World reserves of biological resources. Biological resources of the planet
Due to the ability of organisms to reproduce, all biological resources are renewable, but humans must maintain conditions under which the renewal of these resources will occur. At modern system the use of biological resources, a significant part of them is threatened with destruction.
The most important biological resources are the resources of flora and fauna. Man is inextricably linked with living nature. His current apparent independence and isolation from nature is in fact only a consequence of the fact that man, in the process of evolution, has gone beyond the boundaries of its resource cycle. However, nature will live without man, but man without nature will die. This is precisely the importance of natural biological resources.
Biological resources are the basis of human life. This is his food, shelter, clothing, source of breathing, environment for rest and recuperation. The depletion of biological resources can lead to mass starvation and other unpredictable consequences. To maintain the stability of biological resources, a sufficiently highly developed base for their reproduction is necessary. The human population is growing, and the amount of arable land on which necessary agricultural products are grown per capita is decreasing. Even if we assume that the total area of agricultural land will not decrease, then in this case the amount of fertile land per capita will decrease due to the increase in the number of people.
Today, for every inhabitant of the planet, including children, there is 0.28 hectares of fertile land. By 2030, the area under cultivation is expected to increase by 5% (total!), while the world's population is projected to increase to 8 billion. This will lead to a reduction in the amount of land per capita to 0.19 hectares. Almost all of Asia, China in particular, will try to feed itself on a much smaller per capita basis of fertile soil area.
Provision of land and arable land (ha/person) in some countries of the world:
|
Land availability |
Arable landlessness |
|
|
Australia |
||
|
Argentina |
||
|
Brazil |
||
|
United Kingdom |
||
People meet their need for food resources mainly by growing various varieties of cultivated plants and raising domestic animals. This is done by such branches of agriculture as plant growing, including field growing, fruit growing, meadow growing, vegetable growing, melon growing, forestry, floriculture, and livestock farming - fur farming, fishing and other types of fishing. Thanks to these industries, people provide themselves with food, and industry - with plant and animal raw materials.
Plants create the necessary environment for human life, serve as an inexhaustible source of various food products, technical and medicinal raw materials, building materials, etc. It is plants that are the primary link in natural food chains, and, therefore, they represent the primary link (producers) in relation to the animal world (consumers).
Aquatic biological resources
According to a common definition, biological resources include any sources of necessary benefits for a person. That is, everything that can be used for the benefit of people can be called biological resources. And if humanity has not found a use for representatives of the animal or plant world or does not use it for its own benefit, they cannot be classified under this definition.The resources of our planet are classified in a number of ways. They can be divided into exhaustible and inexhaustible. Based on these definitions, all biological resources of the world belong to the first type. They tend to end.
The division can occur according to parameters: renewable and non-renewable. All representatives of the animal and plant world are renewable resources, although some of them are only partially restored. In the relations of mankind with the outside world, such a concept as the protection of biological resources arose relatively recently. The Red Data Books of endangered animals and plants have appeared. Until the twentieth century, people, in search of profit, actively mined rare, valuable specimens of plants and animals, which led to the complete disappearance of entire species.
Resources can be replaceable or irreplaceable. And if the mineral components of human life can be compensated, then a person cannot replace the biological components. At least at the level of modern technical development.
Fauna and flora of the planet
As you know, the surface of our planet is covered with water by more than seventy percent. It would seem that the population of the aquatic environment should be higher. Actually this is not true. No matter how different scientific estimates of the total number of species of animals and plants on Earth may differ, they all agree on one thing - significantly fewer living organisms live in the World Ocean. But the estimates vary significantly.
Thus, according to various sources, there are from two to eight million species of animals in the world, and only from one hundred to three hundred thousand of plants. This difference is explained by the fact that most species have not yet been described by scientists. But this majority includes species that are numerous in their diversity, but of little significance for the total biological mass. For example, more than one and a half million species of insects are already known, but their impact on biological resources is insignificant.
Be that as it may, all scientists agree that the number of species of both animals and plants in aquatic environment is less than ten percent of total number on the ground. This confirms the fact that, despite the origin of all living things from the World Ocean, evolutionary processes on land occurred much more intensely than in the aquatic environment.
In terms of mass, the difference between the aquatic world and the continental part is even more striking. In terms of volume, biological resources - animals and microorganisms inhabiting the World Ocean - account for approximately the same ten percent of the total animal mass of the planet. The mass of oceanic plants is simply lost against the background of the flora of the above-water part, because it is ten thousand times smaller than the latter.
Resources of the World Ocean
The resources of the World Ocean themselves are inexhaustible and diverse. The main wealth is water itself, without which other living beings cannot exist. In addition, water contains many chemical elements that are either extracted from water or in dissolved form, contribute to the life of all living organisms, be they plants or animals.
But in terms of value in monetary terms, they are important for humanity mineral resources, which are extracted from the depths of the ocean. This primarily concerns oil and gas on the continental shelf. These hydrocarbons, extracted by humanity from the depths of the World Ocean, in value terms account for up to ninety percent of all ocean resources.
Naturally, they also use the energy resources of water - the energy of rivers, ebbs and flows, waves and currents. Hydroelectric power plants have been in operation for a long time, almost a century, and they produce a significant portion of the electrical energy in the modern world. Tidal stations began to be built relatively recently, their capacity is still small. And scientists are working on projects to use waves and currents different countries and today.
And, of course, the value of such resources is not the highest in monetary terms, but the most important, since these are the biological resources of the World Ocean.
In the World Ocean, as on the land surface, there are more and less productive regions. Terrestrial deserts (hot and icy) correspond to great depths of the ocean. That is, in relative terms (and in absolute terms too) there are much more deserted places in the ocean than those saturated with life - about two-thirds of the oceanic areas are sparsely populated. And if we take into account the depths of the oceans, the volumes of low-productive water space become even greater.
Yes, life exists at the bottom Mariana Trench. All the main places where objects of aquatic biological resources live are coastal areas of seas and oceans with a depth of up to two hundred meters. The rivers and lakes of the coastal part, naturally, are also densely populated by representatives of the animal and plant world, but in the total volume their size is insignificant.
Like the rest of living nature, the ocean population is divided into biological resources of the animal world and flora. Moreover, as noted above, the animal world is more diverse than the plant world, and there are many more animal species in the ocean than plants. Biological resources of the sea include algae, mammals, mollusks, crustaceans, and fish. The difference from land flora and fauna is that the aquatic plant world is an order of magnitude smaller than animals in both diversity and total mass. But people, especially those living on the shores of the seas and oceans, have learned to use the potential that the biological resources of the World Ocean are filled with for everyone’s benefit.
Fish as the main aquatic biological resource
Despite the impressive size of marine mammals (and whales, as we know, are the largest animals on our planet), fish are the main value in today’s world for humans. Of the diversity of ocean resources, up to eighty-five percent of all aquatic biomass used by humanity comes from fish. And this despite the fact that, in terms of biological resources, the total mass of fish is no more than two percent of the volume. In order not to underestimate the natural abundance of fish in the ocean, people have learned to build fish farms where they raise the most valuable species.
Mariculture
Humanity adapts ocean resources for its needs on land. Aquatic biomass is processed into high-calorie flour, which is used in animal husbandry. Mariculture, the breeding of marine organisms on plantations, is becoming widespread. With the help of mariculture, edible oysters and mussels are grown in European countries, and pearl oysters are grown in the countries of the Far East. In addition, edible algae – seaweed – is grown in the Far East.
Resource problems
Increased use of some types of water resources leads to problems for others. Thus, the construction of hydroelectric power stations affected the composition of the fish population of rivers, but on a global scale these figures are insignificant.
The greatest problem of the modern world is the pollution of sea and ocean waters after accidents during oil production and transportation. In addition, the rapid growth of industry leads to water pollution with industrial waste and fertilizers. And the increasing use of the seas and oceans by a large number of people in the form of places for travel and recreation pollutes the waters with household waste. How competently humanity solves the problems of the World Ocean depends on by and large his future.
A number of restrictions have been adopted at the international level, which are aimed at reducing pollution of sea and ocean waters. In addition to international agreements, at the level of each country there are legislative acts to protect water resources.
In the Russian Federation there is a law defining what aquatic biological resources are. This definition naturally includes fish, but also aquatic invertebrates, mammals and algae. It is added that they must be in a state of natural freedom. Law and others by-laws are aimed primarily at preserving those types of biological resources that are irreplaceable. After all, humanity gets twenty percent of its food from the ocean.
Biological resources of the sea
Since ancient times, the biological resources of the seas and oceans, and primarily fish, have served as the most important source of food for humanity.However, the ocean has acquired the greatest importance as the breadwinner of the population of our planet in recent decades, when from the vast expanses of the “blue field” tens of millions of fishermen, using hundreds of thousands of fishing vessels and using a variety of, sometimes very complex equipment, annually extract more than 60 million tons of algae, crustaceans, mollusks and fish. Products from these ocean inhabitants not only diversify and decorate the dinner table, making food more saturated with vitamins, proteins and microelements that are extremely necessary for the human body, but in many countries it is the most important, and sometimes even the decisive part of the food supply for the population.
Our ancestors, who lived many thousands of years ago, settled on the shores of the seas and oceans and used their rich gifts for food. Without fishing or hunting sea animals, the existence of many nationalities would be impossible. This is especially true for the Pacific Ocean basin.
Residents of the colorful islands of Polynesia and Micronesia, the population of the Philippines, Malaysia, Indonesia and Japan, the inhabitants of the harsh coasts of the Bering and Okhotsk Seas, the Aleutian and Kuril Islands, the ancient settlers of the Mexican-Chilean-Peruvian coast, the Maoris of New Zealand and many other peoples and nationalities of the Pacific basin are actively engaged in fishing and widely used marine animals and plants for food.
Nowadays, fishermen from 210 countries and territories (out of 233 total) are engaged in sea and ocean fishing, and their efforts ensure such a volume of catch that each inhabitant of our planet accounts for 17 kg per year water bodies. Humanity receives about 20% of animal proteins, these irreplaceable and absolutely essential components of nutrition, from the ocean. However, among the population of Japan, the Korean government, the Philippine Islands and others, the share of fish products in the diet occupies a much larger, and sometimes even predominant place. Thus, on average, about 80 kg of sea and ocean inhabitants are harvested annually for each Japanese person. In the nutritional balance of these countries, fish is the most important and at the same time favorite component of the diet.
Many countries expect to significantly increase the catch of water bodies and in this way meet the need of their population for protein food, and all together, at least double the total volume of catch. Therefore, the World Ocean and, above all, its coastal zone, within which more than 90% of the world's catch of water bodies is caught, has been used in fishing with rapidly increasing intensity in recent years, and there has already been much evidence of a decrease in the fishing efficiency of some traditional objects of the shelf zone, a slowdown growth of total catch. However, according to many, and especially Soviet scientists, the potential bioproduction capabilities of the seas and oceans are now completely underutilized, and there are possibilities for a significant, even multiple increase in the production of aquatic animals and plants useful for humans.
As is known, the bioproductive processes inherent in the ocean, and especially their final products, are far from meeting human interests. The peculiarities of these processes are such that mainly animals are produced that are of no commercial value.
Suffice it to recall that, according to modern ideas, about 600 billion tons of vegetation are created annually in the ocean, and the catch of traditional objects and fisheries is unlikely to exceed 90-100 million tons, since the effectiveness of naturally occurring oceanic bioproduction processes is hundreds and thousands of times less than in human-managed livestock and fish farms. So, for example, in order to grow one kilogram of meat in livestock farms, it is necessary to feed 20-25 kg of vegetation, while the creation of the same amount of fish meat that feeds on smaller fish, which feed on invertebrate animals, which in turn use planktonic animals and plants as food, is ultimately consumed in thousand times greater mass of algae.
Indeed, a comparison of the volume of food obtained from the “blue field” and as a result of agricultural production and livestock raising indicates the negligibly low useful yield characteristic of the natural ecosystems of the World Ocean. If, as a result of the “Neolithic revolution” that took place 15 thousand years ago, which gave impetus to the development of agriculture and animal husbandry, humanity with 4.44 billion hectares, i.e. 9% of the area of our planet, occupied by agricultural land - arable land, meadows and pastures (of which only 1.5 billion hectares are under arable land), currently receives more than 98% of food, then from 71% of its surface occupied by seas and oceans, and from 2.5 million km2 of freshwater reservoirs, only 1-2% is obtained total volume of food products.
Thus, the modern fish productivity of the World Ocean, being a unique result of various historically established natural bioproduction processes, as well as fishing methods and the nature of the use of fished objects, is already approaching its limit, and without significant adjustments one cannot count on a significant, much less multiple, increase in global catching traditional objects.
It is already obvious that there is a problem effective use Oceanic biological resources must be approached from completely different positions than has been done to date.
First of all, vast areas of the oceanic pelagic zone and areas of uplift of the ocean floor need to be intensified. Features of the oceanological regime of open ocean areas identified in recent years, associated with the existing eddy movements, frontal zones, as well as complex underwater terrain with many uplifts of the ocean floor, contribute to the creation of areas, sometimes quite large in area, with an increased level of bioproductivity. Within these types of areas, the total water area of which, according to approximate estimates, is 10-20 million km2, as well as above the tops of the “seamounts”, accumulations of such distant neritic objects as mackerel, horse mackerel, whiting, sardine, mackerel, beryx, prestypom, squid are found and others, providing fairly high catches.vv The ideas about the production volumes of many small ocean inhabitants standing on the “first steps of the trophic ladder”, and primarily the small pelagic crustacean - Antarctic krill, as well as the inhabitants of the “sound-scattering layers”, small pelagic fish, luminous anchovies, maurolicus, etc.
Currently, many scientists estimate the krill biomass at 2 billion tons or more, and the possible catch at many tens of millions of tons.
The organization of rational ocean fisheries is essential.
Nowadays, fish are often caught that have not yet reached optimal sizes, which have not fully used the food supply, did not have time to spawn at the most optimal age, without taking into account their genetic and population structure, etc., which ultimately leads to a rapid decrease in fish productivity and fishing efficiency.
According to the most conservative estimates, humanity has already lost about 10 million tons of possible catch as a result of this kind of irrational fishing. Naturally, the efforts of scientists and fishing industry workers in this direction could restore such tangible and completely unjustified losses and prevent them in the future.
Indeed, now the vast majority of water bodies caught - fish, crustaceans, mollusks, whales, seals, etc. - are a kind of hunting trophies - the result of a kind of sea hunting and fishing, carried out using technically equipped search methods, various baits, highly effective tools and fishing methods and modern fishing vessels. All this allows us to obtain high catches from the animals that live in the ocean.
There is a need to actively influence the ocean and its inhabitants in order to increase its fish productivity, create managed marine underwater “vegetable gardens” and “farms” in it, change in the direction necessary for humans some of the oceanological and biological processes occurring in it that determine the fish productivity of this or that another area, introduce new food and fishing habitats, carry out large-scale bioreclamation and do much more for these purposes.
The greatest potential in this regard lies in the vast Pacific Ocean basin with vast areas of the shelf zone, numerous underwater elevations and vast pelagic waters, with an exceptionally diverse fauna of fish and invertebrates. Within its boundaries, 35.2 million tons are produced (1978), i.e., half of the world's catch, and there is no doubt that in the coming decades this share will be even more significant.
In the northwestern part of the Pacific Ocean there are relatively shallow marginal seas (Bering, Okhotsk, Japan, Yellow, East China, South China), the total area of which exceeds the total water area of all other marginal seas of the World Ocean. For example, only the shelf of the Bering Sea is approximately equal in area to the shelves of the Barents and North Seas combined. The shelf of the Sea of Okhotsk is somewhat smaller. It is here that the most productive fishing is currently taking place within the marginal seas and adjacent areas.
The narrow and steep continental slope makes up a significant part of the underwater margins of North and South America, Japan, and the peripheral island ridges in the west and northwest of the ocean.
The bottom topography of the Pacific Basin is characterized not only by the predominance of large (over 3 thousand m) depths, but also by the presence of many extended underwater ridges, islands and plateaus, and numerous uplifts of the ocean floor. There are a large number of seamounts, of which more than 3 thousand have a depth of less than 2 thousand m. These types of elevations contribute to the intensification of mixing of deep waters rich in nutrients with surface water masses, the formation of high biological productivity in adjacent areas. Due to this, large concentrations of fish are formed here.
The general large-scale circulation of the Pacific Ocean and current systems determine the zonal distribution of water masses and productive areas.
Mesoscale water circulation, meanders, eddies, and areas of stable rises of deep waters affect not only the delivery of nutrients to the photic layer and the primary production process, but also the migration of commercial objects and their life cycle. The distribution boundaries of certain species are established along the frontal zones of currents, and the migrations of many pelagic species, such as salmon, squid, and tuna, are directed along such zones.
It should be emphasized the great, sometimes decisive importance of relatively small circular currents that complete a complete cycle in 10-20 days in the shelf, neritic, distant neritic and epipelagic zones for reproduction, and thereby for the level of abundance of many commercial objects (mackerel, mackerel, sardine, mackerel, pollock, flounder, crabs, etc.).
Modern ideas about the distribution of water masses of various origins and the volume of primary production make it possible to evaluate various areas of the Pacific Ocean from a bioproduction point of view. It has been established that highly productive zones, within which about 70% of the total volume of primary production is created, occupy 30% of the ocean, and 17% of the most productive ocean area contains 56% of all zooplankton.
In the Pacific Ocean there are several very productive areas - marginal seas, zones of the Californian and Peruvian upwellings, the Kuroshio, the Humboldt Current, individual areas of the oceanic pelagic zone, etc. In the eastern part of the Bering Sea, for example, primary production is 150 gC/m2, and in some areas reaches 300 gS/m2.
The high level of fish productivity of the Pacific marginal seas is determined by the benthic fauna, the vertical circulation of water in the autumn-winter period, which carries nutrients to the surface layers, as well as the circular currents characteristic of shallow waters and at the same time the presence of shelters necessary for eggs. All this ensures the favorable development and vital activity of juveniles and adults of many benthic species(flounder, sea bass, greenlings, herring, crabs, etc.).
In the Pacific Ocean (in the 0-500 m layer), more than 10 billion tons of zooplankton are produced annually, which ensures the existence of a diverse fauna of fish and large invertebrates, the volume of stocks of which, according to an approximate estimate, allows the catch to be increased to at least 50 million tons, i.e., significantly exceeding what is currently achieved.
Within areas of high-gradient water distribution in the pelagic zone, i.e., where the greatest deviations from the “normal” distribution of water masses are observed, conditions are created that are favorable for the formation of zones of increased bioproductivity, and thereby fish productivity. Commercial aggregations of many pelagic fish species form here. Within the open areas of the Pacific Ocean, P. A. Moiseev established the presence of from 4 to 9 million km2 of such vergence zones, within which fish productivity can be about 800 kg/km2, and the probable catch can reach 5-7 million tons of relatively large objects (mackerel, mackerel, mackerel, sardine, squid, etc.).
