1 studies economics. What does economics study? Fundamentals and concept of economic science

Types of economic systems

Functions of economic science

Economic science performs the following number of functions:

Objects of economic science

According to the scale of the field of study, economic science is divided into microeconomics, which studies the activities of firms, households, individual industries and states, and macroeconomics, which studies the national economy as a whole. In recent years in scientific literature the concepts of “nanoeconomics” (studies the activities of individual economic entities), mesoeconomics (industries, regions), intereconomics ( world economy) and mega-economy (world economy).

Methodology of economic science

Economics uses standard methods of dialectics and logic. TO general scientific methods Research of economic processes includes methods such as:

General ideological method is

materialist dialectics

Among private methods studies highlight:

graphic,
statistical,
mathematical,
modeling,
comparative analysis,
economic experiment,

Marxism

From the point of view of political economy, economics is:

basis - production relations
national economy, including industries
science that studies both previous points

Economy as a set public relations, is the basis for the development of society. Any method of production is expressed through a system industrial relations. In political economy, attention is paid to the way of connecting the direct producer with the means of production, ownership of the means of production. Industrial relations are enshrined in laws, and close interaction between economics and politics is inevitable.

Economics

How to produce

For almost any product or service, there are multiple production methods. Cars, for example, can be made in highly automated factories with huge amounts of capital equipment and relatively little labor, but they can also be made in small factories using large number labor and only some general purpose machines. Ford cars are manufactured using the first method, and Lotus cars using the second method. The same can be said about education. Economics can be taught in a small class with one teacher at the blackboard working with twenty students, but the same subject can be taught using computer technology distance learning simultaneously for hundreds of students.

Efficiency is the main criterion when deciding how to produce. In everyday speech, the word efficiency means that production occurs with minimal costs, effort and losses. Economists use a more precise definition. The term economic efficiency denotes a state of affairs in which it is impossible to make a single change that more fully satisfies the desires of one person without harming the satisfaction of the desires of another person. Efficiency defined in this way is sometimes called Pareto efficiency, named after the Italian economist Vilfredo Pareto. If there is a way to improve your situation without harming anyone, then passing by such an opportunity is pointless (ineffective). If I have a fountain pen with which I at the moment I don’t use it, and you need this pen, then it would be wasteful on your part to buy your own pen. It would be much more effective to lend you my pen; it improves your situation and does not worsen mine. When there is a way to improve the situation of both parties, then not taking advantage of this opportunity is a waste. You lend me a bicycle, and I will lend you a volleyball. If I don't ride my bike very often and you don't play volleyball very often, then it's not worth it for both of us to buy these things.

Efficiency in production is a situation in which, given productive resources and the existing level of knowledge, it is impossible to produce more one good without sacrificing the ability to produce some quantity of another good.

Who should do what work: Social division of labor

The question of who should do what work is related to the organization of the social division of labor. Can every person be a universal - a farmer in the morning, a tailor in the afternoon and a poet in the evening? Or should people work together, exchange goods and services, and specialize in different jobs? Economists answer this question on the basis that cooperation is more efficient. It allows any given number of people to produce more than if each of them worked alone. Three things make cooperation valuable: collaboration, learning by doing, and comparative advantage.

Working together allows you to do things that would take a long time or be impossible to do alone. An example would be workers unloading bulky bales from a truck. The bales are so large that one worker may have difficulty dragging the bale along the ground, or may not be able to move the bale at all without unpacking it. Two people working independently would have to spend several hours unloading. However, if they work together, they can lift bales and stack them in the warehouse.

The job may require you to perform different tasks using different skills. In a furniture factory, for example, some workers operate the production equipment, others work in the office, and the rest purchase materials. Even if all the workers start out with equal ability, each of them gradually improves his ability to do a particular job, which he repeats often. Learning by doing thus turns average-performing workers into specialists, resulting in a high-performing team.

When a worker already has some special skills, the division of labor will occur in accordance with comparative advantage - the ability to perform a job or produce a product at a relatively lower opportunity cost.

For whom to produce goods

Efficiency in distribution. Question " for whom?» has a direct bearing on efficiency. The distribution of any given quantity of a good can be improved through an exchange that results in the preferences of several people being more fully satisfied. As long as it is possible to exchange existing goods such that some people can satisfy their desires without harming other people, allocative efficiency can be improved even if the total quantity of goods remains unchanged.

Efficiency in distribution and efficiency in production are two aspects of the general concept economic efficiency. If we take both aspects into account, it turns out that the relationship between distribution and efficiency is not limited only to those cases in which the total quantity of goods is constant. This is the case because the rules of distribution influence the course of action of the subjects of production. For example, the supply of productive resources depends on distribution rules because most people make a living by selling their labor force and other factors of production to business firms, and the quantity of these factors they supply depends on the amount of remuneration promised to them. Another reason is that distribution rules affect entrepreneurial incentives. Some people may work hard to find new methods of production even if they do not expect financial reward for it, but not all people are like that.

