exploration and use of outer space must be carried out in accordance with international law , including the UN Charter (Art. III).

Extraterrestrial space is divided into air and outer space. This division is predetermined by various technical principles movement aircraft. Space activities affect the interests of all humanity, therefore outer space, by analogy with air space, cannot be divided into national and international. All outer space as a whole is international territory, is not subject to national appropriation and establishment of the sovereignty of any state, and is located in common use. The concept of the common heritage of humanity applies to outer space.

International space law is a branch of international law that was formed in the process of states' exploration of outer space. International space law is a set of rules governing international legal relations regarding the status of outer space as a special extraterrestrial environment and the activities of states in its exploration and use. This is a set of international legal norms that establish the regime of outer space and celestial bodies and regulate the relations of subjects of international law in connection with the use of space.

The subject of international space law is international relations in the process of space activities. The object of international space law is the activities of its subjects related to the exploration and use of space and planets solar system, Moon, other celestial bodies, space objects. Space law regulates the activities of states not only in space, but also activities on Earth related to the study and exploration of space. The subjects of international space law are both traditional and non-traditional subjects of public international law: states, international intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations, legal entities.

Before the development of the first universal Outer Space Treaty in 1967, the basic rules of space activities had the status of customary legal norms (for example, the principle of non-extension of state sovereignty to outer space). Until now, international space law has a large conglomerate of customary rules formed in the practice of states (100–110 km from the surface of the Ocean - the border between air and outer space). In addition, many provisions of space law are enshrined in bilateral agreements between the main space powers - the USA and the USSR. Other states adhere to the rules established in these agreements at the level of international custom.

Features of international customary norms in space law - they were formed within a fairly short time (from the early 60s to the mid-70s of the 20th century).

In the field of space law it is accepted a large number of universal international agreements. The main one is the Treaty on Principles for the Activities of States in the Use and Exploration of Outer Space, Including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, 1967 (Outer Space Treaty). This Treaty establishes the most general international legal principles of space activities (participants are about 100 states of the world).

Other universal agreements on international space law: Treaty on the Prohibition of the Use of Nuclear Weapons in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space and Under the Sea, 1963; Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts, the Return of Astronauts and the Return of Objects Launched into Outer Space, 1968; Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects, 1972; Convention on the Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space, 1975; Agreement on the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies of 1979. In 2007, under the auspices of the UN, the Guidelines of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space to prevent the formation of space debris were adopted.

The circle of states to which space law applies is wider than the “space club”, i.e. circle of states that are directly involved in the exploration and use of outer space. At the same time, the generally recognized principles of international space law apply to all states, regardless of their participation in space activities.

In the regulation of international space law, resolutions and recommendations of international organizations (primarily the UN GA) play an important role: Declaration of Legal Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, 1963; Principles for the Use by States of Certain Earth Satellites for International Direct Television Broadcasting 1982; Principles Concerning Remote Sensing of the Earth from Outer Space, 1986; Principles for the use of nuclear power sources on board space objects 1992; Declaration of international cooperation in the exploration and use of outer space for the benefit and interests of all States, with special regard to the needs of developing countries, 1996

The joint activities of states in space are regulated mainly by international scientific and technical agreements - constituent acts INGOs (INMARSAT, INTELSAT, European Space Agency, Interput). An important role in this area is played by the activities of the UN legal and scientific-technical subcommittees, the UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Space Law and its working groups.

The basic principles of international space law are enshrined in the Declaration of Legal Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, 1963 and in the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, Including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, 1967:

• – non-extension of state sovereignty to outer space;
• – exploration and use of outer space for the benefit of all mankind;
• – equal rights of all states to explore and use outer space;
• – prohibition of national appropriation of space;
• – compliance of space activities with generally recognized principles and norms of international law;
• – freedom of space for scientific research;
• – use of the moon and other celestial bodies only for peaceful purposes;
• – international responsibility of states for all national space activities;
• – international responsibility of states for damage caused by space objects;
• – cooperation and mutual assistance of states in the exploration and use of space;
• – maintaining state jurisdiction and control over state space objects;
• – the duty of states to prevent space pollution.

Key terms and concepts

International Space Law; space; partially demilitarized zone; celestial bodies; complete neutralization; geostationary orbit; delimitation of air and outer space; space object; astronaut; space activities; launching state; international liability for damage caused by space objects; international direct television broadcasting; Earth remote sensing; nuclear power sources; non-governmental legal entities; commercial space activities; private international space law; International warranty for mobile equipment.

The formation of international space law

International space law – it's a collection international principles and norms establishing the legal regime of outer space and celestial bodies and regulating the rights and obligations of subjects of international law in the field of exploration and use of outer space and celestial bodies.

International space law, according to doctrinal assessment, has gone through three stages of development and is currently at the fourth stage.

First stage (1957–1967) begins with the development of the foundations of international space law. Pioneers in this area were the Soviet lawyer Korovin (1934) and the Czech lawyer Mandl (1932).

International documents appeared after the launch in the USSR on October 4, 1957 of the first artificial Earth satellite in the history of mankind and the establishment in 1958 as a subsidiary body of the UN General Assembly of the Special Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (resolution 1348 (XIII) of December 13 1958). The first session of this committee was fruitless; it was boycotted by the USSR, Poland, Czechoslovakia, India and Egypt. The reason for this was inadequate representation in the committee of socialist and developing countries (three from each group) and the United States and its allies (12 countries). This injustice was eliminated in UN General Assembly resolution 1472 (XIV) of December 12, 1959 (the committee included 24 states - 7 socialist, 7 developing and 10 capitalist). This body of the UN GA received a new name - the Committee on the Peaceful Uses and Research of Outer Space (hereinafter referred to as the UN Committee on Outer Space), and acquired permanent status.