Particularly encouraging were the results of research and prospecting work to identify the resources of small mesopelagic fish and their distribution within the Pacific Ocean, the possibility of catching which was previously practically not taken into account when assessing the potential oceanic fish productivity. More than 40 species of fish, the size of which usually does not exceed 8 cm, belonging to the families of myctophids and gonostomids, can be considered commercial, capable of forming very large aggregations with catches of up to 70 or more tons per day per trawler. According to the calculations of the previously mentioned researchers, in the Pacific Ocean the biomass of these fish reaches 40 million tons, and their catch, according to the English biologist Gullard, can amount to several tens of millions of tons.
The volumes of krill biomass in the Pacific sector of Antarctica are exceptionally large. There is no doubt that small fish, krill and mesopelagic fish, are the most significant untapped resources in the Pacific Ocean.
In the Pacific Ocean basin, efforts to create and develop mariculture farms, targeted bioreclamation, acclimatization and transplantation of aquatic organisms, and increase the bioproductivity of valuable fisheries are of particular importance.
It should be remembered that it was in the Pacific Ocean that mariculture farms originated and developed especially significantly. Thus, the Hawaiians, back in the 15th century, i.e., long before the appearance of Captain Cook’s ships off their coasts, successfully bred and raised sea fish.
Nowadays, through the efforts of fishermen in Japan, the Philippines and other countries, up to 80% of the total global volume of mariculture products is grown within the Pacific basin. Preliminary calculations show that near the Pacific coast of the USSR there are 38 thousand km of shallow waters suitable for creating mariculture farms, the production of which can amount to 1.5 million tons. Accordingly, 8 million tons and off the coast of the USA (40 thousand km2) - 9 million tons of water bodies.
Speaking about mariculture, it is appropriate to emphasize the enormous promise of the efforts of countries in whose rivers Pacific salmon spawn to increase the scale of their artificial and natural reproduction. There is every reason to assert that this kind of combined and coordinated effort can ensure in the near future a significant increase in the number of these valuable fish and an increase in their total catch from 350-400 thousand tons to 800-900 thousand tons.
The total volume of mariculture facilities in the Pacific Ocean basin may be at least 15 million tons in the relatively near future.
Self-reproducing biological resources of the Pacific Ocean have such potential that, provided they are used rationally and proper measures are taken to preserve and increase them, they can provide at least 80 million tons of water bodies, or up to 30 kg for each inhabitant of the region, i.e. much more than now.
Considering that half the population of our planet, i.e. about 2.5 billion people, lives in the countries of the Pacific basin and that many of the coastal countries are striving to improve their nutritional balance, sometimes completely unsatisfactory, through the development of marine fisheries and aquatic farming objects, the special importance of targeted efforts to improve and develop fisheries in the basin of this largest ocean on our planet becomes obvious.
There is no doubt that the consolidation of the efforts of scientists from all countries in this noble field will help ensure that the motto of the XIV Pacific Congress, “Natural resources of the Pacific Ocean - for the benefit of humanity,” is brought to life.
Biological resources of the world
Humanity has been using various types of fauna and flora for a very long time (primitive man was already a gatherer and hunter), but new beneficial properties of plants, animals, and microorganisms are still being discovered.In terms of volumes of use, the first place belongs to plants, especially forest ones. This is explained by the fact that the productivity of forests is much higher than that of other biocenoses, and wood, needles and tree sap serve as the basis for the production of hundreds and thousands of products.
Forests on the globe are concentrated in two zones: the northern, represented by coniferous and mixed forests of Eurasia and North America, and the southern, which covers forests of the equatorial and tropical zones. Humid equatorial forests have the highest productivity, but their development is complicated by the fact that trees of the same species are very rare here, and by the hot and humid climate. The largest timber reserves in this belt are found in Brazil, Indonesia, Venezuela, and Congo. Temperate forests, especially taiga, have a homogeneous species composition, and the predominance of valuable coniferous species makes their exploitation very profitable. The largest reserves of temperate timber are concentrated in Russia, the USA, Canada, the Scandinavian countries and northern China. In most countries of Europe and North America, thanks to the enormous work of foresters, both the area of forested areas and timber reserves are expanding. Western Europe is already quite capable of meeting its needs with its own forest resources; only a small number of particularly valuable wood species with southern zone.
In developing countries, forest resources are used unsustainably. More than half of the wood here is burned for domestic needs and to improve soil fertility. The area of moist equatorial forests is rapidly decreasing, and their species composition is becoming depleted. It is gratifying that in recent decades in Australia, Brazil and other countries, artificial forest plantations have been created over large areas, mainly eucalyptus, which grows very quickly, reaching maturity in 25-30 years, and has quite valuable wood.
In addition to tree species, berries, mushrooms, and medicinal plants are widely used in the economy; their main resources are confined to the forest belt. But many mushrooms and berries also grow in the forest-tundra and tundra, and medicinal plants are found in almost all natural areas.
Now scientists are increasingly inclined to believe that there must be a cure for any human disease in nature. Therefore, it is important to preserve the full diversity of biological species. The potential capabilities of most of them have not yet been studied.
Coniferous wood is considered the best raw material for the pulp, paper and forest chemical industries.
Wildlife resources are currently exploited on a relatively small scale. Hunting for animals remained the basis of the economy only in certain northern peoples and tribes of Africa, the Amazon and the Malay Archipelago. However, sport hunting and its companion, poaching, are developed almost all over the world. Well-organized hunting in the countries of Europe and North America allows not only to receive income from the sale of licenses, but also to increase the number of many species of animals. Countries located in African savannas also have good prospects for the development of hunting, but, with the exception of South Africa, poaching flourishes in all these countries - even in the territories of national parks and reserves.
In recent years, due to the development of microbiology and biotechnology, various microorganisms are of increasing interest. Their beneficial properties are so wide that they can be used not only in medicine or for biological plant protection, but also in the chemical industry to simplify many technological processes and even for the extraction of rare minerals.
Animal biological resources
Animal resources are, first of all, hunting and commercial resources. Hunting is one of the most ancient human activities. The main commercial fur-bearing animals in Russia include the squirrel, arctic fox, fox, and white hare. More rare fur-bearing animals are marten, weasel, otter, and beaver.The territory of Russia is huge - over 17 million square kilometers. Natural conditions are very diverse. Therefore, a significant part of the world biological diversity is located in our country. Let's think about the number - 1513. This is exactly how many species of vertebrates there are in Russia, namely: 320 species of mammals, 732 species of birds, 80 species of reptiles, 29 species of amphibians, 343 species freshwater fish, 9 species of cyclostomes.
In addition, about 1,500 species of marine fish live in the seas surrounding our country.
As for the invertebrate fauna, it numbers up to 150,000 species, of which 97 percent are insects.
And many of these species exist only in our country; they are not found anywhere else in the world. Scientists call such species endemics.
Hunting in Russia is allowed for 60 species of mammals and 70 species of birds. According to the state hunting resources service, the number of game animals is stabilizing. The noted fluctuations are caused by changes in weather and climatic conditions.
The population of valuable fur-bearing animal species is in good condition - the number of sable and beaver is increasing, despite the fact that their prey has increased significantly.
The number of grouse birds has finally recovered, the condition of which was alarming just five years ago.
Hunting reserves also play a positive role - now there are more than a thousand of them, with a total area of almost 44 million hectares. In most of the reserves, the density of animals is much higher than in adjacent areas. And over time, animals from reserves naturally move to adjacent territories.
As in other years, the main part (more than 41%) are small-sized fish; bream and whitefish species (16% each); very few sturgeon and salmon. This is not surprising, because the stocks of valuable fish species (sturgeon, salmon, pike perch) are declining, as are the stocks and numbers of predatory fish species, such as pike, burbot, and catfish.
Too much human activity (not only fishing, but the development of industry) has led to a decrease in the stocks of commercial fish species in lakes such as Ladoga, Onega, Ilmen, and Beloe. Although, in general, in Russian reservoirs the stock of commercial fish species remains at a fairly high level.
In general, the fish stocks of reservoirs in the European part of Russia are most intensively used - about 80% of the fish from reservoirs is caught here. And the reservoirs of the Urals and Western Siberia account for up to 70% of the total catch of river fish.
For economic reasons, for the last two years, seal fishing has not been carried out by any of the Caspian countries.
Hundreds of millions of juvenile small fish - carp, bream, pike perch - are released into natural reservoirs every year. And the catches show the high efficiency of work on the artificial reproduction of their stocks. Thanks to the activities of the Tsimlyansky fish hatchery, a commercial herd of silver carp has been formed in the reservoir of the same name. Commercial stocks of herbivorous fish appeared in Krasnodar, Volgograd, Saratov and other reservoirs.
What is the ecological state of Russia's fishery reservoirs? Otherwise, sometimes you get a paradoxical picture: one plant grows fish, and the second immediately destroys it.
In 2000, fisheries protection authorities registered 58 cases of massive pollution of water bodies. One of the unfortunate results of this is dead fish. By the way, the damage from these salvos of pollution amounted to more than 60 million rubles.
In addition, many reservoirs are negatively affected by natural factors. For example, in the Primorsky Territory, due to logging in water protection zones (established for each river depending on its size), spawning grounds have become silted.
Due to water pollution in Nakhodka, Amursky and Ussuriysky bays, stocks of rudd, flounder, greenling, smelt, navaga, and pollock have decreased. In addition, the Kamchatka crab no longer approaches the polluted coast, the spawning grounds of herring have shrunk, and the lost habitats of scallops and sea cucumbers are not being restored at all.
The oil and gas complex in the Ob basin has a detrimental effect on the food supply, and, accordingly, on the reproduction of fish.
Pulp and paper mills on the shores of Lakes Ladoga, Onega, and the Yanis-Joki River also do not contribute to the reproduction of fish. Due to dirty wastewater, the stocks of vendace have decreased, the spawning grounds and wintering pits of bream have decreased, and the fish itself began to have a specific - not at all fishy - smell.
And, on the contrary, where the activities of enterprises cease or are reduced, fish stocks are restored there. For example, as soon as some enterprises stopped operating on Sakhalin, Asian smelt, navaga, and pink salmon immediately began to enter the sea zone to spawn. The Kholmsky and Chekhov pulp and paper mills ceased their activities - the condition of the salmon rivers improved.
With a decrease in the volume of drilling work in the Arkhangelsk region, fish stocks in tundra lakes have been restored.
The ichthyofaunares of Puksa and Podina recovered only after the closure of two pulp mills; Even the whitefish spawned successfully, and juveniles were introduced into the Puksa River.
This, of course, is not about a complete closure of all enterprises. But, as Paracelsus said, the dose, that is, the measure, is important in everything. And in our century - the use of new treatment technologies. Of course, it’s bad without paper and cardboard, but they are of no use if not because of them there will be no forests, rivers, fish and nature.
Recently, there has been an increasing understanding of not only the ecological, but also the economic value of such a specific resource as the ability of the natural environment to assimilate and a certain amount of waste entering it, i.e., to self-purify. Economic significance this property means that within the assimilation capacity environment the production process can be carried out without spending money on environmental protection measures.
This property of nature is the property of all peoples and generations, but it has been taken advantage of by a relatively small number of countries that were the first to take the path industrial development, thereby hindering the progress of other countries and creating a threat to the existence of future generations. A fair solution to this problem is possible on the basis of objective international agreements.
Protection of biological resources
One of the main conditions for restorative environmental management is the exploitation of wild nature resources in such a way that their reproductive potential is not violated and there is no need for special and expensive restoration measures. A reasonably exploited resource must, relying on the mechanisms of environmental self-regulation, independently restore its numbers to the operational (commercial) level. It is significant that many large-scale human activities have long used this principle with success.Mushroom picking and wild berries, subject to the timing and technology of harvesting, is possible on the same areas almost forever. The same applies to the taiga cedar farming, especially near villages, which had a stable stationary character. Annual haymaking on natural Russian meadows was carried out in such a way that the remaining remnant would reproduce the next year high-quality grass suitable for effective haymaking. Only minor reclamation work was required to combat the expansion of trees and shrubs. In the absence of overfishing in local reservoirs by the sedentary population (and this was the rule), they were able to maintain commercial harvests and reproductive stocks at a constant level for decades. The same can be said about hunting resources in conditions of a stable fishing economy - with the existence of a conservative system of hereditary hunting grounds. Of course, all processes in the communities of the mentioned biological resources, their abundance and distribution must correspond to natural successions and, therefore, change somewhat, but very slowly.
Sometimes linguistic accents can significantly influence understanding and even the essence of the problem. In all of these cases, the main thing for users was to obtain a constant, relatively high yield, and the conservation of resources was a necessary but accompanying condition. The doctrine of Russian foresters Morozov and Nesterov, put forward in late XIX- the beginning of the 20th century, - the doctrine of inexhaustible, eternal forest management shifted its emphasis. The protection of resources came first, and the practical result came second. Although the main indicators could remain the same. We repeat, the most important science about the eternal, inexhaustible exploitation of biological natural resources has been born. The economic effect of its use on a global scale, sometimes spontaneous, traditional use, is estimated at hundreds of billions, if not trillions, of dollars.
In the USA and Canada, the effectiveness of “conservation through wise use” is carried out on an even wider scale, covering almost the entire fauna of game animals. As a result, the number of some hunting objects, despite their intensive exploitation, has reached a historical maximum: Canadian beaver- 6-8 million individuals, white-tailed deer - 32-33 million, wapiti - 10 million, wild turkey - 5 million, etc. This population of game animals and birds fully satisfies the needs of 13-14 million hunters.
Available fish resources make it possible to satisfy the needs of more than 43 million recreational fishermen, subject to high fishing standards and strict control over fishermen. A significant portion of the fish caught are released back into the water bodies.
The volume of tax revenues to the federal and state budgets of the United States from recreational hunting and fishing, as well as from wildlife observers, exceeds $10 billion per year. The value of natural hunting and fishing products amounts to hundreds of millions of dollars - while preserving the biological potential and resources of exploited game and fish populations.
Humanity has made and is making various attempts to reduce and prevent threats to biodiversity. The use of the gene pool of plants and animals is regulated by a set of legislative, legal, and regulatory documents containing principles and methods of protection, exploitation and restoration of the resources of the plant and animal world. The range of these documents is very wide - from exploration and determination of general and operational reserves to the calculation of specific withdrawal standards. In Russia, the Law of the Russian Federation “On Environmental Protection”, forestry, land and water codes are in force, the whole system subordinate departmental regulations, departmental regulations on the use of certain biological natural resources, etc. Their fundamental drawback is their departmental nature and the lack of unified organizational and methodological approaches. Regulatory documents for direct consumption, such as regulations on hunting and fishing, production standards, hunting and fishing rules, logging methods, etc., should undergo significant specification based on general conceptual provisions. They can take into account regional characteristics and local traditions of attitude towards wild animals and vegetation, and implement the principle of integrated environmental management (multiple use).
From the standpoint of restorative environmental management, we are especially interested in the protection and restoration of particularly rare, endangered forms of organisms that, in essence, have gone beyond the boundaries of departmental regulation. The Law of the Russian Federation “On Environmental Protection” contains articles providing for the protection of the gene pool of plants and animals. “Plants and animals belonging to species listed in the Red Books are everywhere subject to withdrawal from economic use. Activities that lead to a reduction in the numbers of these plants and animals and that degrade their habitat are prohibited.”
As is known, since 1963, the IUCN Red Book has been in effect, which includes (with a gradual increase in coverage) forms of flora and fauna, the conservation of which is of international importance. This book is continually being updated based on changes occurring in the plant and animal world of the Earth. The first edition of the book in 1963 included information about 211 species and subspecies of mammals and 312 species and subspecies of birds. The fourth edition, which appeared in 1978-1980, has already included information on 226 species and 79 subspecies of mammals, 181 species and 77 subspecies of birds, 77 species and 21 subspecies of reptiles, 35 species and 5 subspecies of amphibians, 168 species and 25 subspecies of fish . As we can see, the number of protected objects is increasing. However, there are also restored forms of organisms: 7 species and subspecies of mammals, birds, 2 - plants. The IUCN Red List is working. Thanks to it, many forms of plants and animals have been removed from the “threatened” category.
“National Red Books should (and have become) become a necessary addition to the IUCN Red Book, which can take into account specific circumstances and plan protective measures with a much greater degree of efficiency and reality,” believed A.G. Bannikov and V.E. Flint.
As you know, the Red Book of the USSR was published in 1978 and 1984. In Russia there are two editions of the Red Book dedicated to animals and one to plants.
In Russia, the process of differentiation of the Red Data Books extended to the republics, regions, territories and even large administrative districts, which was not always greeted favorably by some scientists and the environmental community. A summary of regional protection objects in Russia was compiled by V.V. Gorbatovsky. It contains an overview of the publication of red books and other publications devoted to rare and endangered species of plants, animals and fungi in the constituent entities of the Russian Federation.
Flora world. The approximate number of species of flora of the Russian Federation is 12,500. The Red Book of the RSFSR (a new edition is in the process of preparation) includes (indicating categories) 465 species of vascular plants (440 species of angiosperms, 11 gymnosperms, 10 ferns and 4 lycophytes), as well as 22 - bryophytes, 29 - lichens and 17 - fungi (533 species in total). Among the vascular plants in the Red Book, the following families are most widely represented: orchids - 46 species, legumes - 54, asteraceae - 24, umbelliferae - 26, grasses - 23, cruciferous - 20.
Animal world. The Red Book of the Russian Federation (animals) includes 415 taxa and animal populations. Of these, 156 are invertebrates (95 of which, or 0.1% of their total number on the territory of Russia, are insects, 42 are mollusks) and 260 vertebrates: cyclostomes - 3, fish - 47 (5%), amphibians - 8 (30), reptiles - 21 (28), birds - 126 (17), mammals - 74 (20%). Of these species, 123 vertebrate species and 6 invertebrate species are on the IUCN Red List.
The new edition of the Red Book of the Russian Federation includes 225 new taxa and populations: annelids (13 species), bryozoans (1 species), brachiopods (1 species), crustaceans (3 species), cyclostomes (3 species). The number of species represented only by individual populations has increased significantly. Currently, the number of species of invertebrate animals in Russia is estimated at 135 thousand, of which arthropods account for 120 thousand, including insects - 100 thousand. Noteworthy is the significant representation in the national Red Book of animals belonging to 1 and 2 categories, which indicates its high nature-restoring role.
The Red Book of various levels played a primary positive role in protecting the gene pool of the flora and fauna of Russia. It can be argued that without this conservation tool we would not be able to preserve the Amur tiger, Far Eastern and Western Asian leopards, snow leopards and some other rare animals. Now it is advisable based on V.V.’s report. Gorbatovsky to conduct a scientific audit of the Red Book system of Russia, evaluate their effectiveness and clarify the content. We need an updated scale of criteria for including plants and animals in books of one level or another. We must clearly understand the biogeocenotic, ecosystem, economic and aesthetic significance of each protected form of living organisms and, based on this knowledge, determine their role in restorative environmental management and the priority of work with them. The theoretical basis for this was created by A.G. Bannikov and V.E. Flint and completed by V.E. Flint.