Fairness in distribution. In practice, the issue of fairness often dominates over efficiency in distributional discussions. According to the concept of equality, all people, by the very fact of belonging to humanity, deserve to receive a portion of the goods and services produced by the economy. There are many variations of this theory. Some people believe that all income and wealth should be shared equally. Others believe that people are entitled to a “minimum essential” level of income, but that any surplus above this level should be distributed based on different standards. There is also the view that certain goods - services, food and education - should be distributed equally, while other goods may not be distributed equally.

An alternative view, which has many adherents, is that justice depends on the mechanism of distribution itself. From this point of view, certain principles must be respected, such as the right to private property and the absence of racial and sexual discrimination. If these principles are met, then any distribution resulting from them is considered acceptable. Equality of opportunity, from this perspective, is more important than equality of income.

Positive and normative economics

Many economists [ Who?] draw a clear line between issues of efficiency and fairness. Discussions about efficiency are seen as part of positive economic theory, which deals with facts and real dependencies. Discussions about justice are part of normative economics, that is, that branch of science that makes judgments about whether particular economic conditions and policies are good or bad.

Normative economic theory relates not only to the problem of fairness in the distribution of the product. Value judgments are also possible about the remaining three basic choices made by every economic system: when deciding what to produce, whether it is fair to allow tobacco production, and alcoholic drinks, and at the same time ban the production of marijuana and cocaine? When making choices about “how to produce,” is it possible to allow people to work in dangerous or harmful conditions, or should work in these conditions be prohibited? When deciding who will do what work, is it fair to limit access to different types of work based on age, gender, or race? Regulatory issues span all aspects of the economy.

Positive theory Without offering any value judgments, it focuses on the processes through which people obtain answers to four basic economic questions. This theory analyzes the operation of the economy, the influence of certain institutions and political actions on the economic system. Positive science traces connections between facts and looks for measurable patterns in ongoing processes.

Coordination of economic elections

For an economy to function, it must have some way of coordinating the choices of millions of people about what to produce, how to produce it, who should do what work, and for whom the product is produced. There are two main ways to carry out coordination:

spontaneous order in which individuals adapt their actions to conditions based on information and stimuli from their immediate environment;
hierarchy in which individual actions are subject to instructions from a central authority.

In economic theory, the main example of the action of spontaneous order is the coordination of decisions in the process of market activity. A market is any interaction in which people enter into trading with each other. Despite the wide variety of forms, all markets have one common feature: They represent the information and incentives that people need to make decisions.

Just as buyers need information about the length of queues to coordinate their actions, market participants need information about the scarcity and opportunity costs of various goods and factors of production. Markets convey information primarily in the form of prices. If a good or factor of production becomes scarcer, its price rises. Rising prices give consumers a signal that they need to save this product, and producers begin to strive to produce more of this product. Suppose, for example, that the discovery of a new use for platinum brought new buyers into the market. Platinum is becoming rarer than before in relation to the surge in demand. Competition for this resource leads to an increase in its price. This fact carries a “message”: it is necessary to save platinum where possible, and in addition it is necessary to increase platinum production. Or, conversely, suppose that new technology lowered the cost of producing platinum. Information about this instantly spreads to the market in the form of a lower price. In this case, people will increase their use of platinum, and producers of this metal will transfer part of their resources to the production of other, more necessary goods.

In addition to knowing how to use the resource in the best possible way, people also need incentives to act on this information. Markets, again, with the help of prices, powerfully stimulate the sale of goods and productive resources exactly where this sale will occur at the highest price; price incentives also make people want to buy goods at low prices. Profit considerations force managers to improve production methods and develop products that satisfy consumer needs. Workers who work where they are most productive and take advantage of new opportunities earn the highest wages. Consumers who are well informed and spend their money wisely live more comfortably on a given budget.

Adam Smith, often called the father of economics, saw the achievement of spontaneous order in the market as the basis for prosperity and progress. In a famous section of his book The Wealth of Nations, he called markets the “invisible hand” that assigns people exactly the economic roles they can play best. To this day, understanding the enormous importance of markets as a means of coordinating elections remains a core feature of economic thinking.

Hierarchy and power. Markets are an important, but not the only means of economic coordination. The most important examples of this are decisions made within private firms and government agencies. It should be noted that the “invisible hand” carries out control market economy (this is the so-called structureless management), which means that the action of the “invisible hand” is subjective in nature, that is, decisions on price changes are made by specific people, and not by the “invisible hand”.

In a hierarchical system, order is established not through spontaneous (more precisely, independent) actions of isolated individuals, but through directives that managers send to their subordinates (so-called structural management). Prices usually do not play a big role in conveying information. Instead of prices, various statistics, reports, instructions and rules apply. Material incentives such as bonuses and raises influence subordinates, but these bonuses have little to do with market prices. For employees, the main incentive to submit to managers is the fact that they have agreed to this subordination as a condition of their entry into the organization.

Although business firms and government agencies are internally organized as hierarchies, they communicate with each other in markets. Thus, markets and hierarchies play complementary roles in achieving economic coordination. Some economic systems are based primarily on the market, others on hierarchy. For example, in centrally planned systems such as former USSR, special meaning has central authority. Market systems such as the United States operate largely on a spontaneous basis (though this is not entirely precise definition, because the elements are an uncontrollable process). But no economy uses exclusively one mode of coordination. Both approaches are widely studied in both macroeconomics and microeconomics. Both the market and the hierarchy of power are not perfect mechanisms, and therefore the object of economics is such categories as market failure and state failure.

