Views of world religions on issues of life and death. Death and dying exist only in our lives

“Until we have determined our attitude towards the fact of our own death, the fear of death inevitably accompanies and colors everything we do. If, on the contrary, there is a “memory of death,” it is this memory that can reveal to us the meaning and importance of every moment of life. For example , When close person dies, my word may be his last, and with this word he will pass on to another world."

Fundamentals of the Russian social concept Orthodox Church

XII. Problems of bioethics

XII.8. The practice of removing human organs suitable for transplantation, as well as the development of resuscitation, gives rise to the problem of correctly determining the moment of death. Previously, the criterion for its occurrence was considered to be irreversible cessation of breathing and circulation.

However, thanks to the improvement of resuscitation technologies, these life-saving important functions can be artificially maintained for a long time. The act of death thus turns into a dying process, dependent on the doctor’s decision, which imposes a qualitatively new responsibility on modern medicine.
In the Holy Scriptures, death is presented as the separation of the soul from the body (Ps. 146:4; Luke 12:20). Thus, we can talk about the continuation of life as long as the activity of the organism as a whole continues. Prolongation of life by artificial means, in which only individual organs actually act, cannot be considered as an obligatory and in all cases a desirable task of medicine. Delaying the hour of death sometimes only prolongs the suffering of the patient, depriving a person of the right to a decent, “ shameless and peaceful "death, which Orthodox Christians ask the Lord during worship. When active therapy becomes impossible, palliative care (pain management, care, social and psychological support), as well as pastoral care, should take its place. All this aims to ensure a truly human ending to life, warmed by mercy and love.
The Orthodox understanding of a non-shameful death includes preparation for death, which is considered as a spiritually significant stage in a person’s life. The sick person, surrounded by Christian care, in last days earthly existence is able to experience a grace-filled change associated with a new understanding of the path traveled and a repentant appearance before eternity. And for the relatives of the dying person and medical workers, patient care for the sick becomes an opportunity to serve the Lord Himself, according to the words of the Savior: “ Just as you did it to one of the least of My brothers, you did it to Me. "(Matthew 25:40). Concealing information from the patient in serious condition under the pretext of preserving his spiritual comfort, he often deprives the dying person of the opportunity to consciously prepare for death and spiritual consolation gained through participation in the Sacraments of the Church, and also clouds his relationships with relatives and doctors with mistrust.
Near-death physical suffering is not always effectively eliminated by the use of painkillers. Knowing this, the Church in such cases turns to God in prayer: “ Allow Your servant the unbearable illness and bitter infirmities that contain him and give him rest, where the righteous Dusi"(Trebnik. Prayer for the long-suffering). The Lord alone is the Lord of life and death (1 Samuel 2:6). " In His hand is the soul of all living things and the spirit of all human flesh. "(Job 12:10). Therefore, the Church, remaining faithful to the observance of God’s commandment “ dont kill "(Ex. 20:13), cannot recognize as morally acceptable the attempts to legalize so-called euthanasia, which are now widespread in secular society, that is, the deliberate killing of hopelessly ill people (including at their request). The patient’s request to hasten death is sometimes due to a state of depression, which deprives him of the ability to correctly assess his situation. Recognizing the legality of euthanasia would lead to a derogation of the dignity and perversion of the professional duty of a doctor, called upon to preserve, and not to suppress, life. The “right to die” can easily turn into a threat to the lives of patients whose treatment does not have enough money.
Thus, euthanasia is a form of murder or suicide, depending on whether the patient participates in it. In the latter case, the corresponding canonical rules apply to euthanasia, according to which intentional suicide, as well as assistance in its commission, are regarded as a grave sin. A deliberate suicide, who “did this out of human resentment or on some other occasion out of cowardice,” is not awarded Christian burial and liturgical commemoration (Timothy Alex. rights. 14). If a suicide unconsciously takes his own life “out of the mind,” that is, in a fit of mental illness, church prayer it is permitted after the investigation of the case by the ruling bishop. At the same time, it must be remembered that the guilt of a suicide is often shared by the people around him, who turned out to be incapable of effective compassion and showing mercy. Together with the Apostle Paul, the Church calls: “ Bear one another's burdens and thus fulfill the law of Christ "(Gal.6:2).

Unfortunately, a topical issue of modern bioethics includes the question the relationship of the doctor, relatives and patient TO LIFE AND DEATH. Both students, young doctors, and experienced doctors give an ambiguous answer to this question. Meanwhile, this is the question in the solution of which the essence of modern medicine is revealed. The Christian knows that for each specialist he will be a personal path to eternal life or to destruction. Therefore, it is important to first find out: " What is the position of the Russian Orthodox Church on this issue?".

“Even more recently, euthanasia, which seemed like absolute nonsense in the context of the European Christian tradition, is becoming more and more common in the West. The number of countries where “ medical homicide» including euthanasia for children".

By the end of 2017: " Now the question is posed as follows: not even those who suffer from incurable diseases, but simply older people who feel melancholy and loss of meaning in life, should have the right to euthanasia. In case a person, even being healthy, simply does not feel psychologically comfortable enough. And this idea is moving forward».