Legislative strengthening of the protection of the gene pool of living organisms in Russia is important. V.V. Dezhkin proposed introducing the following wording into the Constitution of the Russian Federation: “The living matter of the biosphere and its components need to preserve and maintain conditions for constant reproduction as indispensable parts of the great biological cycle that creates and supports life on planet Earth.
Thus, it becomes clear that preserving the biological diversity of the gene pool of animals and plants is also one of the tasks of environmental ethics.
Plant biological resources
Plant resources are all plant organisms (higher plants, fungi, mosses, lichens, algae) that grow in territories and water areas and are used or can be used for various needs of society. Among them, forest resources are of particular economic importance.Forests cover about a third of the globe's surface. Wood is a universal raw material, from which more than 15-20 thousand different products can be made. The hydroclimatic, soil- and field-protective significance of forests is also known. In addition, the sanitary-hygienic, balneological and recreational functions of forests are very important. Forests have a high level of biomass production - today they create about 92% of land biomass. Forests are also valuable because they are regenerative resources and produce approximately two-thirds of the organic matter that is created on Earth.
Forest resources are wood, technical, medicinal and other forest products that are used to meet the needs of the population and production and are reproduced in the process of formation of forest natural complexes. Forest resources also include the beneficial properties of forests (the ability to reduce the negative consequences of natural phenomena, protect soil from erosion, prevent pollution of the natural environment and clean it, help regulate water flow, improve the health of the population and its aesthetic education, etc.), which are used to meet public needs.
The world's forest resources amount to about 4 billion hectares, and industrial wood reserves amount to up to 50 billion m3. Most of the forests are concentrated in two forest belts - the northern, with a predominance of coniferous trees (passing through Canada, the USA, Scandinavia and Russia), and the southern, with deciduous tree species (the territories of Central and South America, equatorial Africa, South and Southeast Asia ). Forests cover about 38% of European territory, and approximately 80% of European forest resources are located in Russia. The largest forest areas remain in Asia and South America, the smallest in Australia and Europe. Since the sizes of the continents are not the same, it is important to take into account their forest cover, that is, the ratio of forested area to total area. According to this indicator, South America ranks first in the world. Based on such an indicator as timber reserves, the countries of Asia, South and North America are distinguished - Canada, Brazil, Russia and the USA. There are almost no forests in Bahrain, Qatar, Libya, etc.
For the rational use of forest resources, it is necessary to comprehensively process raw materials, and not to cut down forests in an amount exceeding their growth, and to carry out reforestation work. Forests are called the “lungs” of the planet; they play a huge role in the life of all humanity: they restore oxygen in the atmosphere, preserve groundwater, and prevent soil destruction. Clear cutting of the Amazon rainforest is destroying these lungs. Forest conservation is also necessary for human health.
The concept of “forest resources” includes not only wood, but also resin, cork, mushrooms, fruits, berries, nuts, medicinal plants, hunting, industrial resources, etc., as well as the beneficial properties of forests (water protection, climate control, anti-erosion, wellness, etc.). Coniferous woody greens are used to make vitamin flour, pine extract, pine paste and other products. Important economic and social significance have resources of non-timber vegetation and forest fauna, from which complex forestry enterprises produce valuable food products.
The world's forest resources are mercilessly cut down for arable land and plantations, for construction, in addition, wood is widely used for firewood and woodworking products. As a result, deforestation has reached alarming proportions: the total forest area in the world is decreasing annually by at least 25 million hectares. Lately there has been a catastrophically rapid expansion of tropical forests. Over the past 200 years, the forest area has been reduced by at least half; Every year an average of 125 thousand km2 of forests is destroyed, equal to the territory of countries such as Austria and Switzerland combined.
The main reasons for deforestation are the expansion of agricultural land and the use of wood. Forests are also cut down for the construction of power and communication lines. In addition to developing countries, where forests are cut down to use wood as fuel and to obtain arable land, forests in highly developed countries are shrinking and degrading from air and soil pollution. There is a massive drying out of tree tops due to their damage by acid rain, so the most developed and at the same time forest-poor countries are already implementing programs to preserve and improve forest lands. Thus, in Japan and Australia, as well as in some Western European countries, the area under forests remains stable, and depletion of forest stands has not been observed in recent years.
Forest resources are a set of material benefits of the forest that can be used without damaging the environment with the greatest economic efficiency.
The entire variety of forest resources, depending on their purpose and features of use, are combined into the following groups:
Raw materials of wood origin - wood, tree greens, bark;
- Resources of non-timber origin - mushrooms, berries, fruits, nuts, medicinal resources, feed and technical resources of non-timber vegetation and the like;
- Resources of animal origin - useful and harmful forest fauna, eggs, honey, horns of wild ungulates, etc.;
- Multilateral beneficial functions of the forest and its positive impact on the natural environment.
The forestry complex includes three industries: forestry, woodworking and pulp and paper. In the forest industry, the most developed are logging and wood chemical production. Logging production ensures the procurement of round timber, the production of technological chips and their transportation to final points of consumption, the procurement and export of fallow and woody greenery. Wood chemical production as part of the forest industry ensures the processing of steam into rosin, turpentine, and wood greens into vitamin flour, extract, paste, wax and other products, harvesting and processing of resin.
The branches of the forestry complex include forestry, the main task of which is the reproduction of highly productive forests, their protection and conservation. Forestry has few highly specialized enterprises that would be engaged only in forest growing, conservation and protection of forests. Most forestry enterprises are complex. In addition to forest growing, they are engaged in forest exploitation and wood processing for consumer goods. As a rule, in developing countries, wood processing forestry enterprises are characterized by a low level of technical development and inefficient use of raw materials.
The influence of anthropogenic factors on forests is manifested both directly (destruction during logging, construction, creation of reservoirs, open-pit mining, fires, etc.) and indirectly - as a result of changes in environmental conditions (during irrigation, drainage, soil salinization, pollution environment with harmful chemicals, etc.). In economically developed forests, natural forest conditions are disrupted, and all components and connections in ecosystems change. Violated temperature regime, relative humidity decreases by 5-10%, wind speed increases. When clearing forest soils, huge amounts of nitrogen, phosphorus, and calcium are removed, even-aged, single-species stands are formed, and forest monocultures develop. When creating rubble from dry trees, the fire danger increases. So, modern trends are characterized by a deterioration in general soil and climatic conditions, which are becoming increasingly unfavorable for the development of tall tree species.
For example, in Europe, in the pre-Earth period, forests covered from 70 to 80% of the territory. Only during the time when people began to actively use fossil fuels, that is, from 1850 to 1980, the forest area on the planet decreased by 15%. The Earth's forests also suffer significantly from fires, 97% of which are caused by people. The needs of humanity have already exceeded the capabilities of forests. Over the past half century, the world's forest area has declined significantly, with developing forests experiencing the greatest losses. In 2050, it is planned to reduce forests per capita from the current 0.56 to 0.38 hectares. This figure takes into account both population growth and the conversion of some forests to arable land. In many cases, the world's demand for forestry products - paper, timber, firewood - has grown, and they already exceed the capabilities of constant logging.
In most European countries, the number of forests that have not been affected in any way by human activity is less than 1%, with the exception of Russia and the Nordic countries (northern Sweden, Finland and Norway). About 7% of forested areas in Europe are protected, and about 3% are protected areas, strictly protected.
The term deforestation (due to deforestation), which only emerged in recent decades, is now used as widely as “desertification” or “soil degradation.” According to UNEP definition, deforestation is the complete destruction of forest vegetation and the transfer of land to another type of economic use.
Among the environmental consequences of deforestation, the main ones are:
Direct reduction in the amount of organic matter, changes in energy and water cycles, global biochemical cycles of basic nutrients, etc.;
- Noticeable changes in climatic conditions at the local, regional and global levels;
- Changes in the biological diversity of flora and fauna.
Biodiversity is the most important natural resource, the global heritage of all humanity and the national heritage of each state. The conservation of biodiversity, the main forms of which are genetic, species and ecosystem, must be based on the constant (balanced) use and restoration of biological resources.
This will be facilitated by various measures for the protection and restoration of forests, which include the following:
Firstly, the correct management and intensification of forestry, based on rationing of fellings and full use of forest products. Deforestation rates should be determined for each region, taking into account the forest cover and the actual possibility of their timber development in order not to cause deforestation in some regions and the formation of overmature forests in others. One of the most important tasks of forest protection is to develop the optimal proportion of forest cover differentially for different natural zones.
Secondly, increasing forest productivity and improving their quality by changing forest conditions: draining wetlands, improving drainage and other forestry measures.
Thirdly, fighting forest fires and protecting forests from pests.
Fourthly, changes in the species composition of forests for more efficient use of the potential fertility of forest soils, that is, the introduction of species is growing rapidly, restoration of forests from cleared areas, and other measures.
Thus, high-intensity forestry is understood as the sum of activities and forestry work that are consistently carried out over a long period - from clearing natural forests to clearing forests grown by humans. In order to preserve and increase productivity, reproduction, conservation and protection of forests, as well as improve the culture of forestry, forest management is carried out.
Its main tasks are:
Determination of the boundaries of the territories of forestry enterprises, forest resources, species and age composition of forests, design cutting areas;
- Identification of areas where it is necessary to cut down for the purpose of care and sanitary conditions;
- Clarification of areas intended for forest restoration and afforestation and determination of methods of forest reproduction;
- Clarification of the division of forests into groups and categories of protection.
Forest restoration can be carried out in three ways: the first is natural reforestation using a set of forest measures; the second is artificial reforestation, that is, sowing seeds or planting seedlings and seedlings grown in forest nurseries; the third is combined reforestation, which combines natural and artificial regeneration in one area.
Not only forest resources perform various economic functions in society. Herbaceous plant resources play an equally important role.
According to their significance for humans, they are divided into the following groups:
Valuable forage plants;
- medicinal plants;
- Technical plants;
- The rest are ornamental and other plants.
It should be noted that the vegetation of any natural zone has not been subject to such catastrophic human influence as the vegetation of the steppes, especially over the past 150-200 years, when the appearance of this landscape zone has changed radically. The main directions of influence of human economic activity on the steppe grass stand are associated with factors such as livestock grazing, complete destruction of virgin vegetation during plowing, haymaking, construction of cities, industrial facilities, transport highways, etc. The consequences of the disappearance of the natural vegetation cover of the steppe were drying out of soils and a decrease in surface and underground drainage.
In addition to steppe vegetation, meadows and pastures, swamps (as important hydrological and climatic regulators), as well as wild plant species are also subject to restoration and protection; only a small part of the huge number of wild plant species is used for economic purposes. The main uses of wild plants are the production of medicines, oils, honey and other products. Recently, the number of wild plant species has decreased significantly, and many species have become rare and endangered.
Currently, about 20-25 thousand plant species are threatened with extinction on Earth.
The Commission for the Conservation of Endangered Species of Plants and Animals of the International Union for Conservation of Nature adopted the following classification Threatened plant species:
0 - species that have apparently already disappeared (have not been found in nature for several years);
1 - species under threat (further existence is impossible without special protection measures);
2 - rare species(there is no direct threat of extinction yet, but they occur in such small numbers or in such limited areas that they can quickly disappear);
3 - species whose numbers are declining (and their range is also narrowing over a certain period of time);
4 - uncertain species (possibly under threat, but lack of information about them does not allow a reliable assessment of their current status).
So, plant resources are one of the most important types of biological resources. These are exhaustive, but renewable, multi-purpose resources that are of great importance: they restore atmospheric oxygen, preserve groundwater, and prevent soil destruction; is a source of various materials, fuel, mushrooms, fruits, berries, nuts and medicinal plants. Plants, in particular forests, are a place for people to relax and play an extremely important environmental role. But at the same time, plants are also the most defenseless against human activity, so their protection is a complex international task.
Use of biological resources
Taxpayers of the fee for the right to use objects of the animal world are organizations (Article 18 of this Code), individual entrepreneurs and individuals (Articles 24 and 26 of this Code) who use objects of the animal world on the territory of the Russian Federation, under permits (licenses) in accordance with the law Russian Federation.Taxpayers of the fee for the right to use aquatic biological resources are:
1) Russian organizations (Article 18 of this Code), individual entrepreneurs and individuals - citizens of the Russian Federation (Articles 24 and 26 of this Code) who use aquatic biological resources in inland waters of the Russian Federation, the territorial sea of the Russian Federation, on the continental shelf of the Russian Federation, the exclusive economic zone of the Russian Federation, the high seas, including conventional areas, if the Russian Federation spends funds on their study and protection, as well as those using anadromous fish species spawning on the territory of the Russian Federation, throughout their entire range, on the basis of permits (licenses) in accordance with the legislation of the Russian Federation;
2) foreign organizations and individuals, both residents and non-residents of the Russian Federation (Articles 24 and 26 of this Code), using aquatic biological resources in the internal waters of the Russian Federation, the territorial sea of the Russian Federation, on the continental shelf of the Russian Federation, the exclusive economic zone of the Russian Federation in accordance with the legislation of the Russian Federation, as well as those carrying out the use of anadromous fish species spawning on the territory of the Russian Federation throughout their entire range.
Taxpayers of the fee for the right to use objects of the animal world and aquatic biological resources are further referred to in this chapter as taxpayers.
Tax benefits
The following categories of taxpayers are exempt from paying the fee:
1) representatives of indigenous peoples of the Far North, and areas equivalent to them (according to the list established by the Government of the Russian Federation), for whom hunting and fishing are the basis of existence. This exemption applies only to volumes (quantities) of fauna and aquatic biological resources extracted within the territories of traditional settlement and economic activity of this category of taxpayers for their personal consumption;
2) organizations and individuals carrying out the seizure of objects of wildlife and aquatic biological resources in order to protect public health, eliminate threats to human life, protect agricultural and domestic animals from diseases, regulate the species composition of aquatic biological resources, prevent damage to the economy and wildlife and its habitat, as well as for the purpose of reproduction of fauna and aquatic biological resources on behalf of specially authorized government bodies;
3) scientific organizations those carrying out the seizure of objects of wildlife and aquatic biological resources for scientific purposes, in the manner and volumes determined by the Government of the Russian Federation;
4) public associations of hunters and fishermen, carrying out the protection and reproduction of fauna and aquatic biological resources on their assigned territory at their own expense;
5) bodies for the protection, control and regulation of the use of fauna and aquatic biological resources, carrying out the use of fauna and aquatic biological resources for the purpose of studying their reserves and industrial expertise, insofar as they relate to the specified activities;
6) organizations that, in accordance with the legislation of the Russian Federation, have settled objects of the animal world of a specific species in the territories assigned to them - for the duration of the agreement for the use of this territory (water area) in the amounts determined by the legislation of the Russian Federation on animal life.
The legislative authorities of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation have the right to provide certain categories of taxpayers with additional benefits within the limits of the collection amounts received by the budget of the corresponding constituent entity of the Russian Federation.
Object of taxation
The object of taxation is the right to use objects of the animal world and the right to use aquatic biological resources, the use of which is carried out on the basis of permits (licenses) in accordance with the legislation of the Russian Federation.
Tax base
The tax base is determined separately for each species (group of species) of fauna and aquatic biological resources permitted to be removed from their habitat in accordance with a permit (license).
The tax base is defined as:
1) quantity (volume) of fauna and (or) aquatic biological resources to be withdrawn;
2) the number of days during which a certain group of wildlife objects and (or) aquatic biological resources of a specific species (group of species) is withdrawn - for amateur and sport hunting and fishing.
Tax rates
The minimum and maximum tax rates for the right to use objects of the animal world, depending on the conditions of use of objects of the animal world and their species, are established by the Government of the Russian Federation.
Specific tax rates for the right to use objects of the animal world are established by the authorities of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation on the proposal of specially authorized state bodies for the protection, control and regulation of the use of objects of the animal world within the limits of the rates established by the Government of the Russian Federation.
Minimum tax rates for the right to use aquatic biological resources that are federal property, as well as for the right to use aquatic biological resources in the internal waters of the Russian Federation, the territorial sea of the Russian Federation, on the continental shelf of the Russian Federation, in the exclusive economic zone of the Russian Federation, the high seas, including in the Convention areas, for Russian taxpayers engaged in industrial production, they are established by the Government of the Russian Federation on a differentiated basis, taking into account the types of aquatic biological resources allowed for fishing, the fishing area, and fishing conditions.
Specific tax rates for the right to use aquatic biological resources that are federal property, as well as for the right to use aquatic biological resources in the internal waters of the Russian Federation, the territorial sea of the Russian Federation, on the continental shelf of the Russian Federation, in the exclusive economic zone of the Russian Federation, the high seas, including in convention areas, for Russian taxpayers engaged in industrial production, are established based on the results of competitions and auctions by bodies issuing permits (licenses) for the right to use aquatic biological resources.
Tax rates for the right to use aquatic biological resources for foreign taxpayers carrying out industrial production in the internal waters of the Russian Federation, the territorial sea of the Russian Federation, on the continental shelf of the Russian Federation, in the exclusive economic zone of the Russian Federation, as well as for the right to use anadromous spawning fish species on the territory of the Russian Federation, are established by the Government of the Russian Federation taking into account the terms of international treaties (agreements).
Tax rates for the right to use aquatic biological resources owned by constituent entities of the Russian Federation are established by the authorities of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation.
In case of over-limit and irrational use of wildlife and aquatic biological resources, the established tax collection rates increase 10 times.
When using objects of the animal world and aquatic biological resources without the appropriate permit (license), tax rates increase 20 times compared to the rates usually established for such use carried out on the basis of a permit (license).
The provisions of this part cannot serve as a basis for exempting a taxpayer who uses objects of wildlife and aquatic biological resources without the appropriate permit (license) from liability provided for by the legislation of the Russian Federation.
Biological resources of Russia
Biological natural resources include soil, plant, and animal resources.On the flat territory of Russia, the soil cover has a pronounced zonal character, while mountainous regions are characterized by altitudinal zonation.
The territory of Russia is located in two zones - polar and temperate.