Recently, it has not been customary to separate these methods of coordination. A planned economy and a market economy are two parts of one economic system. So, in market economy Directive (structural) management and planning are often used. Conversely, in a planned economy there is such a thing as price, and through it the inter-industry balance is regulated.

Notes

Literature

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Codes in knowledge classification systems

State rubricator of scientific and technical information (GRNTI) (as of 2001): 06 ECONOMY. ECONOMICS

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This means that the object of study of this science is the economic life of society.

The subject of its analysis should be distinguished from the object of study of economic science.

If the object of research always remains economic activity, then the subject of analysis can be various aspects economic activity people, which depends primarily on the ideological orientation of the researcher, his goals and intentions. Thus, mercantilists saw the subject of science in the study of the trade balance, physiocrats - in the study of the “net product” in agriculture, representatives of classical political economy - in the accumulation of wealth of the nation, Marxists - in the study of production relations and economic laws governing social production, distribution, exchange and consumption, marginalists - in search of the most effective ways distribution of limited resources and rational management.

In the formation and development of economic science, three stages can be traced, each of which is represented by one of three names: political economy, economics, economic theory. Historically, the first scientific school that claimed the role of economic science was political economy in 1615.

The official history of Russian political economy begins in the first year XIX century, when German professor H.A., invited to Moscow University. Schletser taught a course in political economy. In 1803, by Decree of Alexander I, political economy was included in the regulations of the Russian Academy of Sciences. In 1805-1806 The first textbook on political economy in Russian, written by Schletser, was published in Russia.

The end of the 19th - the beginning of the 20th century. marked a new fork in economic science. The rejection of the theory of labor value, which was replaced by the theory of marginal utility, led to the emergence of a new scientific school with the appropriate name - “economics”.

In 1902, A. Marshall taught the course “Economics” for the first time at the University of Cambridge, thereby replacing the course on political economy classical school J.S. Mill. Since then, in the West, political economy has lost its monopoly position. Economics as a science is the theory and practice of market organization of production.

Russia's transition to the formation of a civilized market has made this branch of economic knowledge in demand here too.

Economics is a conglomerate of different scientific schools that have a unifying principle laid down in the works of A. Smith: they are based on the principle of rationality, which is guided by “ economic man» in its business activities.

Political economy and economics have different methodological roots. Political economy studies deep cause-and-effect relationships in production in order to reveal its essential characteristics. Its key category is cost. Economics studies superficial relationships and describes functional dependencies based on the principle of rationalization of consumer choice. For economics, the key category is price.

This means that political economy is focused on studying the essence of economic laws and categories. Economics as an academic discipline is focused on the study of functional dependencies in economics.

What they have in common is that both political economy and economics, despite different approaches to the study of the economic life of society (essential - in political economy and functional in economics), study the same industrial-market type of economy.

During the period of formation of the information technology method of production, new questions arise for economic science. The answer to them can only be obtained by using the scientific potential of both political economy and economics. The new analysis must be based on a new conceptual framework and have a new version of the name that is adequate to it, which is “economic theory.” The object of her research is the features of the post-industrial economic system, the most common socio-economic form of which is the mixed market economy.

It is important to take into account that economic activity and economic relations between people, developing in its process, have two sides - the objective, determined primarily by property relations, and the subjective, manifested in the economic behavior of different economic entities (individuals, firms, states). This means that economic theory covers the entirety of these relations. Their OBJECTIVE side is associated with the action of objective economic laws; SUBJECTIVE - with rational management based on knowledge of these laws.

Taking into account the above, the purpose of economic theory could be defined as follows:

ECONOMIC THEORY STUDIES THE OBJECTIVE LAWS OF ECONOMIC CONDUCT AND THE RATIONAL BEHAVIOR OF ECONOMIC ENTITIES AT DIFFERENT LEVELS AND IN DIFFERENT HISTORICAL ERAS. So, economic theory, firstly, studies economic laws.

What is economic LAW?

In economic research, scientists have to deal not only with individual, isolated facts, but also with a large array of them. Facts must be classified and generalized, which is achieved by the method of induction (from the Latin inductio - guidance), i.e. logical inference from particular, isolated cases to a general conclusion.

Generalizations are checked by the opposite method, called deduction (from the Latin deductio - deduction), i.e. logical inference from general judgments to particular conclusions.

REPEATEDLY TESTED AND CONFIRMED GENERALIZATIONS OF ECONOMIC PROCESSES ARE USED TO BE CALLED LAWS.

They express the necessary stable regular dependencies between the properties of economic phenomena and processes and are objective.

Behind economic facts, individual and generalized, are the economic activities of people and the relationships that people enter into in the process of this activity.

THIS MEANS, ECONOMIC LAWS ARE A FORM OF EXPRESSION OF ECONOMIC RELATIONS. THEY ARE THE LAWS OF THE SOCIAL ACTIONS OF PEOPLE.

Economic laws are social, social, and in this way they differ from the laws of nature.

The second difference is that natural laws are eternal, while economic laws are historically limited. Depending on the duration of action, economic laws are divided into specific and general.