An active fighter against euthanasia - a well-known specialist in the field of bioethics and human rights in the United States and far beyond its borders, a lawyer, a conservative publicist, the author of a number of books and a blogger. Wesley J. Smith. His most famous book is " Culture of Death: An Assault on Medical Ethics in America"("Culture of Death: The Assault on Medical Ethics in America"). He is a consistent opponent of euthanasia, abortion, surrogacy, cloning, the so-called “scientocracy”, radical ideology of protection environment and the dominant views on medical ethics today.

In 2007, W. Smith converted to Orthodoxy and became a parishioner of the Orthodox Church in America. He often appears on American radio and television.

Here is what he writes: “In fact, behind the scientific definition of “euthanasia”, “medical service”, “suicide” lies the grave, unforgivable sin of suicide. Many people think that euthanasia and “ physician-assisted suicide» apply exclusively to terminally ill people whose suffering can only be stopped by death. However, the very statement that “nothing more can be done” is no longer true: palliative care has made huge leaps forward over the past few decades.

Meanwhile, euthanasia in practice is used not only in relation to dying patients.

A high-profile court case that paved the way for Dutch doctors to kill mentally ill patients was associated with the name psychiatrist Shabot, who helped commit suicide for Hilly Bosser, a middle-aged woman who had lost two children (one to suicide and the other to illness) and wanted nothing more than to be “buried between them.” Having accepted Hilly as a patient, Dr. Chabot did not even try to treat her. After four appointments over five weeks, instead of treating her, he simply helped her take her own life. The Dutch Supreme Court justified the psychiatrist's actions on the grounds that suffering is suffering, be it physical or mental, so Hilly's murder is an "acceptable medical practice".

IN last years Dutch professional journals began calling on the country's psychiatrists to more actively use euthanasia. For example, an article published in the Dutch-language Dutch Journal of Psychiatry in 2011 openly recommends “assisted suicide” as a treatment for mental illness. “Medically assisted death is now acceptable for mentally ill patients, since in this way both the patients and psychiatry itself receive relief.” Euthanasia and “medically assisted death” are called “deliverance” in a professional journal of psychiatry! Apparently, psychiatrists have heeded the call to become more involved in killing patients through euthanasia. In 2012, 14 patients with severe mental illness suffered an “easy death” at the hands of their psychiatrists in the Netherlands. In 2013, the number of such patients tripled and reached 42 people.

Dutch doctors also commit infanticide, killing terminally ill newborn babies and newborns with pathologies. According to a study published by the British weekly journal for medical professionals called The Lancet, today about 8% of total number dying newborn babies are killed by doctors. A bureaucratic protocol was even published indicating how to select infants for euthanasia.

If The Netherlands 'slipped down a slippery slope', Belgium 'jumped off a cliff headfirst'. This country legalized euthanasia in 2002. The first case after its legalization was the murder of a patient with multiple sclerosis, which was a violation of the law. But it turned out that it’s okay: the laws, rather, serve as guarantees rather than limiting “medical killings.” Since 2002, Belgium has come a long way in legalizing and committing more and more radical types of euthanasia.

Isn't this the logical consequence of accepting the idea that killing is an acceptable response to human suffering?

Here are just a few examples. At least three pairs of elderly spouses who did not want to live alone after the death of one of them received an “easy death” together through euthanasia. They feared widowhood and therefore chose death. The first couple passed away in 2011. Both spouses were not seriously ill, and the “procedure” was performed with their informed consent. Another of the couples we mentioned was quite healthy, but the elderly people were simply “afraid of the future.” Moreover, euthanasia was carried out by a doctor on the recommendation of their own son, who in an interview with the British newspaper “Daily Mail” stated that his parents' death was "the best decision" since it would have been "impossible" to care for them.

Almost every society perceives it as a tragedy when elderly married couples undergo euthanasia. But in Belgium it seems to be considered a legitimate solution to the problems associated with caring for the frail elderly.

In any morally healthy society, "doctors of death" would immediately lose their license/certificate and be tried for homicide, but obviously Belgium no longer falls into this category. Anna J., who suffered from suicidal tendencies and anorexia, publicly accused the psychiatrist of forcing her to become his sex slave. The doctor admitted his guilt, but was not punished, and then Anna turned to another psychiatrist for euthanasia. She passed away at the age of 44. Nathan Verhelst, who underwent sex reassignment surgery and became a man, was extremely disappointed with the result of the operation and, out of despair, decided to resort to euthanasia. Psychiatrists in Belgium, like the Netherlands, also use euthanasia to “treat” patients with suicidal tendencies caused by mental illness. Most recently, they officially approved the request for euthanasia of physically healthy 24-year-old Laura

suffering from chronic depression and suicidal tendencies.. Belgian doctors, meanwhile, are succeeding in removing organs from mentally ill patients and patients with certain disabilities who undergo euthanasia. Most of these patients had neuromuscular diseases or mental disorders, but “ good quality organs" Ironically, one of the patients suffered from a mental illness that involved chronic self-harm. Death, removal and further transplantation of organs of deceased patients - and an international medical journal writes approvingly about all this!
I can’t imagine anything more dangerous than telling a disabled, mentally ill, desperate person that his death will be of more benefit than his life. This is what happens when society accepts such a toxic idea.