Biological resources include:
1) land resources - Russia has the largest land resources in the world, its territory is 17 million square kilometers, but agricultural lands (arable lands, hayfields, pastures) make up only 13% of them. The bulk of agricultural land is located in the European part of Russia, including arable land - in the center and south of the European part of Russia, as well as in the south of the Urals and Western Siberia, hay land - mainly in the northern regions of the European part of Russia. The main tracts of pasture land are located in the south-central part of Russia, the south of Western Siberia, in addition, reindeer pastures are located in Siberia and the Far East. The most fertile are chernozem, gray forest and dark chestnut soils;
2) plant resources - on the territory of Russia there are tundra (arctic, moss-lichen, southern, shrub), steppe, desert vegetation, temperate zone vegetation;
3) forest resources - Russia is in first place in the world in terms of reserves of forest resources. Forests occupy 40% of Russia's territory. Most of the forests are coniferous, the most valuable. The forest cover of Russia is divided into two zones - the taiga and the mixed forest zone. In the taiga, coniferous species predominate - spruce, larch, fir, pine, cedar, in the mixed forest zone - deciduous species - birch, aspen, alder, oak;
4) fauna resources - fur-bearing animals (sable, squirrel, muskrat, fox, arctic fox), freshwater and sea fish (carp, pike perch, pike, burbot, perch, ruffe, sturgeon and salmon).
The Russian Federation is the largest state on Earth, occupying an area of 17,075 thousand square meters. km (11.4% of the planet's land area), it is washed by 23 seas. The country has more than 120,000 rivers and about 2,000,000 fresh and salt lakes, and the area of swamps reaches almost 1.8 million square meters. km.
On the territory of Russia there are various species of animals - 320 species of mammals, about 730 species of birds, 75 species of reptiles, about 30 species of amphibians, almost 400 species of coastal marine fish and 269 species of fresh water fish (according to the Institute of Ecology and Evolution of the Russian Academy of Sciences).
Animal resources have always played a significant role in the life of the peoples of Russia. The use of animal resources is the basis of life for many peoples inhabiting the Russian Federation. They are especially important for the indigenous peoples of the North, Siberia and the Far East.
Hunting and fishing are traditional activities for the Russian population. Animal resources form the basis of its economy to a large extent and ensure the country's food security. Even the most terrible shocks for Russia are a slight rocking at sea, while its countless natural resources promise decent food for the people and light in their homes. Perhaps everything would have gone on like this for quite a long time, but Russia’s biological resources are crying out for help. The fauna of the Russian Federation also needs legal protection.
Currently, most animal species are not in danger of complete extinction. However, the number of rare animals that are endangered is constantly increasing. Population numbers of most game bird species remain stable. But for all types of wild ungulates, there is a reduction in the number of animals, which is explained by the general deterioration of the socio-economic situation in Russia and the associated increase in poaching.
According to official statistics, there is a decrease in fish catches in all inland waters of the Russian Federation. Stocks of valuable fish species are also declining due to poaching and high fishing intensity.
In the main fishing areas, illegal activities in the fishing, processing and marketing of fish and other fish have become rampant. seafood products.
Russia ranks first in forest area, accounting for one-fifth of the world's forested area.
The forested territory of Russia amounts to more than 770 million hectares, or 45% of the country's territory, and all forest lands occupy about 1183 million hectares. Only 55% of the forest area is of interest for exploitation; but the majority of them (located in the north of European Russia and along the Trans-Siberian Railway) have been significantly depleted as a result of intensive exploitation in the 20th century.
The total timber reserve is estimated at 82 billion m3, which is over 23% of the world's timber reserves. Coniferous trees are the most valued. Half of the world's reserves of coniferous trees are concentrated in Russia. Although the size of the forested area and the volume of timber reserves in Russia are large, they are declining, especially in the European part of Russia, where for many years the pace of logging exceeds the pace of reforestation.
Although Russia's forest resources are large and of high quality, their productivity (growth) is somewhat lower than in foreign countries. At the same time, in Russia, forests located in its northern part are less productive, lower in quality, and more difficult to renew compared to the forests of the southern taiga. Forest resources are unevenly distributed throughout Russia. Of Russia's total timber reserves, more than 70% comes from Siberia and the Far East.
According to the degree of provision with forest resources, forest-surplus, forest-supplied (where reserves and needs are equal) and forest-deficient territories are distinguished. The Northern, Volga-Vyatka, Ural, West Siberian, East Siberian, and Far Eastern economic regions are classified as surplus timber (reserves exceed needs). The forest-supplied regions (reserves and needs are equal) are the North-Western and Central; the forest-deficient regions are the Central Black Earth, Volga, and North Caucasus economic regions.
Conservation of biological resources
The initial reasons that appeared at the end of the 20th century. global environmental problems were a population explosion and a simultaneous scientific and technological revolution. Geographically, the growth of the world's population is uneven. In Russia, the population is declining, but is growing in China, the countries of southern Asia, throughout Africa and Latin America. Accordingly, over half a century, the space taken from nature by crop areas, residential and public buildings, railways and roads, airports and marinas, vegetable gardens and landfills has increased by 2.5-3 times. At the same time, the scientific and technological revolution gave humanity the possession of atomic energy, which, in addition to the good, led to radioactive contamination of vast territories. High-speed jet aviation has emerged, destroying the ozone layer of the atmosphere. The number of cars polluting the atmosphere of cities with exhaust gases has increased tenfold. In addition to fertilizers, they have become widely used in agriculture. various poisons- pesticides, the washout of which polluted the surface layer of water of the entire World Ocean.All this has led to many major environmental problems. Global environmental problems are an objective result of the interaction between our civilization and the environment in the era of industrial development. The beginning of this era is considered to be 1860; around this time, as a result of the rapid development of Euro-American capitalism, the then industry reached a new level.
Global environmental problems are divided into several groups that are closely related to each other:
Demographic problem (negative consequences of population growth in the 20th century);
energy problem (energy shortage gives rise to the search for new sources and pollution associated with their production and use);
food problem (the need to achieve a complete level of nutrition for every person raises questions in the field of agriculture and the use of fertilizers);
the problem of preserving natural resources (raw materials and mineral resources have been depleted since the Bronze Age, it is important to preserve the gene pool of humanity and biodiversity, fresh water and atmospheric oxygen are limited);
the problem of protecting the environment and humans from the effects of harmful substances (sad facts of mass strandings of whales on the coast, mercury, oil, etc. disasters and poisonings caused by them are known).
The current environmental and economic situation in Russia and its immediate prospects give rise to serious concerns. Despite the significant decline in production in industry and agriculture in recent years, the overall environmental situation in Russia continues to remain at an unsatisfactory level. Specific indicators such as energy consumption and, in general, resource costs per unit of gross national product, disturbance of territory per person, pollution per unit of output, are several times higher in the Russian Federation than in the industrialized countries of the world. Negative aspects of the environmental situation are manifested in a decrease in the quality of the human environment, degradation of natural ecosystems, and depletion of natural resource potential. The environmental factor significantly affects the health of the population, increasing the number of environmentally caused diseases and enhancing its provoking effect.
In Russia, about 80% of extracted resources go to supply resources to extractive and resource-intensive manufacturing industries. Large-scale extraction of natural resources and huge volumes of resource processing production are carried out in conditions of an increased level of emergency hazard at industrial facilities. In general, the modern technical and technological potential of Russia remains at the level of the 70s, which corresponds to the period of environmentally “dirty” industry.
As for forest resources, on the protection and use of which the conservation of many biological resources largely depends, the situation in this area is no less deplorable. Man influences the ecology of his habitat, not only by consuming its resources, but also by changing the natural environment, adapting it to solve his practical, economic problems. Because of this, human activity has a significant impact on the environment, subjecting it to changes, which then affect the person himself. Throughout the history of civilization it has been cut down.
2/3 of forests, oxygen reserves have decreased by 10 billion tons, about 200 million hectares of land have been degraded as a result of improper, irrational farming. The twentieth century of scientific and technological progress has significantly increased human economic pressure on the natural environment. Every day, as a result of irrational human activity, 44 hectares of land turn into deserts, and over 20 hectares of forests are destroyed per minute! The nature-intensive structure of the forest complex with undeveloped processing industries leads to a huge overconsumption of forest for production compared to existing technologies. In this situation, it is necessary to take immediate action. If we want not only us, but also our future generations to be able to use forest reserves, then we should not only consume them thoughtlessly, but also take care of solving the problem of reproduction of this type of resource.
The main problems of environmental safety of the Russian Federation can be classified as follows.
Current problems related to the state of the environment and ensuring the environmental safety of the population:
Urban air pollution;
unsatisfactory quality of drinking water;
food safety (pesticide content, etc.);
pollution of the environment with dioxins, production and consumption waste (hazardous waste dumps);
radioactive contamination a number of territories (regions of Chernobyl, etc.);
the occurrence of a chain reaction man-made disasters at the current critical level of wear and tear of fixed production assets in industry and public utilities.
A number of main problems of the Russian Federation in the field of natural resource protection:
Decrease in species diversity of flora and fauna, decrease in forest cover;
complex land disturbance;
depletion and pollution of surface waters;
exhaustive use of natural resources.
Extraction of aquatic biological resources
The objective side of the crime in question is expressed in the illegal extraction of these items. When qualifying illegal actions, it is necessary to use the clarifications of the Resolution of the Plenum of the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation No. 21 “On the application by courts of legislation on liability for violations in the field of environmental protection and natural resource management.” Resolution of the Plenum of the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation No. 21 “On the application by courts of legislation on liability for violations in the field of environmental protection and natural resource management.”
The concept of qualifying characteristics - a group of persons by prior conspiracy and an organized group - is disclosed in the commentary to Art. 35 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation. Criminal law of Russia.
Use of biological resources
Biosphere protection is a comprehensive system of measures aimed at the conservation, rational use and reproduction of the Earth's natural systems and resources in the interests of existing and future generations of people. The main goal of the rational use of natural resources is to preserve the species diversity (gene pool) of the Earth's flora and fauna, its subsoil, water resources, atmospheric air, i.e. preservation of natural conditions for the development of human society.Since the 30s. 20th century The danger of depleting natural resources has become obvious - both non-renewable (oil, coal, gas, ore, etc.) and renewable (mushrooms, plants, animals, etc.). For the period from the end of the 16th century. until the 70s 20th century 109 species of birds, 64 species of mammals, 20 species of reptiles, 3 species of amphibians disappeared from the face of the Earth. By the end of the 20th century. the process of impoverishment of the biota (the world of living beings) of the globe has assumed alarming proportions. According to the standing commission on endangered species of plants and animals of the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), on average, 1 species (or subspecies) of animals disappears every day and 1 species of plants disappears every week.
The process of depletion of flora and fauna is most noticeable in a relatively small area. Thus, the flora of Belarus, numbering more than 1,750 species, has decreased by almost 100 species over the past 100-150 years. A significant number of animal species also disappeared. Mammals such as the Central European forest cat and the muskrat have ceased to be found; birds: great cormorant, bustard, pink pelican, spoonbill, little bustard; fish: beluga, Baltic and Russian sturgeon, salmon, etc. Mainly species useful to humans are destroyed: food, medicinal and beautifully flowering plants; animals with beautiful fur or plumage, the meat of which is eaten.
As mentioned above, the very existence of the biosphere and humans in it is closely connected with the natural functioning of biogeocenoses, in which each species occupies its own ecological niche and has a strictly defined functional significance. Therefore, the loss of any type of living organisms disrupts the functional organization of ecological systems that has been established in the process of evolution. These disorders are associated with the deterioration of natural living conditions for humans. It is for this reason that scientifically based protection of the species diversity of the organic world on Earth is necessary.
The solution to this most important problem is possible by compiling international and national Red Data Books, as well as lists of rare and endangered species of living organisms in various countries and regions. At the same time, measures are being developed and taken for the practical protection of populations of rare and endangered species, special areas with different protection regimes are allocated - nature reserves, reserves, national parks etc., legislative acts are adopted at the national and intergovernmental levels, international agreements are concluded.
Reserves and other protected areas. Reserves are territories or water areas specially protected by law, excluded from any economic activity for the sake of preserving natural complexes intact, protecting species of living organisms and monitoring natural processes. Reserves are established for the conservation and development in natural conditions of representatives of the most valuable or endangered species of flora and fauna, which are primarily in danger of extinction as a result of direct extermination by humans or destruction of the habitat in the process of economic development. Thanks to the reserves, many species of animals have been preserved (bison, Ussuri tiger, muskrat, eider, etc.), and the numbers of beaver, elk, sable and other valuable game animals have been restored to commercial levels.
The main task of biosphere reserves is to provide long-term comparative ecological studies of natural and anthropogenic ecosystems, organize global and state system environmental monitoring.
A reserve is a section of natural territory intended for the permanent or temporary protection of one or two or many species of living beings, ecosystems or geological monuments (landscapes). In nature reserves, economic activity is allowed only to the extent that it does not disturb the peace and does not cause harm to protected objects.
Reserves are reserved (protected), usually small tracts (groves, lakes, areas of valleys and coasts, etc.), or individual objects of the natural complex (game animals, birds or fish, rare or historically valuable trees, etc. .).
A national park is a vast protected natural area in which natural complexes of special ecological, historical and aesthetic value have been preserved. The regime of the national park is combined: on its territory there is a mosaic alternation of areas with protected and reserved regimes and areas where regulated economic activities are allowed, mainly related to serving tourists and preserving traditional forms of land use for the local population. Currently, there are about 3,000 national parks and other protected areas around the world, similar in their tasks and organization; they occupy an area of over 400 million hectares.
In order to monitor the consequences of the Chernobyl accident in the contaminated territory, the Polesie Radiation-Ecological Reserve was created.
Waste-free technology. A fundamentally new and most radical way to solve the problem of preserving the biosphere is the transition of industrial and agricultural production to low-waste and non-waste technology.
Waste-free technology is a set of measures aimed at maximizing the full use of raw materials and the resulting waste, as well as creating a closed-cycle production without the discharge of wastewater and without the release of harmful substances into the atmosphere. However, waste-free technology in the full sense of the word is impossible, since any production technology produces waste, at least in the form of energy. Therefore, it is more logical to use the term “low-waste technology”, because this technology allows you to produce a minimum of solid, liquid and gaseous waste. At the present stage of development of scientific and technological progress, it is the most realistic.
Thus, resource-saving technologies are characterized by a number of features:
1) allow for more complete use of natural resources;
2) make it possible to reuse production and consumption waste;
3) aim at mastering clean energy sources;
4) provide strict emissions control.
Biosphere protection is a comprehensive system of measures aimed at the conservation, rational use and reproduction of the Earth's natural systems and resources in the interests of existing and future generations of people. To solve this most important problem, measures are being developed and taken for the practical protection of populations of rare and endangered species, special areas with different protection regimes are allocated - nature reserves, wildlife sanctuaries, national parks, etc., low-waste and waste-free technologies for industrial and agricultural production are being developed, etc.
Water resources
Biological and mineral resources are exhaustible. Their uncontrolled use has endangered the existence of marine mammals and led to a significant reduction in the number of fish.
Ocean waters are rapidly becoming polluted. A huge amount of “dirt” is carried into the ocean from land by rivers and sewage. More than 30% of the ocean surface is covered with an oil film that is destructive to plankton. The destruction of plankton, that is, protozoa and crustaceans passively floating in water, led to a reduction in the food supply for nekton and reduced its quantity, and, consequently, reduced fish production. Radioactive waste enters the World Ocean, which also pollutes its waters.
Forest resources
For rational use, all forests are divided into three groups. First group. Forests of water and soil protection importance, green areas of resorts, cities and other populated areas, protected forests, protective strips along rivers, highways and railways, steppe forests, belt forests of Western Siberia, tundra and subalpine forests, natural monuments and some others.
Second group. Plantations of a sparsely wooded zone, located mainly in the central and western regions of the country, having protective and limited operational value.
Third group. Production forests of the country's multi-forest zones are areas of the European North, the Urals, Siberia, and the Far East.
The forests of the first group are not used; only logging is carried out in them for sanitary purposes, rejuvenation, care, clarification, etc. In the second group, the logging regime is limited, the use is in the amount of forest growth. Forests of the third group are subject to industrial felling. They are the main base for timber harvesting. In addition to economic qualifications, forests are also distinguished by their purpose and profile - industrial, water protection, field protection, resort, roadside, etc.
The state of forests in the world cannot be considered favorable. Forests are being intensively cut down and are not always restored. The annual felling volume is more than 4.5 billion m3. The world community is especially concerned about the problem of forests in tropical and subtropical zones, where more than half of the world's annual logging is cut down. 160 million hectares of tropical forests have already been degraded, and of the 11 million hectares cut down annually, only a tenth is restored by plantations.
Tropical forests covering 7% of the earth's surface in areas close to the equator are often called the lungs of our planet. Their role in enriching the atmosphere with oxygen and absorbing carbon dioxide is exceptionally great. Tropical forests are home to 3–4 million species of living organisms. 80% of insect species live here, and 2/3 of known plant species grow. These forests supply 1/4 of the oxygen reserves. According to FAO, they are being reduced at a rate of 100 thousand km2 per year. 33% of the tropical forest area is in Brazil, 10% each in Zaire and Indonesia.
Biological resources of the oceans
The biological resources of the World Ocean are what can save humanity from hunger in the future. With the rapid growth of the world's population (especially in developing countries), the problem of providing food arises. Already now in the world, mainly in the countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America, 500 million people die from chronic hunger, and 1 billion suffer from serious malnutrition. 300 million children of these continents have retarded physical and mental development due to malnutrition. Every day, about 12 thousand children die from hunger here. The causes of starvation lie primarily in droughts.Recently, in the Sahel region of Africa, a long-term drought caused a famine that killed 100 thousand souls. Due to the onset of deserts over the past decades, 8.5 million square kilometers of arable land and pastures have been lost, and on them 30 million tons of grain could be harvested annually. But it is not only natural conditions that explain the lack of food. This is also a consequence of centuries-old oppression of colonial countries, their dependence, which continues to this day.
The biological resources of the World Ocean today provide humanity with only 2 percent of food (88% - cultivated land, 10% - pastures). But its food resources are much greater. To be convincing, we can cite the following data: the oceans contain 43% of the biomass of the entire planet, and fish resources - about 200 million tons. Huge resources of mollusks, crustaceans, algae, zooplankton. However, now 80-90% of the catch is fish, about 6% invertebrates, 4% algae and 1% marine mammals: whales (up to 25 thousand representatives per year), pinnipeds (seals, seals, seals and walruses) in strictly limited quantities.
Invertebrates include bivalves (oysters, mussels, scallops, abalone) and cephalopods (squid and octopus) mollusks. Very valuable crabs, shrimp, lobsters, lobsters, etc. The zooplankton contains a small representative of crustaceans - krill (shrimp), widely used as a food product. Its resources are huge - 5-6 billion tons, and now 50-60 million tons are being mined.
seaweed, according to scientists, almost everything can be eaten. Most of them are mined by China, Japan and North Korea (millions of tons). Over 100 plant species are used in food. From one hectare of shallow water you can harvest approximately 4 times more green mass than from the meadow. It is rich in carbohydrates (60% proteins, 6% vitamins and minerals. Their annual production is up to 20 million tons.