Specific economic laws are characteristic of each individual formation. For example, the laws of distribution of material wealth under slavery or feudalism.

General economic laws operate in all economic formations. For example, the law of growth of labor productivity, the law of saving time, etc.

The purpose of economic theory is, secondly, that it studies the rational behavior of economic entities.

Rational behavior is behavior aimed at achieving maximum results under existing constraints.

This means that individuals maximize the satisfaction of their needs, businesses maximize profits, while the state must maximize social welfare. The principle of economic rationality is based on a comparison of benefits and costs and allows us to achieve an equilibrium state in a market economy.

From the definition of the subject of economic theory, it follows, thirdly, that it studies economic laws at different economic levels.

IN MICROECONOMICS, the smallest economic unit - a separate company, association, etc. - is taken as the basis for the analysis.

MESOECONOMICS studies the laws and behavior of certain subsystems of the national economy or sectors of the national economy (agriculture, military-industrial complex, regional economy, etc.).

MACROECONOMICS examines the economy of a country as a whole. The objects of macroeconomics are the income and wealth of society, the rate and factors of economic growth, etc. Macroanalysis is aimed at solving national economic problems: fighting inflation, unemployment, stimulating business activity, etc.

MEGAECONOMICS studies the laws and behavior of the global economy as a whole.

From the definition of the subject of economic theory, it follows, fourthly, that it studies the laws of rational management and the behavior of economic entities in different historical eras. However, economists do not have a common opinion in classifying world history into different eras.

Thus, Marxist theory identifies five socio-economic formations (primitive society, slavery, feudalism, capitalism, communism) and examines the operation of economic laws in each of them.

Modern science classifies differently world history and to study it uses other approaches, which are outlined in question 8.

ECONOMIC THEORY, LIKE ANY OTHER SCIENCE, USES DIFFERENT FORMS AND METHODS OF KNOWLEDGE, WHICH FORM A METHODOLOGY, INCLUDING METHODS FOR STUDYING ECONOMIC LIFE. THEY CAN BE DIVIDED INTO GENERAL SCIENTIFIC AND SPECIFIC.

GENERAL SCIENTIFIC METHODS ARE DIALECTICAL-MATERIALIST PRINCIPLES FOUNDED BY ANCIENT GREEK PHILOSOPHERS AND DEVELOPED BY SUBSEQUENT GENERATIONS OF SCIENTISTS. ACCORDING TO THESE METHODS, ALL ECONOMIC PROCESSES ARE CONTRADICTORY AND ARE IN CONSTANT MOTION.

When studying these processes, a combination of historical and logical approaches is used.

The logical (theoretical) approach to studying these same phenomena does not serve as a mirror reflection of their historical path. It involves penetration into the essence of the phenomenon being studied | and abstraction, i.e. abstraction from its secondary properties, j As a result, a scientific idea of this phenomenon arises, i.e. a logical concept or economic category is formed, for example, product, price, money, competition, etc. This method study is called the method of scientific abstraction,

PARTICULAR METHODS OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE INCLUDE: OBSERVATIONS, PROCESSING OF OBTAINED MATERIAL THROUGH SYNTHESIS AND ANALYSIS, INDUCTION AND DEDUCTION, CONSTRUCTION OF A SYSTEM OF LAWS AND CATEGORIES, THEIR TESTING, CONDUCTING EXPERIMENTS, CONSTRUCTION OF MODELS , THEIR MATHEMATICAL FORMALIZATION, ETC.

Mathematical models are expressed using graphs and mathematical equations. It should be noted, however, that the fascination with abstract mathematical models may create a false impression of the real economic situation, especially if the model contains poorly processed economic indicators.

Economic theory is closely related to such sciences as history, philosophy, statistics, mathematics, etc. It occupies a central place in the system of economic sciences.

Economic theory fulfills four important functions: cognitive, methodological, practical and ideological.

Being a social science, it must answer three questions: WHAT to produce? HOW to produce? FOR WHOM TO PRODUCE?

In a command economy, all these issues are decided by central government bodies. In a market economy, the government is assigned the obligation to take part only in solving the third task by drawing up and implementing social programs and redistributing income. All other issues are resolved through the market. Firms produce those goods that generate the greatest income. This resolves the question of WHAT to produce. They use those technologies that provide the lowest costs. This solves the question of HOW to produce. The population adjusts their purchases to the prices of goods and their incomes. This resolves the question of WHOM to produce for.

Of course, this simple scheme becomes more complicated in life, but the essence does not change.

1. Economic theories developed in search of answers to questions posed by economic practice. During theory modeling, the researcher uses positive and normative statements. A positive statement describes what was, what is, and what can be. A normative statement is an opinion about what ought to be, and it is usually derived from the positive. Theories are formulated as positive statements.

2. Economic policy is determined on the basis of economic theory. Its task is to find options and mechanisms for solving economic problems.

3. In the course of implementing economic policy, all economic system, which, in turn, raises economic theory to a new level.

The concept of economic science

It is human nature to want to understand the world around us and the processes occurring in it. This is initially caused by a reflex of self-preservation or safety. After all primitive man studied the world around me. to avoid danger and maintain your livelihood.