In Switzerland“legalized suicide” clinics also readily serve patients with mental illness, depression, and the disabled. Cases of “couple euthanasia” of elderly spouses who were afraid of becoming widowed and left alone have been recorded. Last year, an elderly Italian woman came to Switzerland to undergo euthanasia because she “fell into depression because she became ugly.” Moreover, the relatives found out about this only when the clinic sent them the woman’s ashes by mail.

In 2016, “thanks” to his Supreme Court Canada, most likely, will join the sad list of states that allow the use of euthanasia in relation to the mentally ill, dying and disabled. According to a recent Canadian court decision, any patient diagnosed with an incurable disease (and this includes those cases of “incurability” when the patient himself refuses treatment) has the right to euthanasia. The court proudly found that psychological pain justifies euthanasia.

When I tell all these stories, I bring various examples, they often tell me: “ Well, this will definitely never happen in America." But it has already happened! Some of the patients, or rather, victims Jack Kevorkian(famous American doctor (1928–2011) and popularizer of euthanasia, nicknamed " doctor Death".) suffered not from bodily ailments, but from mental disorders. One of his patients - Marjorie Wantz– was hospitalized in a psychiatric department: she abused the sleeping pill Halcion, which causes suicidal desires, and complained of pain in the pelvic area. An autopsy revealed that she had no physical illnesses. A well-known case occurred in 1996, when 39-year-old Rebecca Badger turned to Dr. Kevorkian to help her take her own life because she believed she had multiple sclerosis. And then the autopsy showed that Badger was physically absolutely healthy. It later turned out that the woman was being treated for alcoholism, suffered from depression and abused painkillers. And these two cases are not the only ones.

Despite the deaths of these and other people through his fault, Kevorkian's authority was and remains very high, and in 2010 a laudatory film about his life was released, main role in which he played famous actor Al Pacino.

What conclusions can be drawn about euthanasia based on the facts I have presented?

First, once euthanasia and “medically assisted suicide” become legal, they do not remain a limited initiative for long. This is not alarmism, not an alarmist assumption, but a conclusion drawn from knowledge of what happened during this time in the Netherlands, Belgium and Switzerland. There is no doubt that once euthanasia gains widespread support - from the public, from the medical community - then seemingly strict regulations aimed at preventing abuse become minor obstacles that can be easily circumvented or ignored.

Secondly, the legalization of euthanasia changes society. Not only does the category of people “eligible” for euthanasia expand, but the rest of society ceases to consider such a death to be something meaningful. This loss of sensitivity, so to speak, in turn affects people's perception of the moral worth of the seriously ill, disabled and elderly, and perhaps even of themselves.

Thirdly, euthanasia completely distorts medical ethics and undermines the role of doctors, who from persistent fighters for our lives turn into “death providers.”

Fourthly, if a person is unlucky enough to be in the “caste sentenced to death” (that is, he falls into the category of people to whom euthanasia is applied), then his human dignity is very easy to belittled to biological material, which can be used “for the benefit of society”.

These are harsh words, but let's not despair. We have an antidote to the culture of death - and it's called love. We all grow old, get sick, become weaker, and become disabled. Life can be very hard.
Euthanasia raises a fundamental question: Will our civilization retain the moral capacity to provide care and love to those who are going through a difficult period in life, or will we abandon them and condemn them to the lethal injection and the poison pill?
This question is very important, and I believe our moral future depends on the answer to it.”

Wesley Smith
Translated from English Dmitry Paw

“The mortal sins are the following: heresy, schism, apostasy from the Christian faith, blasphemy, sorcery and witchcraft, homicide and suicide, fornication, adultery, unnatural prodigal sins, drunkenness, sacrilege, robbery, theft and any cruel inhuman offense. Of the mortal sins, suicide is the only one without repentance; other mortal sins, according to the great, ineffable mercy of God towards fallen humanity, are healed by repentance ."

St. Ignatiy Brianchaninov

The alternative to euthanasia is LOVE in the form of compassion, physical assistance(including pain relief and care), spiritual and prayerful support for the sufferer

In the icon shops of the churches of the city of Barnaul you can purchase a wonderful book " THERE WILL BE NO SEPARATION"Frederike de Graaf (spiritual daughter of Metropolitan Anthony of Sourozh), who conveys practical experience of working with dying patients. This book has already helped many people. Here is an interview with the author with excerpts from the book and chapters from the book

Meeting with Frederike de Graaf, where very difficult questions are raised and resolved:

WHAT IS A CRISIS?

COMPASSION AND SUFFERING,

IS HELP POSSIBLE?

ABOUT DEPRESSION,

ABOUT HOPE AND PATIENCE,

ABOUT THE RESPONSIBILITY OF THE SICK PERSON,

ABOUT SUPPORT DURING THE TRANSITION TO ANOTHER WORLD,

ABOUT OUR FEARS and many others

Frederike de Graaf: "How does the doctor's personality affect the patient's condition?"