Since that time, the Committee has held annual sessions, and in 1962 it established the Legal and Scientific and Technical Subcommittees, which also meet annually. Since 1962, the Committee has made decisions by consensus. As of 2014, it already includes 76 states.

The first resolutions prepared with the participation of the UN Committee on Outer Space formulated the following principles governing space activities:

• – international law, including the UN Charter, applies to outer space and celestial bodies;
• – outer space and celestial bodies are available for exploration and use by states in accordance with international law and are not subject to appropriation by states;
• – States launching vehicles into orbit or beyond are requested to provide information to the UN Committee on Outer Space for registration of launches;

The UN Secretary-General is requested to maintain a publicly accessible record of information provided by launching states;

• – communications via satellites should become available to all states on a worldwide basis that excludes discrimination;
• – the expressed intention of the United States and the USSR not to place in outer space any objects containing nuclear weapons or other weapons of mass destruction and a call on all states to follow this intention and refrain from installing such weapons on celestial bodies or placing such weapons in outer space in some other way.
• On December 13, 1963, the PLO General Assembly adopted the Declaration of Legal Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space (resolution 1962 (XVIII)). It reflected the provisions of previous resolutions and a number of other principles.

The text of this Declaration, which is of a recommendatory nature, formed the basis of the Treaty on the Principles of the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, which is legally binding for the participating states. The agreement was signed on January 27, 1967 in Moscow, Washington and London and came into force on October 10 of the same year. As of 2014, 103 states are parties to the Treaty.

The adoption of the Outer Space Treaty completed the first stage in the development of international space law. It became new industry international law, reflecting specific sectoral principles in this area of ​​international relations:

• – the exploration and use of space is carried out for the benefit and in the interests of all countries and is the property of all humanity;
• – outer space and celestial bodies are open for research and use by all states;
• – outer space and celestial bodies are free for scientific research;
• – outer space and celestial bodies are not subject to national appropriation;
• – outer space and celestial bodies are explored and used in accordance with international law, including the UN Charter, in the interests of maintaining peace and international security and development of international cooperation;
• – states undertake not to put into orbit objects with nuclear weapons or other types of weapons of mass destruction;
• – The moon and other celestial bodies are used exclusively for peaceful purposes;
• – astronauts are considered humanity’s messengers into space;
• – States bear international responsibility for all national space activities and damage caused by space objects.

To these principles should be added the prohibition of nuclear weapons testing in outer space in accordance with the Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapons Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space and Under the Sea of ​​1963.

Second stage (1968–1979) The formation of international space law is characterized by its rapid development. During this period, the Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts, the Return of Astronauts and the Return of Objects Launched into Outer Space of 1968, the Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects, 1972, the Convention on the Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space, 1975 were adopted. ., Agreement concerning the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies of 1979.

Space activities are gaining economic character. International organizations are being created to testify to the commercialization of space activities: the Agreement on International organization satellite telecommunications "Intelsat" 1971, Agreement establishing international system and the Intersputnik Space Communications Organization 1971, which was revised in 1997, the Inmarsat Convention on the International Maritime Satellite Communications Organization 1976, which was revised in 1996, the European Space Agency 1975.

In 1968, the first UN World Conference on the Exploration and Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (UNISPACE-1) was held in Vienna.

Space activities have been an integral part of weapons development from the very beginning. Work is underway to create strike satellite systems and anti-satellite weapons. In 1977, the Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Means of Coercion was concluded. natural environment, which, in particular, contains the obligation not to resort to military or any other hostile use of means on the natural environment that have widespread, long-term or serious consequences, as methods of destruction, damage or harm. The concept of "environmental manipulation" refers to the deliberate manipulation of natural processes to change the dynamics, composition or structure of the Earth or outer space.

At this stage, the successful rule-making activities of the UN Committee on Outer Space are completed, since due to contradictions between various groups of states it is not possible to develop legally binding acts.

At the same time, on third stage (1980–1996) important resolutions of the UN General Assembly are adopted, containing declarations of a recommendatory nature, but having great moral and political significance. The Principles for the Use by States of Artificial Earth Satellites for International Direct Television Broadcasting (1982), the Principles Relating to Remote Sensing of the Earth from Outer Space (1986), the Principles Relating to the Use of Nuclear Power Sources in Outer Space (1992) were approved and the Declaration on International Cooperation in Research was adopted and the use of outer space for the benefit and benefit of all nations, with particular regard to the needs of developing countries (1996).

At the third stage, the struggle to prevent the military use of space continued. In 1981, the USSR submitted to the UN a draft Treaty on the Prohibition of the Placement of Weapons of Any Kind in Outer Space, and in 1983, a draft Treaty on the Prohibition of the Use of Force in Outer Space and from Outer Space in Relation to the Earth. Both projects were transferred to the Conference on Disarmament, but were not discussed on their merits.

In 1987, the Guidelines Concerning the Transfer of Sensitive Missile-Related Equipment and Technology (MTCR) were adopted. The MTCR regime currently unites more than 30 states, including the United States and Russia. The MTCR regime represents a gentleman's agreement "on unilateral restraint" in transferring to third countries ballistic missiles and their technologies.

In 1982, the second UN World Conference on the Exploration and Peaceful Uses of Outer Space UNISPACE-P was held in Vienna, the main result of which was the expansion of the UN Program on Space Applications.