Times have changed. But the approach to the need to study the world around us remained almost at a reflexive level. Only the motivation has changed somewhat. Now man studies for rational use knowledge about the world around us in order to obtain maximum benefit.

Among the sciences that help a person organize his activities is economics. The peculiarity of the term “economy” lies in the duality of its meaning.

Definition 1

The economy is the totality of all enterprises and industries certain territory in their interaction and taking into account the entire system of socio-economic relations.

In other words, economics is a synonym for the term “economy”. But this term is also used to designate a branch of science.

Economics is a branch of science that studies the theoretical foundations of economic activity, the patterns of production, accumulation, distribution and consumption of manufactured products and forms a system of economic categories, concepts and theories.

Like any science, economics (or rather, economic theory) has its own structure. Back in Ancient Greece, where economics was called the art of estate management, catallactics and chremastics were distinguished in its composition.

Catallactics was the name given to the art of exchanging goods (that is, the art of trade).

Khremastics was the art of accumulating money and property.

Currently, in economics there are areas that are engaged in research following processes: production, distribution, exchange, consumption. In the 19th century, the Swiss economist L. Walras identified the following sections in the structure of economic science:

clean economics;
applied economics;
social economics.

According to his views, pure economics studied questions of exchange value. Applied economics was supposed to study social production from the point of view of the division of labor. Issues of distribution of produced goods were to be the responsibility of social economics.

Currently, most scientists identify the following structural components in the system of economic science (economic theory):

methodology of economic science;
microeconomics;
macroeconomics;
world economics or mega-economy;
econometrics;
game theory.

Note 1

The methodology of economic science is the doctrine of the diversity of methods (methods) scientific knowledge economic processes and socio-economic relations and their optimal combination in practice.

Microeconomics

Microeconomics is a branch of economic theory that studies the activities of individual economic entities in the process of production, distribution and consumption of economic goods and explores certain types of markets.

Therefore, microeconomics considers the problems of consumers (choice of goods) and the problem of choice of producers (what to produce and how). In addition, microeconomics studies market structure and market equilibrium issues. These studies explain the mechanism of price formation and its dynamics.

Microeconomics also considers issues externalities production activities. An important place in microeconomic research is occupied by the study of the existence of public economic goods. Indeed, in some cases they can cause the inefficiency of the economic system.

Macroeconomics

Macroeconomics is a branch of economic theory that studies the totality of economic phenomena and the functioning of the economy as an integral economic system, taking into account the socio-political situation.

The scope of macroeconomics includes issues such as:

economic growth;
the cyclical nature of economic development;
the phenomenon of unemployment;
causes and consequences of inflationary processes;
the role of money and monetary circulation;
formation of the state budget;
formation of the state trade balance.

The answers to all these questions help in shaping state economic policy. Thanks to macroeconomics, it is possible to consider all processes in a comprehensive manner. After all, all enterprises and organizations of the state are interconnected into a single economic complex.

Economics of the world economy (mega-economy)

World economics (megaeconomics or international economics) is a branch of economic science that studies the patterns of economic processes on a global scale.

Data from this branch of science help shape the foreign and international policies of states and interstate associations. Megaeconomic research allows us to predict global economic and socio-political trends. Thanks to this branch of science, it has become possible to improve and regulate global integration processes.

Note 2

Some scientists distinguish econometrics and game theory separately as branches of economics. Other scientists classify them as economic methods or as part of the mega-economy.

Econometrics is a science that, using mathematical methods and statistics, studies the quality and quantity of economic relationships.

Game theory is a mathematical method for studying the application of optimal strategy in a game.

These two components make it possible to assess the processes occurring in the economy and develop the right decision. In this case, possible quantitative and qualitative losses should be taken into account. And game theory gives positive results in developing an economic strategy in the market. After all, any activity of a business entity in the market is comparable to a game. The only question is the rates. But the problem of obtaining maximum benefit is one of the main issues of economic theory.

The word "economy" has Ancient Greek origin. It is a combination of two Greek words “economy” and “law”, so that in the literal, original sense, the economy should be interpreted as business conducted in accordance with laws, rules, regulations. At the same time, we must remember that the economy in Ancient Greece was mainly subsistence, domestic, so the economy of that period was not thought of as national economy country, but rather as home economics. In the literature on economics, in explanatory dictionaries the term “economy” in its original interpretation is usually characterized as “ the art of housekeeping».

For more than two millennia, the meaning of the term, the very concept of “economy” has significantly enriched and changed. Much more is now invested in this concept than was originally laid down by the Greek philosopher Xenophon.

Modern interpretation of the term "Economy":

Firstly, the economy like a farm in the broad sense of the word, that is, the totality of all means, objects, things, substances of material and spiritual world, used by people to ensure living conditions and meet needs. In this sense, the economy must be perceived as a life support system created and used by man, reproducing people’s lives, maintaining and improving living conditions.

Secondly, the economy like science, a body of knowledge about the economy and related human activities, about the use of various, most often limited, resources in order to meet the vital needs of people and society; about the relationships that arise between people in the process of managing.