“There will be no separation. Life and death through the eyes of a Christian psychologist"

Meeting at the Russian Orthodox University

Nyuta Federmesser: “About the commandments of hospice and all medical institutions in general”

SIMILAR EXPERIENCE OF A DOMESTIC PSYCHOLOGIST,

WORKING IN A HOSPICE

Nyuta Federmesser: “How to grow old in Russia?”

BUT IN REAL MEDICAL PRACTICE IN "CIVILIZED COUNTRIES" SOMETHING DIFFERENT IS HAPPENING!

MEDICAL BIOETHICS APPROVES:

We offer another translated article by a famous American scientist opposing the expansion of euthanasia in the world

practice of domestic medicine

in Barnaul there are the following opportunities for providing palliative care (inpatient and at home)

Diocesan Sisterhood named after the Holy Martyr Grand Duchess Elizabeth was created in the Altai Territory. About 60 women and three men joined it, average age which is 45 years old, reported the Barnaul and Altai diocese of the Russian Orthodox Church.

The basis of the diocesan sisterhood was the four-year experience of the parish work of the Mikhailo-Arkhangelsk community of Barnaul at the regional psychiatric hospital. Under the guidance of an experienced confessor, Hieromonk Paisius, the brothers and sisters of mercy provided assistance to hospital patients. To train brothers and sisters of mercy, appropriate courses have been opened at the Barnaul Orthodox Theological School.

“Candidates for the Sisterhood of Charity were selected from among the permanent parishioners of Barnaul churches. Many of them have higher medical and pedagogical education, great experience work in medical and social institutions, and most importantly, a sincere desire to work for free for the good of one’s neighbor and the Church,” the diocese noted.

The plans of the diocesan sisterhood include providing all possible assistance to people who find themselves in difficult life situations. In the future, following Barnaul, parish sisterhoods of mercy will be created in other cities and regions of the region. They are called upon to become assistants to the rectors of churches in organizing interaction between the Church and medical and social state and public institutions.

Perm “contemporary artist” Alexey Ilkaev made adjustments to the city landscape: in the plywood installation installed on the city embankment - the inscription HAPPINESS IS NOT WHICH is just around the corner - he replaced the first word with the much more realistic DEATH. The reshuffle and change of emphasis alarmed local officials, and a scandal ensued. At the height of the investigation, the artist Ilkaev admitted his guilt in his crime by writing a letter of repentance. Almost came to the police and confessed. And so I’m wondering: is this just another artistic gesture of a conceptual auctioneer or is it all for real? If the latter, then to what degree of ugliness did the cultural inquisition reach in the once progressive city of Perm?? After all, this is exactly like under Stalin, when poets, writers and artists, some of them great, wrote humiliated repentances and petitions, confessing political myopia, petty-bourgeoisism and insufficient proletarian enthusiasm... Apparently, DEATH in Perm will again be replaced with HAPPINESS. So that no one doubts. But then I would advise setting fire to this entire structure on a dark night, as Pyotr Pavlensky did.

In St. Petersburg, meanwhile, film director Alexei Krasovsky (not to be confused with his namesake Anton, who fell in love with Putin like a man) set out to make the film “Poazdnik” - a “black” comedy, the action of which takes place under New Year in besieged Leningrad. As soon as this became known, a “hate group” was formed, mainly consisting of the ubiquitous deputies, who called the very idea of ​​​​the film blasphemy and mockery and demanded that the film be closed. I understand that those suffering from incontinence know little about cinema, so I remind you of a very recent and very famous precedent: the film “Life is Beautiful” (1997) by the Italian actor and director Roberto Benigni, which received all possible main prizes, from Cannes to Oscar, and became an absolute classic. This is also a comedy, and not even a black one, about the Holocaust and a death camp with gas chambers. The topic, you see, is no less scary than Leningrad blockade. However, neither the Italian parliament and the government, nor even the all-powerful and worldwide Jewish “behind the scenes” vetoed the film. I don't think this even occurred to anyone.

Among those who especially zealously attacked the renegade filmmakers was a Duma deputy named Sergei Boyarsky. The surname is rare, I decided to check it out - and alas! Son. Born in 1980. I was spinning... It’s like this: dad is a musketeer, daughter Lisa is a lovely girl and a good actress, and nature rested on her son: a demagogue and a young guardian-type fossil fell out of the boyar’s nest. And a corresponding career. So much for “Dinosaurs”... Did you, Misha, really not let your child listen to the Beatles during his childhood and adolescence?!

Let us consider these problems in relation to three world religions - Christianity, Islam and Buddhism and the civilizations based on them.

The Christian understanding of the meaning of life, death and immortality comes from the Old Testament provision: “The day of death better than the day birth" and the New Testament commandment of Christ "... I have the keys to hell and death." The theanthropic essence of Christianity is manifested in the fact that the immortality of the individual as an integral being is conceivable only through resurrection. The path to it is opened by the atoning sacrifice of Christ through the cross and resurrection. This the sphere of mystery and miracle, for man is taken out of the sphere of action of natural-cosmic forces and elements and is placed as a person face to face with God, who is also a person.