The biological resources of the World Ocean are not limitless. Therefore, aquaculture - the reproduction and cultivation of fish, shellfish and algae - is becoming increasingly widespread. Japan has achieved the greatest success in this. Speaking about the rational and prudent use of biological resources, it should be emphasized that the power of the modern fishing fleet of all countries makes it possible to catch more biological resources than they can be recreated. The size of fish catches is already reaching its limit these days. That's why international organizations are developing measures to regulate the catch, relocation and acclimatization of fish and other sea inhabitants.
The biological resources of the ocean, as already noted, are distributed unevenly in its waters. Nowadays, fishing for marine biological products is carried out not only in a narrow coastal strip, but also in the open ocean. But still 95-97 percent is mined in the coastal strip sea fish and invertebrate animals. The large amount of seafood in the shelf zone is explained by favorable conditions for high biological productivity.
The main objects of marine fishing are anchovies, herring, cod, mackerel, tuna, horse mackerel and flounder. The catch of each of these families exceeds 1 million tons, and in total it accounts for 2/3 of the world's fish catch.
An important place in the total world catch is occupied by other seafood, of which over 60% are mollusks and about a quarter are crustaceans. Among mollusks, bivalves (oysters, clams, mussels) and cephalopods (squid, octopus, cuttlefish) are of greatest industrial importance. In the world's crustacean fisheries, shrimp make up 57%, crabs 25%, lobsters and lobsters 10%.
Sea urchins, stars and sea cucumbers are also of industrial importance. The latter are called for their shape sea cucumbers, and for its nutritional qualities - sea ginseng. Sea cucumber meat contains slightly less protein than shellfish, but has significantly more valuable minerals.
Seals, walruses, fur seals and the like are caught in the ocean. The largest areas for seal hunting are the waters of circumpolar latitudes. The liver and tongue of these animals are considered delicacies among the peoples of the North. But the most valuable product of the fishery is, of course, delicate silky skins, meat and fat. Due to predatory destruction, the number of seal species is decreasing. Two species and six subspecies of seals are listed in the Red Book.
Good, soft and strong fur of the sea otter, or Kamchatka beaver, as it is also called, is valued much higher than the fur of river beavers. Sea otters are most abundant in the coastal zone of the North Pacific Ocean. Two subspecies are listed in the Red Book.
Extremely good seal fur. It is highly valued in the world market. After barbaric hunting, the number of these valuable animals decreased significantly. Now hunting for them is regulated. Large seal rookeries are located on the islands of Pribilova, Komandorskiye and Tyuleny.
The southern hemisphere and the northern part of the Pacific Ocean are the main hunting areas for another valuable ocean animal - the whale. In the 60s whaling was particularly active. It is currently regulated. Therefore, there is reason to hope for the preservation of these mammals from extermination.
There are many seas on the coast various birds, which are also of industrial importance.
The biological resources of the World Ocean are very rich. And the famous French scientist Alain Bombard was right when he said that the ocean is capable of feeding humanity. But all this does not mean that its biological resources can be used uncontrollably. As a result of intensive fishing in recent years, the stocks of many important fish have decreased to a critical limit.
Biological resources of the White Sea
The White Sea is a renewable source of biological resources, including fish products, algae biomass, and prey of marine mammals.The commercial resources of the White Sea are represented by 7 species of fish: herring, whitefish, navaga, smelt, salmon, cod and flounder. Among marine mammals, prey items include the harp seal, sea hare, ringed seal and beluga whale.
Significant marine fisheries are concentrated near the Tersky coast - they kill seals (balds); in the North they collect eggs and beat wild birds - seagulls, barks (eider down).
There are 13 classes of algae, and in the White Sea, out of the more remarkable 4 classes, 121 species and 129 forms were found, and the number of species found is increasing. Currently, mainly brown algae (which include various types of kelp and fucus) and crimson algae (which include ahnfeltia) are of practical importance.
The Arkhangelsk Experimental Algae Plant is the only enterprise in Russia specializing in the deep processing of seaweed. The plant produces seaweed - Laminaria and Fucus - in the White Sea basin on the Solovetsky Islands.
One of the objects of cultivation in the White Sea is the bivalve mollusk mussel. It is the White Sea mussel that has a unique set of microelements and biologically active substances, and contains all the essential amino acids and vitamins.
Mussels are used in various ways. These are, first of all, food products (canned food and cooked-frozen meat).
A medicinal product was obtained from mussels by hydrolysis to reduce the severity of radiation sickness; fractions with antiviral and antibacterial properties are isolated from mussel hydrolyzate.
Biological resources of the White Sea are widely used in the food industry. Extensive fishing (up to 600 tons); caught: herring, salmon, cod, navaga, smelt, etc. Significant marine fisheries - seals (coots) are killed off the Tersky coast; in the North they collect a lot of eggs and kill wild birds - seagulls, barks (eider down). Fishing in the White Sea is developed both at the amateur level and on an industrial scale.
Biological resources of the Azov Sea
We are all already accustomed to the fact that every sea is, first of all, a source of warmth and relaxation. The Sea of Azov is a pleasant tan and valuable time spent. After all, salty sea water is healing water, and sea air is considered the cleanest air on earth. So, when we come to the sea coast, we first of all experience a pleasant feeling of the sea breeze.But you and I don’t notice how our body begins to absorb, like a sponge, all the substances from the sea air and sea water. Yes. It is our presence on the seashore of the warm and gentle sea that makes itself felt in the most useful sense, since the biological resources of the Azov Sea begin to be felt immediately during our presence.
And it's true. After all cleanest air, and especially sea water, has all the necessary elements that our body needs. And if what the sea has among its riches of mineral deposits is suitable for use, then water, air and the sun are a storehouse of biological resources for our body.
But besides this composition, the Sea of Azov has a huge variety of biological resources on its territory. Since the sea is rich in mineral resources, it also has large promising deposits of oil and gas. The territory of the Sea of Azov is, first of all, a “repository” of strategically important minerals, the extraction of which in the future will have a significant impact on the economy of the state.
Moreover, there are large deposits of various iron ores, and in huge quantities. A number of studies were carried out, in particular with drilling rigs, and some layers of iron ore deposits were identified, up to ten meters thick. They are located at a depth of fifty to one hundred meters. Currently, exploration of iron ore deposits continues.
Another serious argument is the availability of various sand materials that are used in various industries. Their extraction is quite profitable, and the prospect of a full-scale extraction process is very high. A lot of shell rock materials, as well as sands, are all biological resources. The Azov Sea, which is quite old, also has very interesting deposits of small diamonds.
These deposits are located in the northern territories of the Azov Sea. From a price point of view, they are not of great value since they are not applicable in industry. But the very fact of finding them forces us to increase attention in this direction.
Some time ago, during the Soviet era, fresh water was found under the bottom of the Azov Sea, the presence of which in those places could solve many problems in agriculture. But perhaps the biggest “trump card” of the Azov Sea is salt.
The territory and the entire Sea of Azov are famous for the extraction of salt from Lake Sivash. There are huge deposits of salt here, the concentration of which is high in autumn. Its use is not only in the food industry, but also in industry.
If you and I look at the Sea of Azov, a photo of which can give us a general picture of its area, then we would immediately like to note its relatively small size. But this does not in any way affect the quantity or saturation of the Azov Sea with useful biological resources.
IN at the moment, the presence of biological potential, in resource terms, provides prospects for production and, as a result, for eliminating all possible shortages of certain useful biological resources.
Catch of aquatic biological resources
The application is submitted to the territorial department of Rosrybolovstvo in writing directly by the Russian or foreign user or by mail.Copies of the following documents are attached to the application:
1. a duly certified copy of the agreement for the use of a fishing area (when extracting (catching) aquatic biological resources by a Russian user with the provision of a fishing area to him by the executive authority of a constituent entity of the Russian Federation);
2. a duly certified copy of the agreement for the use of aquatic biological resources that are classified as fishing objects and the total allowable catch of which is not established;
3. duly certified copies of documents confirming the allocation of quotas for the production (catch) of aquatic biological resources in respect of which the total allowable catch is established;
4. when carrying out extraction (catch) of aquatic biological resources using vessels - documents confirming:
- property rights to a ship registered in the manner established by the legislation of the Russian Federation: certificate of ownership of the ship (for ships with a main engine with a power of more than 55 kilowatts and a gross tonnage of more than 80 register tons), ship ticket (for ships with a main engine with a power of less than 55 kilowatt and gross tonnage less than 80 register tons) - for ships sailing under National flag Russian Federation and assigned to the seaports of the Russian Federation, a lease agreement registered in the prescribed manner (if the vessel does not belong to the Russian user who submitted the application by right of ownership);
- the right to sail a vessel under the State flag of the Russian Federation (for Russian users) or under the flag of a foreign state (for foreign users);
- the presence on the vessel of a technical control device that ensures constant automatic transmission of information about the vessel’s location (in the case where, in accordance with the legislation of the Russian Federation, a technical control device is mandatory installed on vessels engaged in fishing);
5. a duly certified copy of research programs and an extract from the annual plan for resource research and state monitoring of aquatic biological resources on the conditions for their implementation, which are approved in the prescribed manner (for Russian users intending to fish for research and control purposes );
6. receipt of payment of the state fee for issuing a permit of 500 rubles. (original payment order with blue bank seal);
7. receipt of payment of 10% for the use of aquatic biological resources for inland water bodies (original payment order with a blue bank seal).
In order to expedite the consideration of submitted documents, the Office recommends additionally providing the following documents:
1. duly certified copies of constituent documents;
2. duly certified copies of documents confirming the state registration of the applicant as a legal entity or as an individual entrepreneur;
3. a duly certified copy of the document on registration with the tax authority;
4. documents confirming the authority of the person who signed the application;
5. a duly certified copy of a document confirming the absence of debt on accrued taxes, fees and other obligatory payments to the relevant budgets or state extra-budgetary funds for the last reporting period, the amount of which exceeds 25 percent of the book value of the applicant’s assets (according to the financial statements for the last reporting period ).
Biological natural resources
They include plant and animal organisms, with plants making up a larger proportion of them. They are represented by both cultivated and wild plants. There are almost 6 thousand species of cultivated plants, but the most common types of agricultural crops on Earth are only 80-90, and the most common are only 15-20.Among plant resources, forest resources are primarily distinguished, which belong to the category of renewable but exhaustible natural resources. Forest resources are characterized by the size of forest area and timber reserves. The size of the world's forest area is 40 million km2. On average, there is about 1 hectare of forest per inhabitant of the planet. The total supply of wood in the world's forests is 350 billion m3.
Wood has long been widely used as a construction and ornamental material. Half of all harvested wood is used for firewood. With the advent of agriculture, forests were converted into agricultural land.
Less than 30% of the land is covered by forests. At the same time largest area forests have been preserved in Asia, the smallest in Australia. However, the sizes of the continents are not the same, so it is important to take into account the forest cover of the region, that is, the ratio of forested area to the total territory. The highest forest cover in the world is in South America (39%), followed by Europe (36%), North America (27%). Forest cover in Africa, Asia and Australia is less than 25%.
The forests of the world form two huge belts - northern and southern. The northern one is located in a zone of temperate and partly subtropical climate. In this belt, especially valuable coniferous wood is harvested. The main logging operations are carried out in the USA, Canada, Finland, Sweden, and Russia. The southern forest belt is located mainly in the tropical and equatorial climate zone. Humid evergreen tropical forests grow there, playing the role of the “lungs” of the planet. Geographically, they belong to Central and South America, Equatorial Africa, as well as India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Malaysia, Indonesia, and the islands of Oceania. In the southern forest belt, deciduous timber is being harvested.
Currently, the green cover of the planet is in danger. It is a widely known expression that the first tree cut down means the beginning of civilization, and the last one means its end. This must be remembered, since over the past 200 years the forest area has decreased by at least 2 times. The main reasons for this are: deforestation for timber; deforestation to expand agricultural land; deforestation due to construction; deforestation for fuel; reduction of forest areas due to air and soil pollution. In recent years, this problem has become global. For example, atmospheric pollution with sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides has given rise to phenomena such as acid rain. In the USA and Western Europe alone, they destroyed more than 30 million hectares of forests; in Germany, half of the forest vegetation was affected. Europe is becoming a balding continent.
These problems are global, and they need to be solved with broad international cooperation, since they do not have state borders. Acting in this direction, the UN adopted an international document - “ World Strategy nature conservation".
Protection of aquatic biological resources
The subject of the crime is aquatic biological resources, which include fish of various species, including juveniles (fish stocks), other aquatic animals (crayfish, crabs, organisms of “sessile” species, aquatic fur-bearing mammals, etc.), as well as food organisms of animal origin and aquatic vegetation that together form food reserves.The objective side is characterized by the commission of one of the following actions: production of wood alloy; construction of bridges, dams; transportation of wood and other forest resources; carrying out blasting and other work; operation of water intake structures and pumping mechanisms in violation of the rules for the protection of aquatic biological resources. It must be borne in mind that the commented article contains an open list of activities, the implementation of which may lead to a violation of the rules for the protection of aquatic biological resources.
These violations are considered criminal if they lead to mass death of fish or other aquatic biological resources, destruction of food reserves in significant quantities, or other grave consequences.
A significant amount of destruction of feed stocks is an evaluative concept; it is determined by the court based on the totality of circumstances, an assessment of the damage caused, taking into account both the economic and environmental value of the biological resources rendered unusable.
Other serious consequences should be understood as the destruction of fish breeding sites or a significant amount of caviar, disruption of the ecological balance of the biosystem, etc.
The crime is considered completed from the moment one of the consequences specified in the commented article occurs.
The subjective side is characterized by an intentional or careless form of guilt.
The subject of the crime is a person who has reached the age of 16 years (the head of an economic entity or an entrepreneur engaged in carrying out these types of work; a person who actually performs them without permission).
Thus, the rules for the protection of biological resources mean mandatory norms of environmental, natural resource and other legislation aimed at ensuring the safety of aquatic fauna and flora.
Illegal extraction (catch) of aquatic biological resources
The direct object of this crime is public relations in the field of protection and rational use of aquatic biological resources.
The main regulations governing these relations are: Federal laws “On Environmental Protection”, “On Wildlife”; Water Code of the Russian Federation and a number of others.
The subject of the crime is aquatic animals and plants: fish, crustaceans, mollusks, walruses, muskrats, muskrats, seals, seals, sea lions, sea beavers and fur seals, dolphins, sea lions and other representatives of the animal world in their natural state, as well as commercial sea plants.
Valuable fish species, specially bred and raised in the reservoirs of fish factories and other farms as marketable products, have the economic properties of property and do not relate to the subject of the crime in question. Illegal fishing and taking possession of them for mercenary purposes form the corresponding elements of theft of someone else's property.
The objective side of the crime in question is expressed in the illegal extraction of these items. When qualifying illegal actions, it is necessary to use the clarifications of the Resolution of the Plenum of the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation No. 21 “On the application by courts of legislation on liability for violations in the field of environmental protection and natural resource management.”
Under prey in st. 256 of the Criminal Code refers to the process of illegal fishing itself, for example, installing nets, traps, traps, causing an explosion in the water to kill fish, etc., regardless of whether this process culminated in the illegal seizure of prey.
Part 1 art. 256 of the Criminal Code contains an exhaustive list of characteristics that define the extraction of aquatic biological resources as illegal and criminally punishable.
Prey becomes such if the act caused major damage, which is an evaluative sign. To recognize the damage as major, it is necessary to take into account a number of factors, in particular the value of the fish or aquatic animals caught, their quantity, total volume, weight, ecological value, harm caused to a particular population, etc.
The extraction of the specified objects of crime with the use of a self-propelled vehicle (ship, barge, cutter, motor boat, catamaran, scooter, motor yacht and similar mechanical means of transportation on water) or explosives and chemicals, electric current or other methods of mass destruction of the specified water is recognized as illegal. animals or plants, for example, poisoning a reservoir with gases, descending into a reservoir for the purpose of poisoning fish and aquatic mammals (beavers, otters, muskrats, etc.) with toxic substances. In the latter case, if such actions actually resulted in the mass death of animals, the act also requires qualification under Part 2 of Art. 250 as providing for liability for a more dangerous crime.
In accordance with the requirements of the analyzed law, the production of these animals constitutes a crime if it is carried out in spawning areas or on migration routes to them, for example, in places where sturgeon spawn on the Volga and Ural rivers, on migration routes salmon fish V territorial waters Russia and on the rivers of Kamchatka to their spawning grounds.
Part 1 art. 256 of the Criminal Code criminalizes the illegal harvesting of aquatic animals and plants in the territory of a nature reserve, wildlife sanctuary, as well as in an environmental disaster zone or in an environmental emergency zone.
Let's give an example, in criminal case No. 1-21/08 under paragraph "c" of Part 1 of Art. 256 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation, citizen K. was convicted for knowing for certain that the river Mountain Ob in accordance with Resolution of the Council of Ministers of the RSFSR No. 554, it is included in the list of rivers that are a migration route to fish spawning grounds, in violation of clause 23 of the Rules for recreational and sport fishing in reservoirs of the Tyumen region, according to which fishing on the Gornaya Ob River is prohibited from freeze-up to spraying ice, one trap 1.5 * 1.5 m with a mesh 10 * 10 mm, installed by him on January 10, 2008, in violation of paragraph 1 of Art. 20 of the Fishing Rules in the reservoirs of the Yamal-Nenets Autonomous Okrug, approved by the Governor’s Decree No. 35, in accordance with which the fishing of fish species listed in the Red Books of the Russian Federation and the Autonomous Okrug is prohibited, in the Gornaya Ob River I caught 6 young sterlets listed in the Red Book of the Russian Federation by order of the State Committee for Ecology No. 569.
Part 2 Art. 256 provides for liability for special composition of this crime - illegal hunting of seals (mammals of the eared seal family), sea beavers (sea otter, Kamchatka beaver and sea otter, mammals from the mustelid family), as well as any other mammals, for example, dolphins, walruses, seals, sea lions, in the open sea or in restricted areas.
The place where the act was committed is a mandatory sign of the crime. Illegal hunting of marine mammals can be carried out either on the open sea outside the territorial waters of Russia, or in prohibited zones: coastal zones - nature reserves, on islands - rookeries, which animals from generation to generation choose as a place of rest, reproduction, reproduction and care of offspring.
Illegal hunting of sea otters, sea beavers, and other aquatic mammals in territorial waters and outside prohibited zones, if there are appropriate signs, must be qualified under Part 1 of Art. 256 of the Criminal Code.
Part 3 Art. 256 of the Criminal Code establishes liability for a qualified set of crimes considered if they are committed by a person using his official position or by a group of persons by prior conspiracy or by an organized group.
Persons using their official position, within the meaning of this norm, may include employees of various environmental organizations and institutions, police officers, prosecutors, representatives of local authorities and management, etc.
The concept of qualifying characteristics - a group of persons by prior conspiracy and an organized group - is disclosed in the commentary to Art. 35 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation.