In order to terminologically divide economics as an economy and as a science, the word “economics” in foreign, primarily English, literature is divided into two: “ economy" And " economics" The first means economics, that is, economics in its direct, natural manifestation, and the second + economic science, or rather, . This division contributes to greater clarity and certainty in understanding the economy.

Along with the objective perception of the economy as an economic system and the idea of the economy as a body of knowledge about the economic system, some authors tend to see in the word “economy” also third meaning. They characterize the economy as the relationships that arise between people in connection with the processes of production, distribution, exchange, consumption of goods and during these processes.

So overall economy- this is economy, the science of economy and management and relationships between people in the process of management. Well, as already mentioned, the economy should include everything that is included by people in the orbit of actions aimed at obtaining and using means of subsistence and satisfying vital needs.

Economic science

social science. It studies a certain aspect of social life and as such is closely related to other social sciences: history, jurisprudence, etc. In particular, the connection between economics and jurisprudence is due to the fact that in the economic life of society, economic and legal relations are closely intertwined. The economy cannot function normally without appropriate legal basis— a set of norms regulating the activities of economic entities at both the micro and macro levels. At the same time, the very need for appropriate legal norms is generated by changes occurring in the economic life of society.

Satisfy all people's needs? Can economic activity be measured? How does the economy develop - spontaneously or according to its own laws?

Economics is the most complex sphere of social life. Its numerous and varied manifestations make it difficult to accurately define the concept of “economy”. Let's try to consider the most general ideas about this area public life, reflecting the views of theoreticians and practitioners.

You became familiar with the concept of “economics” in primary school. Let us remember that it is necessary to distinguish its double meaning. This word is used to characterize both economic activity and the science of the laws of such activity. Compare two different definitions used to characterize the same word "economy".

Economy - is an economic system that ensures the satisfaction of the needs of people and society by creating and using the necessary goods of life.

Economy - the science of farming, methods of running and managing it, relationships between people in the process of production and exchange of goods, patterns of economic processes. To better understand and grasp the meaning of each of the definitions, let's look at them in more detail, starting with the second.

WHAT DOES ECONOMICS STUDY?

People began to think about economic problems long before our era. The word "economics" is of Greek origin and was first used by the ancient Greek author Xenophon (c. 430-355 or 354 BC) as the title of his treatise. And only a little over three hundred years ago scientists appeared who began to generalize and systematize knowledge about economic reality. This was the time of the formation of a market economy.

Why did economics appear then?

This is due to the fact that for most of human history, basic economic issues (what, how and for whom to produce) were most often decided either in accordance with traditions and customs, or by order of the head of state. Therefore, people's actions were predetermined and predictable and there was no need for economic science. In a market economy, decisions on basic economic issues began to be made by a free, independent producer. Scientists were interested in how this “free and self-regulating” economic system works, according to what laws economic processes take place in it. Economic science as an occupation of professional scientists arose along with the market economy.

Economists have sought to study both the general relationships of large elements of a market economy (for example, employment, foreign trade, state economic policy) and individual problems (for example, supply and demand, market competition).

What was the focus of scientists' attention? First of all, such universal problems of economics as limited resources and economic choice (you became acquainted with these basic concepts of economic science in the social science course of the basic school).

The needs of society in connection with the increase in population, the acceleration of scientific and technological progress, the deepening of cultural ties and exchanges are constantly increasing and becoming almost limitless. On the contrary, economic opportunities - those real resources that society can direct to satisfy needs - are always, at any given moment, limited. Society is constantly faced with the need to resolve this contradiction and the problem of economic choice. With the available amount of resources, how can we better satisfy existing needs? Economics, the science of choice, is trying to solve this problem.

Economic science studies various areas and laws of economic development at different levels. Thus, the part of economic science that studies the economy as a whole is macroeconomics . Its subjects include, for example, problems of unemployment, poverty, economic growth, the role of the state in regulating the economy and protecting the interests of society.

Microeconomics is a part of economic science that studies economic relations between individual economic entities (consumers, workers, firms), their activities and impact on the national economy. She studies the choice problems faced by individual participants economic activity. For example, the interaction of consumers and producers in the market for goods and services, entrepreneurs and employees in the labor market, etc. At the same time, microeconomics studies the functioning of individual markets and industries. It explains how prices for individual goods are set, what funds and why are allocated for the construction of new enterprises, the development of industries, how the activities of industries and markets are influenced by state policy.

Both levels economic analysis(macro- and microeconomics) use of limited resources are interconnected. For example, if the reasons for the rise in prices for the products of an oil refinery are analyzed, then this is a microeconomic problem. Analysis of the decision on the state's antimonopoly policy regarding enterprises in the oil industry is the subject of macroeconomics. At the same time, the behavior of individual participants in economic activity (manufacturers, firms) largely depends on the state of affairs in the economy of the entire country.

Modern stage economic development characterized by high interdependence of national economies on a global scale. Therefore, economic theory necessarily involves consideration of the problems of the relationship of national economies with the world economy. The laws of development of the world economy are studied by an independent part of economic science - world (international) economics. The subject of her research may be international trade in goods and services, capital movements, exchange in the field of science and technology, international monetary relations, etc.

Economic science also studies the functioning and interaction of such economic institutions as the state, enterprise, family and household.