Thus, the goal of human life is deification, movement towards eternal life. Without realizing it, earthly life turns into a dream, an empty and idle dream, a soap bubble. In essence, it is only a preparation for eternal life, which is just around the corner for everyone. That is why it is said in the Gospel: “Be prepared: for at an hour you do not think, the Son of Man will come.” To prevent life from turning, in the words of M.Yu. Lermontov, “into an empty and stupid joke,” one must always remember the hour of death. This is not a tragedy, but a transition to another world, where myriads of souls, good and evil, already live, and where each new one enters for joy or torment. In the figurative expression of one of the moral hierarchs: “A dying person is a setting star, the dawn of which is already shining over another world.” Death does not destroy the body, but its corruption, and therefore it is not the end, but the beginning of eternal life. immortality religion christian islamic

Christianity associated a different understanding of immortality with the image of the “Eternal Jew” Agasfer. When Jesus, exhausted under the weight of the cross, walked to Golgotha ​​and wanted to rest, Ahasfer, standing among the others, said: “Go, go,” for which he was punished - he was forever denied the peace of the grave. From century to century he is doomed to wander the world, waiting for the second coming of Christ, who alone can deprive him of his hateful immortality.

The image of “mountainous” Jerusalem is associated with the absence of disease, death, hunger, cold, poverty, enmity, hatred, malice and other evils there. There is life without labor and joy without sorrow, health without weakness and honor without danger. All in blooming youth and the age of Christ are comforted by bliss, tasting the fruits of peace, love, joy and fun, and “they love each other as themselves.” Evangelist Luke defined the essence of the Christian approach to life and death this way: “God is not the God of the dead, but the God of the living. For with him all are alive.” Christianity categorically condemns suicide, since a person does not belong to himself, his life and death are “in the will of God.”

Other world religion- Islam - proceeds from the fact of the creation of man by the will of almighty Allah, who, first of all, is merciful. To a person’s question: “Will I be known alive when I die?” Allah gives the answer: “Won’t man remember that we created him before, and he was nothing?” Unlike Christianity, earthly life in Islam is highly regarded. However, on the Last Day, everything will be destroyed and the dead will be resurrected and appear before Allah for final judgment. belief afterlife is necessary, because in this case a person will evaluate his actions and actions not from the point of view of personal interest, but in the sense of an eternal perspective.

The destruction of the entire Universe on the day of the Just Judgment presupposes the creation of a completely new world. A “record” of deeds and thoughts, even the most secret ones, will be presented about each person, and an appropriate sentence will be passed. Thus, the principle of the supremacy of the laws of morality and reason over physical laws will triumph. A morally pure person cannot be in a humiliated position, as is the case in real world. Islam strictly prohibits suicide.

The descriptions of heaven and hell in the Koran are full of vivid details, so that the righteous can be fully satisfied and the sinners get what they deserve. Paradise is the beautiful “gardens of eternity, below which flow rivers of water, milk and wine”; there are also “pure spouses”, “full-breasted peers”, as well as “black-eyed and big-eyed, decorated with bracelets of gold and pearls”. Those sitting on carpets and leaning on green cushions are walked around by “forever young boys” offering “bird meat” on golden dishes. Hell for sinners is fire and boiling water, pus and slop, the fruits of the “Zakkum” tree, similar to the head of the devil, and their destiny is “screams and roars.” It is impossible to ask Allah about the hour of death, since only he has knowledge about this, and “what has been given to you to know, perhaps the hour is already close.”

The attitude towards death and immortality in Buddhism differs significantly from Christian and Muslim ones. Buddha himself refused to answer the questions: “Is he who knows the truth immortal or is he mortal?”, and also: can a knower be mortal and immortal at the same time? In essence, only one type of “wonderful immortality” is recognized - nirvana, as the embodiment of the transcendental Superbeing, the Absolute Beginning, which has no attributes.

Buddhism did not refute the doctrine of the transmigration of souls developed by Brahmanism, i.e. the belief that after death any Living being is reborn again in the form of a new living being (human, animal, deity, spirit, etc.). However, Buddhism made significant changes to the teachings of Brahmanism. If the Brahmans argued that through rituals, sacrifices and spells that were different for each class ("varna") it was fashionable to achieve "good rebirths", i.e. to become a raja, a brahmana, a rich merchant, etc., then Buddhism declared all reincarnation, all types of existence as inevitable misfortune and evil. Therefore, the highest goal of a Buddhist should be the complete cessation of rebirth and the achievement of nirvana, i.e. non-existence.

Since personality is understood as a sum of drachmas that are in a constant flow of reincarnation, this implies the absurdity and meaninglessness of the chain of natural births. The Dhammapada states that "to be born again and again is sorrowful." The way out is the path of finding nirvana, breaking through the chain of endless rebirths and achieving enlightenment, the blissful “island” located in the depths of a person’s heart, where “they own nothing” and “covet nothing.” The well-known symbol of nirvana - the extinguishing of the ever-quivering fire of life is well expressed the essence of the Buddhist understanding of death and immortality. As the Buddha said: “One day in the life of a person who has seen the immortal path is better than a hundred years of existence of a person who has not seen the higher life.”