From the subjective side, all types of elements of the crime in question assume only intentional guilt in the form of direct intent: the perpetrator realizes that he is committing illegal production of aquatic animals and plants, and desires this.
The subject of a crime can be any person over the age of 16 years. According to Part 3 of Art. 256 of the Criminal Code, responsibility as a perpetrator of a crime can only be borne by a person who used his official position.
Thus, aquatic biological resources include fish, aquatic invertebrates, aquatic mammals, algae, other aquatic animals and plants in a state of natural freedom.
Aquatic animals include marine mammals, crustaceans, mollusks, echinoderms, and coelenterate aquatic organisms.
Commercial marine plants are aquatic plants capable of autotrophic nutrition, i.e. to the synthesis of all necessary organic substances from inorganic ones, which are commercially available in a certain place and during a certain period of time or have a special legal status.
Types of biological resources
Biological resources are objects of nature that humanity uses in their original form, and also uses to create material wealth. Along with this concept, there is also the concept of “conditions”.They differ from natural resources in that they themselves influence human activity and life, but at the moment they do not participate in any production. Lately, the line between them has become thinner. For example, now air is considered a biological resource. Although previously it was considered only a natural condition.
Biological resources: classification
They differ in several ways. Among them are: atmospheric, plant, water, soil, energy, animal and other resources. The classification by exhaustibility is widely known and interesting. It directs humanity to use, first of all, priority reserves, to replace some reserves with others. These include, firstly, inexhaustible biological resources as the safest in terms of environmental consequences. For this reason, humanity is obliged to look for ways to use them to the fullest. Secondly, they include renewable resources, including slowly recovering plant resources (for example, peat deposits).
Their use is promising for the world's population. So, this classification divides biological resources into inexhaustible and exhaustible. Among the latter, a distinction is made between renewable, non-renewable (dissipated and destroyed) and relatively renewable. In addition, natural reserves are replaceable (for example, metals for plastic) and irreplaceable (for example, water and air).
Biological resources of Russia
Not all natural reserves are distributed evenly throughout the world. Thus, Russia has the largest land resources in the world. Its area is huge - 17 million sq. km. However, there is not so much land suitable for arable land, pastures and hayfields - only 13%. But in terms of forest reserves, Russia ranks first among other countries in the world. They make up 40% of the entire territory of the country. And they prevail coniferous forests. Also on its territory, vegetation of the temperate climate zone, tundra, desert and steppe, is widespread. The animal world is represented by fur-bearing animals (squirrel, arctic fox, fox, muskrat, sable) and fish (sea, freshwater).
Biological resources of the World Ocean
This source of natural resources is extremely important for the planet. After all, the growing shortage of food products makes us turn to it more and more often. The species diversity of all plants and animals living in the world's oceans is much less than on land. However, their number and biomass reaches several tens of billions of tons. Nekton occupies the leading place in terms of scale of application and importance. Up to 85% of its biomass is fish. The remaining share comes from cephalopods. The next complex of ocean animals and plants is benthos, which is used to a lesser extent. It is presented bivalves, echinoderms, crustaceans, some algae. The third complex is plankton. It is inhabited by some crustaceans, mollusks and diatoms.
Biological Resource Management
Features of the functioning of plant communities and fauna in urban areas of various functional purposes.Biological resources are the sources and prerequisites for obtaining necessary for people material and spiritual benefits contained in objects of living nature: commercial objects, cultivated plants, domestic animals, picturesque landscapes, etc. in urban environments. In other words, these are those representatives of the flora and fauna that exist with townspeople on the same territory and to some extent enter into social relations with them, and the comfort and safety of living of the city population largely depends on how these relations develop in cities .
In conditions of increasing technogenic loads, the sanitary and hygienic role of city spaces covered with vegetation is a powerful means of neutralizing the harmful effects of technogenic pollution for the urban population. Natural, green areas, as well as water areas, affect the microclimatic characteristics of the urban environment, including retaining tens of tons of dust, concentrating heavy metals in leaves, participating in the formation of temperature and humidity conditions, chemical composition air: biotransform and disperse hundreds of thousands of tons of pollutants, enrich the air with oxygen. They affect the speed of air flow, the level of insolation of surfaces at ground level, buildings and structures, and also reduce noise pollution from cars and other sources, are a source of aesthetic perception and factors of beneficial psychological effects on humans.
The habitats and conditions of existence of urban plants differ significantly from the conditions of growth of zonal types of vegetation. The fact is that in the city, plants are influenced by a number of environmental factors: climatic, edaphic, technogenic and others. Green spaces on a significant part of their territory, namely in residential, public and industrial areas, experience high anthropogenic and including technogenic load, and are subject to chemical, physical, biological and complex pollution. The consequence of this is the special conditions of existence of all elements of urban ecosystems, which determine their composition and structure, the complex itself and the degree of influence of factors of adverse environmental impact on the state of phytocenoses, the possibilities and conditions for their survival, features of functioning, the level of their ecological significance and their implementation of environmental, sanitary -hygienic and other useful functions.
Large cities are “heat islands”; they create a special thermal air regime characterized by elevated temperatures. They also have their own light regime. Due to smoke and dust in the air, the transparency of the atmosphere decreases, which leads to a decrease in solar radiation. The overall air pollution in cities is much higher than in surrounding areas.
Soils in cities are also highly modified by human activity. Often natural soils are simply absent; they are replaced by artificial bulk anthropological soils. The most unfavorable feature of urban soils in relation to plants is their increased compaction, which in turn negatively affects the temperature regime of the soil, the state of microorganisms, etc. Urban soils are depleted in organic matter; they contain a variety of pollutants: increased concentrations of metal compounds, salts (especially in winter, after the action of deicing agents), construction waste and other waste, which disrupts the natural processes occurring in the soil and depletes it of plant nutrients.
The provision of plants with moisture also has its own specifics. Asphalt pavements make it difficult for water and oxygen to reach the soil. From waterproof asphalt, rainwater flows into the sewer network, increasing the possibility for plants to find themselves in conditions of soil drought. The presence of underground communications and structures in the zone of the root system of trees is unfavorable both for individual plants and for plantings as a whole.
The light regime has also changed in cities compared to natural habitats. Additional lighting of plants at night violates the natural norms of behavior of many species of phytophagous insects and contributes to their redistribution, accumulation within urban plantings and severe damage to the latter. Disruption of vegetation cover and its depletion entails a decrease in the number of entomophages and other representatives of beneficial entomofauna in urban phytocenoses.
Among the anthropogenic factors of adverse impact on the forests of large Russian cities are:
Pollution of the atmosphere, surface and ground water and soil. Atmospheric pollution, affecting whole plants and their individual parts, causes various processes in them that negatively affect the state of the individual plant and the entire biocenosis. The degree of damage to the plant depends mainly on two factors - the concentration of the toxic substance and the duration of its exposure;
excessive recreational impact, accompanied by soil compaction, disruption of moss and grass cover, numerous mechanical damage to the butt part of trees, destruction and damage to young growth and undergrowth, the formation of unplanned roads and drives along the boundaries of large tracts, etc.;
violation of the hydrological regime and erosion processes caused by improper economic measures and industrial activities;
forest fires associated with violation of fire safety by the population during dry seasons and years;
imperfection of the economic activity regime, in which, due to the absence or delay of sanitary and reforestation fellings, conditions are created for the violation of the optimal age structure of forests, an increase in the area of overmature plantings, and the growth of foci of rot diseases.
Forests in the city are gradually degrading under the influence of recreation, and their areas are shrinking. Small tracts are more vulnerable, in them the degradation of plantings reaches 85-90%, in large ones - 6-20%.
In natural forest communities included within the city (urban forests), the following negative processes begin to progressively develop:
Simplification of the horizontal structure of the phytocenosis;
simplification of the vertical structure of the phytocenosis, when urban tree plantations do not have undergrowth, and lawn grasses form a single-tiered grass stand instead of a multi-tiered one;
reduction in the area of the core due to the formation of an extended (5-6 times more extensive than in natural conditions) edge.
One of the most destructive types of anthropogenic impacts is the “edge erosion” of natural areas due to the onset of development. The chain of negative consequences of “edge erosion” of forest areas is associated with the satisfaction of “public interest” - the placement of parking lots, recreation areas, technical facilities and service institutions.
Another characteristic danger that threatens specially protected natural area and forests in cities and suburban areas, is their dismemberment by highways. Subsequent phenomena of “edge erosion” as a result of construction work will spread to two forest areas, in each of which an ecological balance must again be formed, since an obstacle has been created to biological exchanges and migration routes of living animals. As a result of subsequent construction work on the construction of parking lots, etc. the new border causes even more harm natural environment. As a result, the forest begins to recede on each side of the road.
Serious environmental problems are associated with the development of floodplain areas and river valleys. The development of floodplain lands creates the effect of an ecological blockade of the city, depriving the biological components of ecosystems of their last opportunity for existence. Any city is a rather complex ecosystem, all elements of which are closely interconnected. Currently, not much attention is paid to the biological component of such an ecosystem, although it is quite obvious that both vegetation and fauna are the most important indicators of the state of the environment and the quality of life of the population. Based on the number and species composition of some animals, the degree of ecological well-being of a particular area can be determined. For example, the indicator of the number of synanthropic animals is of great importance, i.e. “those species that regularly live in populated areas or in human structures (various buildings, residential buildings, shops, food storage areas, etc.), forming permanent or periodically occurring independent or semi-dependent populations there.” The presence of many synanthropic species (gray rat, house mouse) with complete absence exanthropic species (bank vole, common shrew, etc.) indicate a significant degree of transformation of the landscape or even its complete degradation. Therefore, when carrying out urban planning or other economic activities, it is necessary to remember to preserve the biological diversity of the city.
As a result of the construction and expansion of the city, many communities that were in this place before are destroyed, however, some of the species that were part of them remain and gradually adapt to new conditions. The fauna of cities differs markedly from the fauna of natural biogeocenosis, especially in residential, public and industrial areas. First of all, this is due to the fact that in cities, as a result of development, a large number of asphalt and concrete surfaces and other factors, special living conditions are created that are quite different from natural ones. Animals have to adapt to a special urban microclimate and endure city noise produced by transport and large crowds of people. Even in undeveloped areas of the city, where corners of nature little changed by anthropogenic activity still remain, living conditions are somewhat different, since these territories are the main recreational facilities of the city and, accordingly, carry a large recreational load. However, some species of animals have managed to adapt very well to life in urban environments. Basically, these are the most ecologically flexible animals, primarily omnivores, and those that quickly adapt to city noise, can easily switch from one type of food to another, use landfills and garbage dumps as the main food base, nest and take refuge in different, sometimes extremely extreme conditions.
Of the mammals in the city, the most common species are the gray rat or pasyuk, and the house mouse. These animals belong to the group of true synanthropes, whose distribution area is many times larger than their original range. They can live in all types of buildings, including multi-story stone houses; these animals feed mainly on humans.
All living nature that surrounds us is a complex, multi-level system of interconnected biological resources. Man can also be considered an integral part of this system.
Biological resources are the wealth given
planet to man
Bioresources are the “life of the Earth”. All living things, from single-celled marine organisms to multi-ton mammals, are the biological resources of the world. These include:
Living organisms that cannot be classified as either flora or fauna, for example marine ones, are also part of the planet’s bioresources and collectively can be called biomass.
They perform many functions simultaneously and are of great importance for humanity. Let's look at all the constituent parts combined into the concept of "biological resources".
Animal world
Animals are an integral component of the Earth's ecosystem. They play an important role both for humans and for the functioning of other elements of the biosphere.
Ensuring soil fertility, plant pollination, water purification in natural conditions, transformation of organic substances in the ecosystem - these are just a few of their functions.
Plant resources of the world
This group primarily includes forest biological resources. They are renewable but exhaustible. The size of these biological resources is calculated by the area or volume of wood that can be used by humans. Forests occupy about 30% of the planet's area, which is equal to 40 million square meters. km. If we consider wood reserves as a raw material, then its volume is approximately 350 billion cubic meters. m.
But the forest is not only a material for production and fuel, but also a habitat for many species of animals. This example shows the close relationship between all components of the planet’s biological resources.
Biological resources of the ocean and fresh waters
The oceans occupy 70% of the area of our planet. Mineral reserves in the depths of ocean shelves are not classified as biological resources. Biological resources are all living organisms located in the depths of water that a person can use for his own benefit. The total mass of such living organisms is estimated at 35 billion tons. The Pacific Ocean, as well as the Bering, Norwegian and Japanese Seas, have the highest productivity in terms of fish catching.
Ocean biological resources are also renewable.
How do people use the planet's biological resources?
The volume of biological resources is difficult to determine, and even more difficult to know their value in monetary terms. For example, forest land can simultaneously perform many functions: to be a building material, fuel and a place of recreation. Also, the plant world is an invaluable source of oxygen.
In the case of agriculture, it is difficult to distinguish between bioresources and agroresources. All cultivated farmland used by humans appeared due to the reduction of untouched natural areas previously classified as biological resources.
Aquatic biological resources are constantly used by humans. They are a source of food, as well as raw materials for other industries (medicine, agriculture).
Land animals are also biological resources. The fauna, if we consider exclusively wild animals, loses its former significance for humans. This is happening in connection with the development of livestock farming. Although in some regions hunting still remains a strategically important trade.
State of the planet's biological resources
As we see, man has always boldly used what the planet gave him. And bioresources were no exception. But human intervention did not go unnoticed.
The world's biological resources are losing their pristine appearance year after year under the influence of human actions. We do not always think about the fact that one action can cause irreversible disruption to the functioning of the planet’s ecosystem. For example, it causes the extinction of many animal species.
Over the past 30 years, the area of green spaces has decreased significantly. The scale of deforestation is so large that it is even visible in photographs taken from space. And in total, during the existence of civilization, 35% of forests have been destroyed by our hands. Work to restore green spaces, unfortunately, does not bring the desired result. Now the rate of contraction is 18 times higher than the rate of their regeneration.
Aquatic biological resources also feel the indelible consequences of human activity. First of all, the damage caused to aquatic biological resources is manifested in large-scale catches of fish and other seafood, pollution of water bodies, and destruction of spawning grounds.
Animals are a source of raw materials for many production processes. However, the scale of use of wild terrestrial fauna is insignificant when compared with the volume of livestock farming.
Protection of biological resources is the task of each of us
The fact that the biological resources of the world are of disproportionate importance for the life of mankind does not require any arguments. It is even impossible to imagine how people can exist without access to these riches of the planet.
The world's biological resources have no boundaries, so the issue of their protection must be resolved at the international level. In total, there are now more than thirty organizations that regulate active actions aimed at protecting biological resources in each individual state. UNESCO's initiative was the creation of the “International Union and Natural Resources”. More than 90 countries take part in Man and the Biosphere research led by the same organization.
Another socially active association, Friends of the Earth, conducts regular campaigns to protect flora and fauna. “Action to Protect the Earth” is the youth division of this organization.
The protection of biological resources is the main task of the international association Greenpeace. This organization operates locally, nationally and internationally and has grassroots support.
Basic methods of preserving biological resources
As we see, there are enough organizations positioning themselves as defenders of nature, but what specific measures is humanity taking to ensure that the biological resources of the world are subject to as little influence as possible from its side?
- Rational attitude to biological benefits. Introduction of technologies for waste-free production and reuse of raw materials.
- Protection against pollution is targeted measures, the task of which is to eliminate the negative impact of human activity (installation of treatment facilities at enterprises, waste disposal).
- Development of territories where biological resources are protected. The fauna and vegetation here can be observed in an untouched form. Nature reserves, sanctuaries, natural monuments, national parks are places where it becomes possible to restore populations and plants.
And finally...
Each of us consciously or unconsciously uses available biological resources every day. In this regard, our task is to use them as rationally as possible, protect them, restore them, in order to give our children, grandchildren and great-grandchildren the opportunity to see and appreciate all the riches of the Earth.
Biological resources are all living environment-forming components of the biosphere with genetic material contained in them. They are sources for people to receive material and spiritual benefits. These include commercial objects (fish stocks in natural and artificial reservoirs), cultivated plants, domestic animals, picturesque landscapes, microorganisms, i.e. This includes plant resources, animal resources (stocks of fur-bearing animals in natural conditions; stocks reproduced under artificial conditions), etc.
The importance of biological resources for human life is obvious and hardly needs separate explanations, and assessing their quantity, ability to reproduce and a person’s place in the system is a vitally important and, finally, simply a very exciting task.
Bioresources are the living matter of the Earth, mainly flora and fauna.
To assess biological resources at the most general level, the following concepts are most often used:
a) biomass – the mass of all living organisms;
b) phytomass – the total mass of plants;
c) zoomass – the total mass of animals;
d) bioproductivity – increase in biomass per unit of time.
Firstly, bioresources are fundamentally different in their potential for use, and estimating the total biomass by itself provides little information.
Forest is a building material, fuel and at the same time a source of oxygen and the main natural purifier of the atmosphere. Finally, it is a place of rest, i.e. recreational resource.
In addition, in some regions - both Russia and other countries - the economic importance of hunting, fishing, picking berries, mushrooms, medicinal herbs and other crafts still remains. The natural environment continues to feed humans.
The biological resources of the World Ocean, primarily fish, are also mainly a source of food.
Secondly, it is difficult to distinguish between bio- and agricultural resources. The expansion of agricultural areas can only occur at the expense of living nature - forests, steppes, peatlands.
Now more than a third of the earth's land surface is occupied by agricultural land. Agricultural crops can be considered part of the total phytomass of the Earth, and domestic animals can be considered part of its zoomass.
Thirdly, biological resources are renewable and at the same time vulnerable. Their volume is variable and depends on many factors. In addition, the ratio of volume and productivity for different types of biological resources varies sharply.
Therefore, biomass is “interesting” for economic activity only in relation to its quality, possible use and growth rate.
Mass and structure of biological resources. The total amount of biomass on Earth in terms of dry matter (i.e., excluding water, which makes up most of the mass of living organisms) is estimated at 1.3 trillion tons.
The entire biomass of the World Ocean is about 35 billion tons (less than 3% of the Earth's biomass), of which fish, which accounts for 85% of our seafood consumption, is only 0.5 billion tons. The bulk of oceanic living matter is phyto- and zooplankton.
In the structure of biomass on land, the main part belongs to phytomass, in other words, plants. In terms of dry matter, this is almost 1.24 trillion tons.
The most “significant” of biological resources is forest, which is most often considered as a source of wood. Forests account for 87% of phytomass (65% are forest zones themselves, 22% are forests and plantings within other natural zones) - more than 1 trillion tons.
The mass of inanimate organic matter in the Earth's biosphere is almost three times higher than its biomass and is estimated at 3.2 trillion tons. Most of it is organic soil material. A noticeable share is also occupied by peat massifs, the total reserves of which on Earth are estimated at 500-600 billion tons, of which 160-200 billion tons are located in Russia.