The stable, significant relationships between economic phenomena, processes, and relationships identified by scientists make it possible to solve economic problems more effectively in practice.

In the subsequent paragraphs of this chapter, you will become acquainted with the main scientific ideas and works (not only the educational text will help you with this, but also reference to the documents at the end of each paragraph) of such outstanding thinkers who contributed to economic science as A. Smith, D. Ricardo, K. Marx, D. Keynes, A. Marshall, as well as modern scientists, including representatives of the Russian school of economic thought.

ECONOMY AND ECONOMIC ACTIVITY

In the broad sense of the word, economics is a set of methods for creating conditions for the survival and progress of humanity. From this we can conclude that economic activity represents all types of economic activities of people to satisfy their needs and ensure material living conditions.

Economic activity is necessary in order to transform resources into needed economic benefits - goods and services that satisfy one or another human need and are available to society in limited quantities. Schematically, the process of transforming natural objects into consumer goods can be represented as follows:

Between various types There is a close relationship between economic activities. Thus, production and distribution cannot be separated, because the goods produced can give a useful result when they reach the consumer. Consumption is not only the goal of production, but also a stimulus for its development. It has a serious impact on the growth of production volumes and the development of certain industries.

Another component of economic activity that links production with distribution and consumption is exchange.

Exchange - an economic transaction in which one person transfers an item or product to another, receiving money or another item in return.

The various relationships that develop in the process of production and distribution of material goods are included in the concept of “economic sphere of society.” (Remember what other spheres of society are distinguished and how they are related to the economy.)

Solution success main problem economics - determining the most effective ways to use limited resources - largely depends on the rules, principles" of organizing activities. Thus, for several centuries the world of economics has been governed by one of the basic principles - the principle of rationality, which allows you to choose decisions based on the desire to obtain the greatest economic results with with the minimum possible expenditure of all the resources necessary for this. (Compare the forms of farming familiar to you from history: natural and commercial. Which of them more fully takes into account the principle of rationality? Which is more effective?)

The results of economic activity depend not only on the general principles of its organization, but also on the so-called economic mechanisms, i.e., ways and forms of people combining their efforts in solving life support problems. Such important mechanisms of the economy are, for example, division of labor and specialization, trade. (Think about how these familiar ways of people collaborating influence the content and results of economic activity.)

People satisfy their needs for goods and services either by producing them themselves or by exchanging produced products for necessary goods and services. Therefore, in order to improve the standard of living of the population, it is necessary to find ways to increase production volume. There are two such ways: to expand the volume of use of economic resources or to increase the efficiency of their use. An indicator or measure of how effectively available resources are used is productivity (not to be confused with labor productivity). When more quality goods are produced with the same resources, productivity increases.

Productivity is the volume of goods and services created per unit of input. Costs can be any resources involved in the production process - land, fuel, equipment costs, etc. Productivity is directly affected by the quality of labor resources ( vocational training, qualifications of employees), technologies used and the effectiveness of management decisions.

MEASURES OF ECONOMIC ACTIVITY

To measure economic activity, various economic quantities and indicators are used that characterize the state, properties, and quality of the economy, its objects, and processes. These values make it possible to find out how the processes of production, distribution, consumption are going, and what their results are.

Economic quantities and indicators can be divided into volumetric (characterize the quantity of a product) and qualitative (characterize the ratio of two quantities). You come across, for example, data that Russia sells 130 million tons of coal on the world market - this is an example of a volumetric indicator. If economists note that this year the decline in production is 90% compared to last year (for this it is necessary to compare two values), this is an example of a qualitative indicator.

Let's get acquainted with some economic indicators used to assess the level of production and development of the country's economy.

In most countries, the volume of annual production of the national economy is measured through the indicator gross national product (GNP) . This indicator has been used since 1988 in Russia.

GNP is defined as the sum of the market prices of all final products (goods and services) created by producers of a given country during the year, both domestically and abroad.

Why we're talking about only about final products? In order for the volume of the national product to be determined correctly, all products must be taken into account only once. Most goods and services go through many stages of the production process before reaching the final consumer. For example, before a book gets into the hands of readers, it must go through several technological stages - from the development of content by the author, paper production and printing to sale.

GNP includes sales of only final products (in our case, books), excluding sales of intermediate products, i.e., those used in the manufacture of the final product (in our case, paper, printing, publishing costs). This eliminates double counting and overestimation of GNP.

GNP is considered a measure of the economy as a whole, because it actually includes the value of all goods and services produced during the year. Several other indicators are calculated based on GNP: gross domestic product, net national product, national income.

Let us dwell on an indicator similar to GNP and equally frequently used - gross domestic product (GDP). This indicator of the volume of national production is defined as the sum of market prices of all final products produced during the year in the country.

By dividing a country's GDP by the number of citizens, we get an indicator called GDP per capita. Using this indicator, one can compare the degree of economic development and living standards of different countries. It is GDP per capita that is one of the main indicators of the standard of living of a nation. When production grows faster, then there are more goods and services per person in a country, and the standard of living rises. If population grows faster than production, average living standards decline.

It is necessary to clarify on what basis indicators can be used to judge the growth of gross domestic product. Economists distinguish between two indicators: real GDP, when its volume is expressed in constant prices of manufactured products; nominal GDP, when its volume is measured in current prices.