For most people, achieving nirvana immediately, in this rebirth, is impossible. Following the path of salvation indicated by the Buddha, a living being usually has to be reincarnated again and again. But this will be the path of ascent to the “highest wisdom”, having achieved which a creature will be able to leave the “circle of existence” and complete the chain of its rebirths.

A calm and peaceful attitude towards life, death and immortality, the desire for enlightenment and liberation from evil is also characteristic of other Eastern religions and cults. In this regard, attitudes towards suicide are changing; it is considered not so sinful as senseless, for it does not free a person from the circle of births and deaths, but only leads to birth in a lower incarnation. One must overcome such attachment to one's personality, for, in the words of the Buddha, “the nature of personality is continuous death.”

Concepts of life, death and immortality, based on a non-religious and atheistic approach to the world and man. Irreligious people and atheists are often reproached for the fact that for them earthly life is everything, and death is an insurmountable tragedy, which, in essence, makes life meaningless. L.N. Tolstoy, in his famous confession, painfully tried to find the meaning in life that would not be destroyed by the death that inevitably awaits every person.

For a believer, everything is clear here, but for an unbeliever, an alternative of three possible ways to solve this problem arises.

The first way is to accept the idea, which is confirmed by science and simply common sense, that complete destruction in the world is impossible even elementary particle, and conservation laws apply. Matter, energy and, it is believed, information and organization are conserved complex systems. Consequently, particles of our “I” after death will enter into the eternal cycle of existence and in this sense will be immortal. True, they will not have consciousness, the soul with which our “I” is connected. Moreover, this type of immortality is acquired by a person throughout his life. We can say in the form of a paradox: we are alive only because we die every second. Every day, red blood cells die, epithelial cells die, hair falls out, etc. Therefore, it is in principle impossible to fix life and death as absolute opposites, neither in reality nor in thoughts. These are two sides of the same coin.

The second path is the acquisition of immortality in human affairs, in the fruits of material and spiritual production, which are included in the treasury of humanity. To do this, first of all, we need confidence that humanity is immortal and cosmic is coming purpose in the spirit of the ideas of K.E. Tsiolkovsky and other cosmists. If, for humanity, self-destruction in a thermonuclear environmental disaster, and also due to some kind of cosmic cataclysms, then in this case the question remains open.

The third path to immortality is, as a rule, chosen by people whose scale of activity does not extend beyond the boundaries of their home and immediate environment. Without expecting eternal bliss or eternal torment, without going into the “tricks” of the mind that connects the microcosm (i.e., man) with the macrocosm, millions of people simply float in the stream of life, feeling themselves to be a part of it. Immortality for them is not in the eternal memory of blessed humanity, but in everyday affairs and worries. “It’s not difficult to believe in God. No, you have to believe in man!” - Chekhov wrote this without at all expecting that he himself would become an example of this type of attitude towards life and death.

Questionnaire “Attitudes towards life, death and crisis situations”

(A.A. Bakanova, Ph.D., Associate Professor, Department of Practical Psychology, Leningrad State University named after A.S. Pushkin)

Purpose of the questionnaire- identifying the system of relationships of the individual to the basic existential data, himself and crisis situations.

The dissertation research “Attitude to life and death in critical life situations”, conducted by A. A. Bakapova in 1999-2000, showed that a person in a critical situation structures his attitude to life and death according to such emotional and rational components , How:

attitude towards life: acceptance of life, feeling of ontological security, self-acceptance, desire for growth, responsibility, understanding of life as growth or consumption, acceptance of the variability of life;

attitude towards death: acceptance of death, acceptance of feelings towards death, understanding of death as a transition to another state or as an absolute end;

vision of meaning: the presence or absence of meaning in life, death and critical situations;

attitude towards a critical situation: a critical situation as a danger of suffering or as an opportunity for growth.

The interconnection of these components allows, on the one hand, to identify the system of relationships of the individual to himself, others, life and death as basal existential givens, and on the other hand, it determines the complex of psychological characteristics of the individual in a critical situation and, accordingly, strategies for coping with them.

This method allows you to find out:

features of the individual’s attitude to life, death and crisis situations;

the degree of psychological maturity of the individual, the desire for self-actualization and personal growth;

the degree of elaboration and relevance of some existential problems (for example, life - death, responsibility, meaning);

possible strategies for coping with crisis situations.

Scales 1-7 are aimed at identifying attitudes towards various components of life, starting from the sense of ontological security formed in childhood, and ending with such basic parameters as acceptance of one’s life, oneself, responsibility and the desire for personal growth. All these scales reflect the degree of psychological maturity, self-actualization and humanistic orientation of the individual.

Scale 1. Acceptance of life's variability

This scale allows you to identify a person’s attitude to such a characteristic of life as variability. Acceptance of the variability of life can be considered not only as one of the indicators of an individual’s ability to cope with crisis situations, but also as one of the factors in the desire for personal growth. The life of every person is constantly filled with changes - unpredictable and unexpected situations; which are usually assessed in the categories “good, like” - “bad, don’t like.” The assessment of any situations, especially negative ones, puts them in opposition to the individual - situations begin to be perceived as obstacles and, accordingly, are overcome.