Stocks of nonliving organic matter are a necessary condition for the existence, growth and reproduction of living organisms, which, in turn, are the source of its replenishment.
If we talk about domestic animals, the most “significant” part is formed by cattle, pigs, goats, sheep, horses - creatures comparable in mass to humans or even significantly superior to them.
Both we and large animals are at the top of the food pyramid. Its proportions within the animal world (“small animals – large animals”, “predator – prey”) repeat the ratio of phyto- and zoomass.
For example, food supply, directly or indirectly man-made, is also used by wild animals (which does not always suit humans), and greenhouse gas emissions, in general, contribute to an increase in phytomass and, thus, an increase in the food supply - for people and nature.
At the same time, the increase in the volume of photosynthesis contributes to the restoration of the previous composition of the atmosphere, changed by human activity and, as a result, smoothing out anthropogenic climate fluctuations.
Nature, thus, restores the balance disturbed by man; it has resources and mechanisms for this, although they are also not infinite.
Very good information here: http://www.refia.ru/index.php?13+2
- genetic resources, organisms or parts thereof, populations or any other biotic components of ecosystems having actual or potential utility or value to humanity (Convention on Biological Diversity.)
— living sources of obtaining the material goods a person needs(food, raw materials for industry, material for breeding cultivated plants, farm animals and microorganisms, for recreational use).
B.r. - the most important component of the human environment, these are plants, animals, fungi, algae, bacteria, as well as their combinations - communities and ecosystems (forests, meadows, aquatic ecosystems, swamps, etc.). To B.r. also include organisms that are cultivated by humans: cultivated plants, domestic animals, strains of bacteria and fungi used in industry and agriculture. Due to the ability of organisms to reproduce, all B.r. are renewable, but a person must maintain conditions under which the renewability of B.R. will be implemented. With the modern system of using B.r. a significant part of them is threatened with destruction.
The importance of biological resources for human life is obvious and hardly needs separate explanations, and assessing their quantity, ability to reproduce and a person’s place in the system is a vitally important and, finally, simply a very exciting task.
How to evaluate biological resources?
Bioresources are the living matter of the Earth, mainly flora and fauna.
To assess biological resources at the most general level, the following concepts are most often used:
o Biomass – the mass of all living organisms;
o Phytomass – total mass of plants;
o Zoomass – total mass of animals;
o Bioproductivity – increase in biomass per unit of time.
Bioresources are probably the most difficult object to evaluate.
Firstly, bioresources are fundamentally different in their potential for use, and the assessment of total biomass itself provides little information (unlike, for example, the assessment of oil reserves or even hydrocarbons in general).
For example, forest is a building material, fuel and at the same time a source of oxygen and the main natural purifier of the atmosphere. Finally, it is a place of rest, i.e. recreational resource.
In addition, in some regions - both Russia and other countries - the economic importance of hunting, fishing, picking berries, mushrooms, medicinal herbs and other crafts still remains. The natural environment continues to feed humans.
The biological resources of the World Ocean, primarily fish, are also mainly a source of food.
It turns out that on 70% of the Earth’s surface occupied by the ocean, a “primitive”, “appropriating” type of economy dominates, albeit with the use of modern technical means.
Secondly, it is difficult to distinguish between bio- and agricultural resources. The expansion of agricultural areas can only occur at the expense of living nature - forests, steppes, peatlands.
In this case, do we consider it as a biological resource in the form in which it exists now, or as an agricultural resource - potential or already existing (for example, natural pasture)?
Now more than a third of the earth's land surface is occupied by agricultural land. Agricultural crops can be considered part of the total phytomass of the Earth, and domestic animals can be considered part of its zoomass.
Below we provide general estimates of biomass, and then we will evaluate its human and agricultural components.
Thirdly, biological resources are renewable and at the same time vulnerable. Their volume is variable and depends on many factors. In addition, the ratio of volume and productivity for different types of biological resources varies sharply.
Therefore, biomass is “interesting” for economic activity only in relation to its quality, possible use and growth rate.
Read also:
This type of resources includes forestry, hunting and fishing.
Our country is rich in forest resources; it has 1/4 of all the world's forest resources. The forested area in Russia is 766.6 million hectares with a timber reserve of 82 billion.
m3. The bulk of timber reserves are concentrated in the forests of Siberia and the Far East, but due to their remoteness, the forests of the European part of Russia, especially the basins of the Northern Dvina, Pechora, and the upper reaches of the Kama, are much more exploited. In the past, the main logging activities were carried out within the southern part of the taiga and the mixed forest subzone in Central and Northwestern Russia, close to the main consumers of wood. As a result, the forest resources of these areas have been severely depleted.
Now timber harvesting here has been sharply reduced, and is carried out only in quantities not exceeding natural growth.
Many forests in the central and northwestern parts of Russia are of water conservation importance, so timber is not harvested from them at all. Its resources are greater in Russia than in any other country in the world. However, in terms of the level of their use, our country lags behind economically developed countries. A lot of wood is simply not used, and losses during timber transportation (including along rivers) are enormous.
Logging is not compensated by corresponding forest restoration work, as a result of which a critical environmental situation(in the north of the European part of Russia, near Lake Baikal) and the situation with timber harvesting is becoming more complicated.
Russian forests provide not only timber, but also other products: mushrooms, berries, nuts, medicinal raw materials and, most importantly, furs.
The tundra and taiga have large fur resources. The main types of furs mined in Russia are sable, squirrel, and arctic fox. In terms of the amount of fur produced, Russia ranks first among all countries in the world, exporting it in large quantities.
In terms of forest supply, Russia ranks first in the world, possessing approximately 1/5 of the world's timber reserves. Forest wealth is concentrated mainly in the eastern regions of the country (see.
Table 1
| Economic region | Total area, thousand hectares | Area covered by forest, thousand hectares | Wood reserves, million | Reserves of exploitable forests, million m3 |
| RF | 1167049,7 | 756088,2 | 79831,3 | 39835,7 |
| Northern | 105474,3 | 76048,2 | 7599,2 | 4447,2 |
| Northwestern | 12671,5 | 10387,5 | 1625,2 | 243,1 |
| Central | 22248,5 | 20328,5 | 3041,5 | 218,6 |
| Central Black Earth | 1678,2 | 1469,3 | 181,3 | 3,5 |
| Volgo-Vyatsky | 14587,3 | 13309,2 | 1787,1 | 284,6 |
| Povolzhsky | 5750,0 | 4772,5 | 572,2 | 23,8 |
| North Caucasian | 4488,2 | 3663,5 | 579,6 | 44,1 |
| Ural | 42088,4 | 35753,0 | 4850,1 | 1324,0 |
| West Siberian | 150617,4 | 90095,0 | 10794,1 | 4343,4 |
| East Siberian | 315383,0 | 234464,2 | 29314,5 | 17462,9 |
| Far Eastern | 507182,4 | 280551,8 | 21257,8 | 11438,4 |
| Kaliningrad region | 385,6 | 266,5 | 39,4 | 1,9 |
For every inhabitant of the planet there are 0.9 hectares of forests, in Russia - 5.2 hectares (in Canada - 10.5 hectares).
Wood reserves per inhabitant of the Earth average 65 m3, in Russia - 548 m3 (in Canada - 574 m3). The forest cover of Russia is 44.7% (21st place in the world). The most common species in Russia: larch (258 million hectares), pine (114 million hectares), spruce (77 million hectares) and Siberian pine (37 million hectares).
Russian forests are a source of secondary products (fruits, berries, nuts, mushrooms); hayfields, where over 300 species of medicinal plants grow, have economic value.
Russia is also rich in fish resources.
For many years, commercial fishing was carried out in the Barents, White, Caspian, Azov and Sea of Japan, as well as in a number of inland water bodies (the Volga basin, Lake Ladoga and Onega).
As a result of intensive fishing, the fish resources of all these reservoirs have been greatly reduced, especially valuable species. The construction of hydroelectric power stations on the Volga and the pollution of seas and inland waters had a negative impact on Russia's fish resources.
The development of fish resources in the northern seas of the Pacific basin and Siberian rivers has not compensated for the loss of fish catch in the seas surrounding Russia.
Fishing in rivers and lakes has decreased significantly. In this regard, fish farming, which is still poorly developed, is becoming of great importance.
Natural recreational resources of Russia play an important role in organizing recreation and treating people. These include mineral springs (for drinking and bathing), medicinal mud, favorable for the treatment of many diseases, climatic conditions in a number of regions of Russia, and sea beaches.
The diversity of landscapes is also of great recreational importance. In almost every region of Russia there are places that are convenient and favorable for people to relax and treat; Coastal and mountainous areas have especially large recreational resources.
⇐ Previous12345678
Date of publication: 2014-12-08; Read: 454 | Page copyright infringement
studopedia.org - Studopedia.Org - 2014-2018 (0.001 s)…
BIOLOGICAL RESOURCES (bioresources), populations and communities of living organisms (microorganisms, fungi, plants, animals), as well as their metabolic products, which are used or can be used by humans. Initially, biological resources included mainly commercial species of plants and animals, which were included in the general concept of “natural resources”, along with minerals (minerals), land and water resources.
Later, so-called resource communities (for example, forest, swamp and pasture-meadow ecosystems, natural and artificially created landscapes) began to be classified as biological resources. Unlike inanimate resources (subsoil, land, water), biological resources have a unique property - the ability to self-reproduce, subject to their rational use.
Biological resources of Russia and their protection
This applies both to populations of individual organisms and to centuries-old communities, the destruction of which under conditions of technogenic stress can lead to irreversible negative changes in the ecological situation on a planetary scale. Traditionally, biological resources serve as an important factor in socio-economic development, the main basis of agriculture, forestry, fishing and hunting, and various industries (including woodworking, food, pharmaceutical, perfume).
Advertising
Depending on the socio-economic significance and nature of use, biological resources are divided into three groups: material (directly used for economic and industrial purposes); environment-forming (communities of organisms that support global processes, for example, the balance of the gas composition of the atmosphere, soil fertility, the quality of natural waters); recreational and aesthetic (recreational complexes, natural monuments, cultural and historical landscapes, etc.).
The objectives of sustainable use of biological resources and the creation of conditions that ensure the ability of natural populations and communities to regenerate themselves require the development of special approaches and management methods, a special strategy for biological resource use aimed at preserving the potential of natural populations and communities and restoring destroyed natural objects.
For material resources, for example, the rationing of the withdrawal of products from natural populations (fishing and hunting) or the load on resource communities (forests, pastures, hayfields), which ensures the preservation of the ability to self-reproduction, is of paramount importance, and for environment-forming and spiritual-aesthetic ones - also preservation of their structure and functional potential.
One of the conditions for expanding the base of biological resources is the transition from the use of natural populations and ecosystems with partial withdrawal of useful products to the cultivation and creation of highly productive varieties of cultivated plants and breeds of domestic animals, artificial multi-species communities.
The environment-forming functions of biological resources are the subject of intergovernmental agreements (for example, the Kyoto Protocol to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, adopted in 1997, which was signed by more than 100 countries, including Russia).
R. Striganova.
Definition of plant and animal resources as components of the planet's biological resources. Description of wild and cultivated plants that are representatives of the world's plant resources. Fauna as one of the most important biological resources.
Students, graduate students, young scientists who use the knowledge base in their studies and work will be very grateful to you.
Posted on http://www.allbest.ru/
Municipal educational institution "Cadet school "Patriot"
Report on the topic:
"Biological Resources of the World"
Completed by: 10th grade student
Muntaeva Dalia
Checked by: Bystrova V.A.
Engels 2009
Introduction
Biological resources
2. Plant resources of the world
3. Animal world
1. Biological resources of the world
Biological resources consist of plant and animal resources.
The relationship between the biomass of animal and plant life is shown in a pie chart. Biological resources consist of plant and animal mass, the one-time supply of which on Earth is measured at about 2.4 * 1012 tons (in terms of dry matter).
The annual increase in biomass in the world (i.e., biological productivity) is approximately 2.3 1011 tons. The bulk of the Earth's biomass reserves (about 4/5) is accounted for by forest vegetation, which provides more than 1/3 of the total annual increase in living matter.
Human activity has led to a significant reduction in the total biomass and biological productivity of the Earth. True, by replacing part of the former forest areas with arable land and pastures, people received a gain in the qualitative composition of biological products and were able to provide food, as well as important technical raw materials (fiber, leather, etc.) to the growing population of the Earth.
Food resources constitute no more than 1% of the total biological productivity of land and ocean and no more than 20% of all agricultural products. Taking into account population growth and the need to provide adequate nutrition to the entire population of the Earth by the year 2000, the production of crop products should be increased by at least 2 times, and livestock products by 3 times.
This means that the production of primary (plant) biological products, including animal feed, must be increased by at least 3-4 times. Calculations for the expansion of cultivated lands are unlikely to have serious grounds, since the reserves of suitable areas for this are extremely limited. Obviously, the solution should be sought in the intensification of agriculture, including the development of irrigated agriculture, mechanization, selection, etc.
etc., as well as in the rational use of biological resources of the Ocean. The necessary conditions and resources for this are available, however, the calculations of some authors about the possibility of feeding tens and hundreds of billions and even several trillions of people on Earth cannot be regarded as anything other than utopian.
plant animal resource planet
2. Plant resources of the world
The world's plant resources are represented by wild and cultivated plants. There are significantly fewer cultivated plants on the globe than wild ones.
This map shows eight centers of origin of cultivated plants, which were identified and studied by Academician M.I. Vavilova. For each cell, examples of cultivated plants that originate from a certain territory are given. Wild plants are mainly concentrated in forests and constitute forest resources.
Forests on the globe form two belts:
- northern - forests of temperate and subtropical climate zones, dominated by coniferous trees;
— southern — forests of the subequatorial and equatorial zones with deciduous trees.
Countries that lie outside forest belts suffer from a shortage of forest resources.
An indicator of the provision of a territory with forest resources is forest cover (the ratio between the forest area and the total area, as a percentage) and timber reserves.
The average forest cover of the globe is 30%. In South America this figure reaches 52%, and in the countries of North Africa and the Persian Gulf only 1-5%. World forest resources are characterized by three main indicators: the size of forest area (4.1 billion hectares).
ha), forest cover (31.7%) and standing timber reserves (330 billion m3), which, due to constant growth, increase annually by 5.5 billion m3.). The largest forest areas are concentrated in Russia, Canada, Brazil, and the USA. The area of forests in the northern zone since the middle of the 19th century. has not decreased significantly, but the forests of the southern belt are disappearing quite quickly.
The reasons for the desolation of the green lungs of the planet are the pidtic-fire farming system, the growing volumes of wood exports and the use of wood as fuel. Biological resources in the broadest sense represent all living environment-forming components of the biosphere. It would seem that in these conditions it is premature to talk about the threat of a shortage of forest resources.
But this is not true at all. Wood has long been widely used as a construction and ornamental material; This is all the more true for our time. And today the demand for firewood is growing, and at least 1/2 of all wood harvested in the world is used for these purposes. Finally, for thousands of years, starting with the Neolithic, when agriculture arose, forests were reduced to arable land and plantations.
In the last two hundred years alone, the forest cover of the earth's land has halved and deforestation has become alarming. It is associated with an increase in soil erosion and a reduction in oxygen reserves in the atmosphere. The world's forest area is decreasing by at least 20 million hectares every year.
ha, or by 0.5%. World timber harvesting in the near future may reach 5 billion m3. This means that its annual growth will actually be fully used. The forests of the world form two huge belts - northern and southern.
Table 15. Distribution of forest area by major regions.
Animal world
The animal world is one of the most important biological resources, our national and world heritage. The environment-forming importance of wild animals is extremely high, ensuring soil fertility, water purity, pollination of flowering plants, and transformation of organic matter in natural and anthropogenic ecosystems.
15,589 species are threatened with extinction! 1.9 million species from at least 5 have been described. More than 800 species have become extinct since 1500.
Since 1800, 103 bird species have gone extinct.
Only 7 restored species of mammals, 4 species of birds and 2 species of reptiles. Over the past 500 years, 844 species of animals have become extinct!!!
The fourth and final edition of the Red Book was published in 1978-80. It includes 226 species and 70 subspecies of mammals, 181 species and 77 subspecies of birds, 77 species and 21 subspecies of reptiles, 35 species and 5 subspecies of amphibians, 168 species and 25 subspecies of fish.
Endangered wild animals include:
Red-footed ibis- this is extreme rare bird, listed in the International Red Book.
The red-legged ibis was a numerous species at the end of the 19th century. It lived in Central China, Japan and the Russian Far East.
By 1923, the red-footed ibis was declared extinct. Several red ibis nests were found in China in 1981. Today, the number of these birds in China is approximately 1000. The red-legged ibis inhabits swampy river valleys, lowlands with lakes and rice fields.
He spends the night on tall trees in the forest. Often found feeding and resting together with cranes.
Leopard- a large predatory mammal of the cat family.
One of the four large cats of the panther genus. It inhabits most of Africa, India, China and other places. The leopard lives in dense tropical, subtropical and mixed forests of the Manchurian type, on mountain slopes and plains.
The leopard is solitary, predominantly a nocturnal animal. The leopard feeds mainly on ungulates: antelope, deer, roe deer and others. The number of leopards throughout their range is steadily declining. The main threat to it is associated with changes in natural habitats and a reduction in food supply.
Coamla, or marsupial bear, is the only species of the koala family.
Koalas are found in eastern Australia. Koalas inhabit eucalyptus forests, spending almost their entire lives in the crowns of these trees. This animal has adapted to feed almost exclusively on eucalyptus shoots and leaves. Due to their poisonous properties, the koala has extremely little food competition from other animals.
Forest and biological resources of the Russian Federation
The sharp decline in the number of this animal forced the Australian government to ban koala hunting. They are still threatened by fires and deforestation of eucalyptus forests.
Panda- a mammal belonging to the bear family, whose homeland is central China.
The giant panda lives in mountainous regions such as Sichuan and Tibet. Despite the fact that pandas are carnivores, their diet is overwhelmingly vegetarian. In fact, they only eat bamboo.
An adult panda eats up to 30 kg of bamboo and shoots per day. The giant panda is an endangered species, characterized by an ever-decreasing population size and low birth rate, both in the wild and in captivity.
Scientists estimate that there are about 1,600 individuals left in the wild. The giant panda is the symbol of the World Wildlife Fund (WWF).
Tibetan antelope is an endemic species found in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau and is on the verge of extinction.
The wool of this antelope is worth its weight in gold. Currently, the problem of conservation and protection of Tibetan saigas is receiving serious attention in the country and abroad. Tibetan antelope population in China state reserve Kukushili, located in the depths of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, is growing steadily, and has now reached 60 thousand individuals. This became possible thanks to the improvement of the local ecology and the tightening of the fight against poaching.
Posted on Allbest.ru
Biological resources of the world
Descriptions of the sources and prerequisites for obtaining the material and spiritual benefits that people need, contained in objects of living nature.