When calculating the real GDP indicator, as a rule, an adjustment is made for the level of inflation (price increases), and it will depend only on changes in real output.

When the prices of goods and services rise, nominal GDP (based on current prices) may rise even if the level of output remains unchanged or falls.

Let's assume that nominal GDP increased during the year from 200 billion rubles. up to 500 billion rubles But during the same period, prices doubled and 1 ruble during this period had a purchasing power equal to half of the previous one. We can say that GDP increased only to 250 billion rubles. (RUB 500 billion: 2). For example, in Russia from 1990 to 1999, the GDP indicator increased by more than 7 thousand times. During this time, prices increased 13,750 times (that is, almost doubled). Thus, real GDP also decreased by almost 2 times.

Since data on the volume and dynamics of GDP are usually used to judge economic growth in the country, then it is necessary to use the indicator of real gross domestic product.

Economic information obtained using various meters is the source material for analyzing the development of the country's economy and developing economic forecasts. Thus, the observed positive dynamics of GDP growth in Russia in recent years (from 2001 to 2003, this figure increased from 5 to 7.2%) allowed the government to put forward the goal of doubling GDP in the next 10 years.

In conclusion, it should be noted that the main actors in economic activity are producers and consumers. You will learn about how their actions ensure the goals and effectiveness of economic activity in the following paragraphs.

PRACTICAL CONCLUSIONS

1 Economic knowledge is necessary for every person as a consumer and as an employee. An economically literate person knows how to make decisions about purchasing goods and hiring, how to protect himself from the consequences of rising prices, how best to use his savings, what profession to choose so as not to end up unemployed later.

The lack of economic knowledge and skills to make rational decisions on their basis results in a decrease in the level of well-being, financial and losses, dissatisfaction and disappointment in economic activity for participants. professional activities, reducing opportunities to competently defend their economic rights.

2 The development of market relations in our country required new economic knowledge from their participants, without which successful practical activities and the ability to make the right economic choices in conditions of limited resources are impossible. Understanding the general nature of the functioning of the economy helps its participants to competently determine their economic policy and make reasonable economic decisions even in the most unfavorable periods of the enterprise’s activity.

3 Modern economic development of Russia depends to a large extent not only on officials or politicians, but also from the active participation of its citizens in governing the country. Your choices as a voter can influence the economic policy of the country, and your choices as a worker or consumer will determine not only your well-being, but also how the people around you will live.

DOCUMENT

Reflections on the features of the Russian school of economic thought by Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences L. I. Abalkin (from a report at a scientific conference of the Institute of Economics of the Russian Academy of Sciences and Volny economic society Russia).

Globalization, which has become the leading trend in world development, does not eliminate, but in many ways exacerbates the problems of economic, social and political progress. It removes the opposition of civilizations or formations according to the principle: higher and lower, advanced and backward. Each of them has its own merits and advantages, its own value system and its own understanding of progress... In this regard, it is necessary to return once again to understanding the special role and place in science of the Russian school of economic thought... The identity and uniqueness of the civilization that has developed in our country had a huge impact on the self-determination of the Russian school of economic thought, both in domestic and in world science. No other civilization, if we exclude the still poorly studied specifics of Asian civilization, has had approaches, moral values, and perceptions of the surrounding world and man’s place in it so different from the West. This could not but affect culture and science, especially the humanities. What is recognized in the West as an immutable truth that removes all restrictions as insignificant, is perceived quite differently and often fundamentally differently in Russian economic thought.

The world of economics is interpreted not as an eternal struggle of individuals optimizing their well-being, but as a complex, initially multi-colored complex of complementary and thereby mutually enriching processes, forms of organization and methods of management... The state is not rejected, but is organically combined with the market, the common social welfare stands above the individual success.

Science was called upon to absorb this approach, and where it did so, it was successful. Where she deviated from this rule, she (and the country) were disappointed. The 20th century, including its last decade, is clear evidence of this.

QUESTIONS AND TASKS FOR THE DOCUMENT

1. Why does the author consider it necessary to reconsider the role and place in science of the Russian school of economic thought? What determines the identity of this scientific school?
2. What are the different approaches from Western ones? moral values, views on the place of man in the world characterize, in the opinion of L. I. Abalkin, Russian civilization?
3. Can we agree with the author that the use of these approaches by economic science could ensure the success of the country’s economic development?
4. Using knowledge Recent history and the facts of the socio-economic life of Russia in the last decade, give examples that confirm the scientist’s conclusion that deviations from the approaches and values developed by Russian economists led to failures.

SELF-TEST QUESTIONS

1 What is associated with the emergence of economic science?
2. What are the main problems of economic science? Name and describe them.
3 What do macroeconomics and microeconomics study?
4 What is necessary for natural objects to be transformed into consumer goods? What is the role of economic activity in this process?
5. How can you measure and determine gross domestic product?
6 In what ways can the volume of production be increased with the limited resources available?

TASKS

1. China's GNP is higher than France's GNP. Is it possible on this basis to draw a conclusion about a better state of affairs in its economy? Explain your answer.

2 Fill out the table “Sections of economic science”.