A high score on this scale indicates that the individual has developed the ability to accept the changes occurring in life, treat them more tolerantly, and therefore cope more effectively with emerging crisis situations, see in them an opportunity to gain new experience and further growth.

A low score indicates that a person is more inclined to build psychological defenses in critical situations and less sees them as an opportunity for personal growth.

Scale 2. Life as growth

This scale reflects the basic attitude of an individual to his own life, which is expressed in the positions: “I am the creator of life” or “I am the consumer of life.” The position towards one’s own life, which is formed in a person in the process of development, is manifested in his relationships with himself, the world and other people, as well as in all types of his activities, including when coping with crisis situations. This scale reveals the views of E. Fromm on human nature and A. Maslow on the satisfaction of deficiency or existential needs. A high score on this scale indicates an understanding of life as an opportunity for the realization of “existential” motives, and with low scores, life is perceived as an opportunity to satisfy “deficit” motivation.

Scale 3. Acceptance of life

The scale allows you to identify the degree to which a person accepts his own life in its temporal aspect, i.e. present, past and future. Acceptance of one's own life is closely related to a person's positive attitude towards himself, and is also an important component in the concept of life. Accepting one’s own life along its entire length from the past to the future allows a person, firstly, to see the meaning of life, secondly, to treat it as a value, and thirdly, to accept the idea of ​​one’s own development and growth. This scale, like others, has a humanistic orientation and is one of the factors in the desire for personal growth.

Therefore, high scores on the scale indicate a person’s acceptance of his life, which is understood as meaningful, valuable, and allowing for spiritual growth.

Low scores on the scale indicate a kind of “rejection” of one’s own life, exclusion of oneself from its process, non-acceptance and, consequently, internal disintegration of the individual.

Scale 4. Ontological security

This scale reveals the characteristics of child-parent relationships, the degree to which an individual accepts his childhood and parents. The concept of “ontological security” was introduced by I. Yalom and was understood by him as a primary existential feeling that provides the child with confidence and security. In adulthood, ontological security turns into interior plan, where the sense of security, which was provided in childhood by the actions and care of parents, is experienced by a mature person as psychological comfort, trust in oneself, others and the world as a whole (these ideas are reflected in the works of E. Erikson, A. Maslow, etc.). This can also be described as a feeling of “rootedness,” i.e., one’s close connection with one’s parental “roots,” the experience of one’s own life as one of the links in the chain of life of previous generations.

The importance of relationships with parents in the formation of a child’s gender-role identification has been proven by many studies and is beyond doubt. Relationships with parents and, in particular, a sense of ontological security are of great importance for the formation of moral and religious beliefs. Acceptance of parents is closely related to acceptance of oneself, one’s own life, as well as basic humanistic values ​​(responsibility, meaning, spiritual growth). In addition, the feeling of ontological security influences the formation of the concept of death, where the relationship with the mother determines the acceptance of the idea of ​​death and feelings towards it. Thus, the acceptance of childhood and in particular the mother not only creates a feeling of ontological security, but also acts as an important component for the formation of faith and the idea of ​​​​the immortality of the soul.

High scores on this scale they say that a person feels ontological security, which is expressed not only in the acceptance of his parents and childhood, but also in the presence of basal trust, security and psychological comfort.

Low scores reflect the presence in a person’s personal experience of current unresolved childhood conflicts, as well as mistrust, insecurity and discomfort in relationships with oneself, other people and the world.

Scale 5. Self-acceptance

This scale expresses the degree to which a person accepts his Self as a unity of bodily and spiritual (psychological) aspects. Self-acceptance is one of the aspects of a person’s attitude towards himself, which can be described through an expression of trust in oneself, respect, care, understanding of one’s needs and characteristics, compassion for oneself and taking part in one’s own destiny. Deep understanding and acceptance of oneself, being one of the fundamental characteristics of self-esteem, is expressed outwardly through a similar attitude towards people - respect for the individuality of others, tolerance, recognition of their value, etc. Therefore, this characteristic is one of the factors of a harmonious personality, which not only strives for integration of all its sides, but also to the realization of existing abilities, but also to the realization of existing abilities.

High scores on the scale indicate a person’s acceptance of his individuality and, in a broader sense, a humanistic position in relation to himself, others and the world.

Low scores indicate internal disintegration of the personality, mismatch between its physical and spiritual aspects, and self-sacrifice.

Scale 6. Striving for growth

The scale is aimed at identifying a person’s main life aspiration: for personal growth or, conversely, for consumption and stagnation.

This scale is similar in content to scale 2, however, unlike it, it does not measure ideas about life, but the specific orientation of the individual.

A high score on this scale indicates the predominant “existential” orientation of the personality, and a low one, accordingly, indicates a “deficit” orientation.

Scale 7. Responsibility

This scale determines the degree to which a person accepts responsibility for his life. It is known that the degree of acceptance of responsibility is very general view one of the existential characteristics of a person, which determines the characteristics of his life path and the resolution of existential problems, in particular, an important factor in coping with crisis situations. A high score on this scale indicates that a person accepts responsibility for his life, a low one indicates that he avoids this responsibility.

Scales 8, 10, 11 define the concept of death, which includes rational and emotional components. A person’s attitude towards this existential reality seems especially important for two main reasons.

First, the acceptance of death is central to the formation of ideas about other existential problems.

Secondly, considering a crisis situation as a situation of confrontation with death (where death is understood not only literally, but also figuratively - as psychological death), the attitude towards it becomes one of the cornerstones of a person’s choice of strategies for coping with a crisis.

Scale 8. Concept of death

This scale is aimed at identifying attitudes towards death, namely at determining one or another concept of death that exists in a person.

Many ideas about death can be divided into two large blocks: relatively speaking, “religious” and “atheistic”. The first block, called “Death as a transition,” includes those concepts that presuppose the existence of some form of life after death (the posthumous existence of the soul, the relocation of the soul to another body, the life of the soul in heaven or hell, etc.). The second option - “Death as the end” - includes those ideas that see the death of the body as the final completion of life.

High scores on this scale reflect a person's inclination toward concepts of the first type, and low scores toward concepts of the second type.

Scale 10. Acceptance of feelings towards death

The scale allows you to identify the degree of acceptance by a person own feelings in relation to death. This parameter is important from the point of view of the “elaboration” of the topic of death and therefore can serve as one of the indicators of the relevance of this existential problem for a person. Accepting one’s own feelings towards death indicates the internal work done by the individual, which helps to form a meaningful attitude not only towards one’s own death, but also towards life. Non-acceptance of death and one’s feelings towards it blocks the formation of not only the concept of death, but also ideas about life as an opportunity for growth. Also, avoidance of feelings does not allow the individual to learn to gain experience from crisis situations.

High scores indicate a person's acceptance of feelings towards death, as well as a meaningful attitude towards it as part of their own life.

Low scores indicate not only psychological protection against thinking about death, but are also a symbol of low reflection on existential problems, one’s life and, in particular, the experience gained from crisis situations.

Scale 11. Acceptance of death

This scale allows us to see whether a person accepts death as a given or seeks to avoid thinking about it, which reflects his resistance to the fact of mortality and finitude. Research shows that there is a close relationship between accepting death and accepting the variability of life, and therefore the individual’s ability to cope with various crisis situations in life.

High scores on this scale indicate that a person accepts the existence of death and strives to treat it consciously and prepare for its arrival.

Low scores indicate a desire to avoid thinking about death, and therefore the very fact of the presence of death in the experience of all living things.

Scales 9, 12, 13 reveal the presence of meaning in life, death and crisis situations. The search for meaning in ongoing events and in life in general is undoubtedly the most important process for an individual, reflecting the stages of its formation, further development, and self-actualization. The search for meaning in one’s own life and death is a characteristic of a reflective personality, striving to go beyond one’s limits, to know not only oneself, but also being. In this context, it seems important to also explore a person’s search for the meaning of his own suffering, crisis situations, which, on the one hand, are part of life, and on the other, confront him with constant variability, impermanence, finitude and, finally, death.

Scale 9. Having meaning in life

This scale is aimed at identifying the subordination of life to a higher meaning. High scores indicate the presence of some higher meaning in a person’s life, subordination to this idea, while low scores, on the contrary, indicate the absence of meaning, as well as the lack of desire to seek it.

Scale 12. Having a meaning to death

This scale reveals a person’s understanding of the meaning of death, which reflects the degree of reflection on it. There are basically several such meanings. However, what is important here is not so much what exact meaning a person sees in death, but whether he sees this meaning at all.

High scores correspond to the presence of any ideas about the meaning of death in the individual, and low scores indicate their absence.

Scale 13. Having sense in a crisis situation

This scale allows us to identify the attitude towards a crisis situation, in particular, how inclined a person is to comprehend what is happening to him, take responsibility for finding a way out, and integrate traumatic experiences.

High scores reveal the individual’s desire to look for meaning in the misfortunes that happen to him, which means trying to understand the “lesson”, extract positive experience, and learn something. Low scores indicate the absence of such attempts, low comprehension of crisis situations and, as a consequence, the inability to transform negative experiences into positive ones, and therefore more effectively cope with the difficulties that arise.

Scale 14. Concept of a crisis situation

The scale allows you to identify how a person understands a crisis situation and, therefore, how he relates to it and how he will act in it.

There are two directions in relation to the crisis. “A crisis situation as an opportunity” is characterized by treating it as an experience that allows a person to develop further, self-improvement, and through crises, in addition to negative ones, also gain positive experience. As our research has shown, this concept is associated with a more harmonious self-image, the desire for growth, and acceptance of one’s life and oneself. This attitude towards crisis situations will be indicated by high scores on this scale. “A crisis situation as a danger” will be characteristic of people who are focused in a crisis only on its negative aspects, losses, suffering, martyrdom. This attitude will be characterized by low scores on this scale.