The animal world is one of the most important biological resources. Study of the location of the northern and southern forest belt.
presentation, added 06/20/2014
Biological rhythms and their influence on all living things
General characteristics of biological rhythms, their role in the existence of plants.
The influence of biorhythms on the life of animals, human biological rhythms. Evidence in laboratory conditions for the existence of a biological clock. Biorhythms of wood sorrel and lilac branches.
creative work, added 02/17/2013
Differences between animals and plants
Study of the most significant features of the evolution of the animal and plant world.
The influence of evolution on the characteristics of plants and animals, analysis of the method of nutrition as the main difference between them. Distinctive features of a biochemical reaction (photosynthesis).
test, added 09/25/2010
Technology of protoplast isolation and fusion
Isolation of plant protoplasts by J. Klerker during the study of plasmolysis in the cells of aquatic teloresis (Stratiotes aloides) during mechanical damage to tissue.
General procedure for obtaining plant protoplasts. Cultivation of plant protoplasts.
presentation, added 11/07/2016
Study of plant communities
General characteristics, structure, nutrition and reproduction of blue-green algae. The main types of spores in lower and higher mushrooms. Families of angiosperms common in temperate latitudes, their role in the composition of various plant communities.
course work, added 11/27/2010
Plant kingdom.
Morphology and anatomy of plants
Study of the main life forms plants. Description of the body of lower plants. Characteristics of the functions of vegetative and generative organs. Groups of plant tissues. Morphology and physiology of the root. Leaf modifications. The structure of the kidneys.
Branching of shoots.
presentation, added 11/18/2014
General information about wild food, medicinal and poisonous plants
Nutritional value of wild plants. Characteristics of biologically active substances of medicinal plants.
Distribution of wild food, medicinal and poisonous plants in natural areas. Rules for collecting and consuming food plants.
abstract, added 03/22/2010
Study of antioxidant activity of plants
Antioxidant activity of plant materials.
Description of plants with antioxidant activity. Determination of the vitamin C content in viburnum vulgaris during the ripening period, the content of polyphenolic compounds in various types of tea.
thesis, added 04/02/2009
Plants are producers of biologically active substances
Study of the features of secondary plant metabolism, basic methods of cell cultivation.
Study of the effects of biologically active plant compounds on microorganisms, animals and humans. Descriptions of the healing effects of medicinal plants.
course work, added 11/07/2011
Biological rhythms of copper in plants
The concept of biorhythms of biological processes in the body, their physiological and environmental forms.
Processes controlling copper fixation in soil. Biological functions of copper in plants and the human body. Assessment of the biological characteristics of copper and selenium.
report, added 12/15/2009
Vegetation and plant resources of Russia
The flora and fauna are often called “wildlife,” thereby emphasizing the role of these components in the biosphere.
It is living nature that primarily personifies the beauty of the landscape for us. Love for living nature enriches our lives, inspires artists, poets, composers, and cultivates humane feelings in people. Caring “for our little brothers” is an indicator of a person’s morality.
Even the names of natural zones speak about it - taiga, steppes, etc. But the animal world is richer in species composition. In our country there are up to 130 thousand species of animals (of which up to 90 thousand are insects), and there are only about 18 thousand higher plants. It is interesting that among the representatives of the plant world, species of herbaceous plants predominate - there are many thousands of them, while there are slightly more than 500 species of trees.
Among representatives of the animal world, insects hold the championship.
There are significantly fewer vertebrates, especially terrestrial ones, in the fauna of Russia. Fish are numerous, there are more than 1450 species.
There are very few amphibians and reptiles - only 160 species. The diversity of birds is expressed (including all those that occur during seasonal migrations) by a figure of about 710. Of the mammals, about 350 species live in our country.
The composition and abundance of living organisms is greatly influenced by human activities.
As a result, some species have sharply reduced their numbers, and some have even been completely exterminated.
At the same time, there are species artificially introduced into our flora and fauna, for example, the American muskrat, raccoon, mink, etc., and among the plants are the tea bush and bamboo.
The flora and fauna of our country are very diverse. The appearance and composition of the flora and fauna of our country, as well as the entire planet, is determined by two main factors: physical and geographical differences between regions - different regimes of light, temperature and humidity, the nature of the soil, relief features - and the geological history of the territory.
The change in the face of the Earth during geological evolution, its surface and climate, the appearance and disappearance of continental connections were the reason that the processes of speciation proceeded differently in different regions.
In the distribution of representatives of certain species of plants and animals, patterns can be traced that are primarily due to latitudinal zonality and altitudinal zonation.
Think about which continents and countries the flora and fauna of our country are similar to.
But all these differences are explained not only by modern conditions.
Biological resources. Red Book of Russia
Both plants and animals carry in their appearance and distribution features inherited from the distant past. Desert-steppe groups of plants and animals came to us from Central Asia. North American conifers penetrated from Alaska to the Far East.
The specific features of our Far Eastern flora are combined with the originality of the Manchu-Chinese fauna.
The flora and fauna of Russia were greatly influenced by the Quaternary glaciation.
The main types of vegetation in Russia include vegetation of arctic deserts, tundras, forests, steppes, and deserts.
The vegetation of Arctic deserts does not form a continuous cover.
Individual patches of lichens and individual plant stems are replaced by bare areas.
The harsh climatic conditions of the tundra (low temperatures, large swampy areas, permafrost, strong winds) determine the characteristics of the vegetation cover of the tundra. Mosses, lichens, and low-growing shrubs predominate here; The absence of forest is also characteristic. Typical representatives of tundra vegetation are moss lichen (“reindeer moss”), green mosses, lingonberries, polar poppies, dwarf birch, and polar willow.
Think about how to explain the small growth of plants in the tundra and their tendency to spread along the ground.
What species form the northern border of the forest in Russia and why?
Rice. 60. Typical representatives of woody vegetation of Russia
The forest vegetation of Russia is widespread in the temperate zone, represented by dark coniferous forests of spruce and fir in the north, taiga cedar-larch forests in Siberia, mixed forests of spruce, pine, aspen, birch, etc. middle lane and deciduous forests in the southern regions of this zone.
According to the map (Fig.
60) identify typical representatives of the flora of the forest zone of Russia. Remember from your botany course how taiga plants are adapted to severe frosts.
The steppe zone in its virgin form, unaffected by human agricultural activity, is a sea of grass vegetation. The most common in the steppe are feather grass, fescue, tonkonog, and a host of other flowering plants. Since the steppes are located in an area with insufficient moisture, representatives of herbaceous vegetation tolerate the lack of moisture in the soil well.
In semi-deserts and temperate deserts, conditions are less favorable for the existence of plants and animals than in the steppe, therefore, as in Arctic deserts, a continuous cover of vegetation does not form here.
Desert vegetation is well adapted to drought: the leaves of many plants have turned into thorns, evaporating a minimum of moisture, the roots are branched and very long. Various types of wormwood and solyanka predominate.
Diversity of the animal world of Russia.
The fauna of the Arctic deserts is mainly associated with the sea. Walruses, seals, polar bear, many bird colonies. In the tundra, the number of terrestrial animals increases somewhat, although a small number of their species are represented here: lemming, mountain hare, wolf, arctic fox, ptarmigan, snowy owl, and reindeer.
Huge flocks of migratory birds fly to the tundra in the summer. Waterfowl are especially numerous: geese, ducks, swans.
In the taiga, predators include the bear, wolf, and lynx; from ungulates - elk, wild boar; among rodents the squirrel and chipmunk predominate; Fur-bearing species include marten and sable.
In broad-leaved forests the number of ungulates increases: deer, roe deer, moose. Birds are more diverse than in the taiga: blackbirds, black grouse, etc.
Typical representatives of the animal world of Russia
Rice. 61. Typical representatives of the animal world of Russia
In the steppe the number of birds increases even more. There are many birds nesting on the ground. Some of them feed on plants (quail), others on plants and insects (bustard, little bustard, lark), and others are predators that eat insects and small rodents (steppe kestrel, steppe eagle).
There are many rodents in the steppe - gophers, hamsters, voles. By storing large reserves of grain in their burrows for the winter, they cause significant damage to agriculture.
Of the large animals in the steppe, there are ungulates - saigas, which escape from enemies with the help of fast legs.
The fauna of deserts is dominated by reptiles (lizards, snakes), fast-moving ungulates (gaiters, saigas, kulans), and rodents (jerboas). Common birds include larks, pipits, desert sparrows, and bustards.
Game animals of Russia
62. Game animals of Russia
Plants and animals are perfectly adapted to their habitats. For example, in our forests birch and spruce coexist.
Birches promote the growth of shade-loving young spruce trees under their canopy, and then the grown spruce trees are left without light by the birches that helped them grow... Trees in forests, grasses in the steppes, dwarf trees and crooked forests in the tundra - all these are examples of the ideal adaptation of plants to their habitat.
Animals - flying, running, climbing, swimming - also differ in appearance and adaptability to the same conditions.
The white-trunked tender birch tree has long personified Russian nature, Russia.
The image of the Russian birch has been sung by many wonderful poets and artists.
Birch trees reach a height of 10-25 m (maximum 45), trunk diameter - 25-120 cm (maximum up to 150).
The bark of birch trees (birch bark) is white in many species.
This is the only breed in the world with snow-white bark. The lifespan of a birch is from 40 to 120 years. Flowering from 8-15 years, in plantings - from 20-30 years, abundant and almost annual.
Birch is light-loving, grows successfully in various climatic conditions, is frost-resistant, tolerates permafrost, is drought-resistant, has little demand for soil fertility and moisture, and therefore is found on rocky, poor sandy soils, and peat bogs.
The birch goes far to the north and south, rising high into the mountains. It is one of the first to settle in pine-spruce clearings. In spring, the birch tree is one of the first to awaken in the forest: there is still snow, and there are already thawed patches near it, orange earrings are swollen on the tree...
And in the fall, the birch tree is among the first to rush to put on a beautiful golden headdress...
Brown bear
The brown bear is a mammal of the bear family of the carnivorous order. This is a large animal: body length up to 2.5 m, height at withers up to 135 cm, weight up to 450 kg. Most large bears found in our country in Kamchatka and Sakhalin. Limbs with severely blunted claws. The fur is thick and long. The coloring is monochromatic. The bear lives in various forests, preferring taiga forests, especially spruce forests.
The diet is dominated by plant foods: pine nuts, hazel, beech nuts, acorns, all kinds of berries, wild fruits, green parts of plants; Bears also feast on fish and insects.
Sometimes the bear attacks wild ungulates and livestock. Causes damage to people by visiting crops of oats, corn, orchards, apiaries.
For the winter it hides in a den and hibernates. In January - February, cubs appear in the mother bear's den, usually two or three.
Bears are most numerous in Kamchatka, Primorye, Yakutia, the mountains of Siberia, and in the north-west of the European part of Russia.
The bear has become a symbol of the animal world of Russia. For a long time, the figure of a bear has been present in various coats of arms. Most a shining example This can be illustrated by the coat of arms of the city of Yaroslavl.
Previous45678910111213141516171819Next
Topic: Forest and biological resources of the Russian Federation
Type: Test| Size: 15.09K | Downloads: 19 | Added 10/13/10 at 18:02 | Rating: 0 | More Tests
Introduction 3
1. Biological resources 4
1.1. Plant resources 5
1.2. Animal Resources 6
2. Forest resources 8
3. Forest complex 9
Conclusion 12
References 13
Introduction.
Natural resources are the means of subsistence without which man cannot live and which he finds in nature. They give us food, clothing, shelter, fuel, energy and raw materials for industrial work, from which man creates comfort items, cars and medicines.
Natural resources include land, water, fuel, minerals, biological resources, resources of the World Ocean, and recreational resources.
This test will examine in detail the forest and biological resources of the Russian Federation.
- Biological resources.
The role of living organisms in the life of the Earth is enormous. It is living organisms that enrich the atmosphere with oxygen and create a fertile soil layer at the border of “living” and “dead” nature.
Vegetation significantly influences the climate: the moisture it evaporates participates in the water cycle. Moreover, vegetation, along with microorganisms, created the modern atmosphere and maintains its gas composition.
Plants enrich the soil with organic residues, thereby improving its fertility.
Planting forest belts helps with snow retention and moisture conservation. Forest plantings create a barrier to moving sands. Trees, shrubs and grasses protect the soil from erosion.
Plant remains and dead animal organisms fill lake basins with sapropel silts and build up peat bogs. Large accumulations of organic remains become the material that composes rocks.
Of course, in living nature there are harmful weeds, predators, and blood-sucking insects that humans have to fight with. However, you should always remember the numerous connections that exist in nature. For example, most birds of prey exterminate harmful rodents. Therefore, to make an unambiguous conclusion that birds of prey bring harm to humans means that it is too primitive to perceive the complex relationships in nature.
Organisms on Earth are one of the most complex and vibrant components that determine the appearance of almost all geographical landscapes.
The role of flora and fauna in human life is difficult to overestimate. Human development of natural resources began with the development of biological resources.
There are plant resources and animal resources.
- Plant resources.
The plant world provides humans with food and feed, fuel and raw materials. For a long time, people have used the fruits of useful wild plants - berries, nuts, fruits, mushrooms. Man learned to grow useful plants and cultivate them.
A few numbers: in Russia there are 11,400 species of vascular plants; 1370-bryophytes; more than 9,000 algae, about 3,000 species of lichens, more than 30,000 fungi. 1363 species have different beneficial properties, of which 1103 species are used in medicine
It should be noted that, according to some estimates, the volume of commercial stocks of wild plants is about 50% of biological stocks.
Russia is a country of forests (suffice it to say that on our territory there are 22% of all forests on the planet). This is almost 1.2 billion hectares. But a significant part of Russian forests was so intensively exploited during the 20th century that it is now depleted. Therefore, only about 55% of the forest can actually be used now. The total timber reserves in the forest fund are almost 82 billion cubic meters.
The positive aspects in afforestation include the fact that during 2000, forestry enterprises created almost 25 thousand hectares of protective forest plantations. From this, in particular, agriculture benefited, and the soils became more fertile.
- Animal resources.
Animal resources are primarily hunting and commercial resources.
Hunting is one of the most ancient human activities. The main commercial fur-bearing animals in Russia include the squirrel, arctic fox, fox, and white hare. More rare fur-bearing animals are marten, weasel, otter, and beaver.
The territory of Russia is huge - over 17 million square kilometers. Natural conditions are very diverse. Therefore, a significant part of the world's biological diversity is located in our country. Let's think about the number - 1513. This is exactly how many species of vertebrates there are in Russia, namely:
320 species of mammals, 732 species of birds, 80 species of reptiles, 29 species of amphibians, 343 species of freshwater fish, 9 species of cyclostomes.
In addition, about 1,500 species of marine fish live in the seas surrounding our country.
As for the invertebrate fauna, it numbers up to 150,000 species, of which 97 percent are insects.
And many of these species exist only in our country; they are not found anywhere else in the world. Scientists call such species endemics.
Hunting in Russia is allowed for 60 species of mammals and 70 species of birds. According to the state hunting resources service, the number of game animals is stabilizing.
Hunting reserves also play a positive role - now there are more than a thousand of them, with a total area of almost 44 million hectares. In most of the reserves, the density of animals is much higher than in adjacent areas. And over time, animals from reserves naturally move to adjacent territories.
In 2000, the total allowable catch of fish in Russian freshwater bodies was more than 111,000 tons. As in other years, the main part (more than 41%) are small-sized fish; bream and whitefish species (16% each); very few sturgeon and salmon. This is not surprising, because the stocks of valuable fish species (sturgeon, salmon, pike perch) are declining, as are the stocks and numbers of predatory fish species, such as pike, burbot, and catfish.
In general, the fish stocks of reservoirs in the European part of Russia are most intensively used - about 80% of the fish from reservoirs is caught here. And the reservoirs of the Urals and Western Siberia account for up to 70% of the total catch of river fish.
As a rule, the most fish are caught where there are valuable fish species and, naturally, a market. Thus, in the Yenisei basin 1.7 thousand tons were produced in 2000, in Lake Baikal - 2.6 thousand tons, in the Rybinsk Reservoir - about 1.5 thousand. tons, in Kuibyshevsky - 2.8 thousand tons, and in Tsimlyansky - 7.4 thousand tons (although this is below the 1999 level).
Hundreds of millions of juvenile small fish - carp, bream, pike perch - are released into natural reservoirs every year. And the catches show the high efficiency of work on the artificial reproduction of their stocks. Thanks to the activities of the Tsimlyansky fish hatchery, a commercial herd of silver carp has been formed in the reservoir of the same name. Commercial stocks of herbivorous fish appeared in Krasnodar, Volgograd, Saratov and other reservoirs.
- Forest resources.
Among biological resources, forests are important. Russia ranks first in the world in terms of timber reserves.
The forested area of Russia is 774.3 million hectares, i.e. 22% of the world's forest area, or 46.1% of temperate forests. Our country contains a quarter of the world's timber reserves - 81.9 billion m3, located mainly in the north of the European part of the country, in Siberia and the Far East. Unlike other countries, primary, old-growth forests have been preserved in large areas.
The main forest resources are located in the eastern regions of the country, which account for 79% of the reserves. 21% of forest resources are concentrated in the European part.
The most forested areas are Western Siberia (Tyumen region), Eastern Siberia (Krasnoyarsk region and Irkutsk region), the Far East (Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) and Khabarovsk region), the European North, the Urals (Sverdlovsk region and the Udmurt Republic), as well as Kirov and Nizhny Novgorod regions.
Are there about 1,500 species of trees and shrubs growing in the forests of Russia? The main ones are forest-forming species, their share is 82%, soft-leaved species - 16, hard-leaved species - 2%. Coniferous forests of the European North of the country, Siberia and the Far East have valuable timber.
The most common species in Russia are larch, pine, spruce and Siberian pine.
3. Forest complex.
Russia is the largest timber producing country in the world. The share of the forestry complex in the country's industrial production is 4.7% (at the beginning of 2001), in fixed production assets - 3.2%, in the average annual number of industrial production personnel - more than 8%. The timber industry complex (LPC) belongs to export-oriented industries; the share of forest industry products in the exports of the Russian Federation is 5%. At the same time, about 50% of the total volume of timber production is sold on the foreign market.
The forestry complex includes harvesting, mechanical processing and chemical processing of wood, produces the following main types of products: industrial wood, lumber, wood boards, plywood, marketable pulp, paper, cardboard, furniture, etc. The main industries within the forestry complex are as follows: :
- Logging industry - harvesting and removal of wood. Despite the fact that the main resources of mature and overmature wood are located in the eastern regions of Russia, the leading logging areas are the European territories of the North and the northern part of the Volga region, which leads to overcutting and harms forest resources. In the area of the main exploitation forests, the most accessible and high-quality forest stands have already been cut down, the productivity of mature and overmature plantings is below average. For this reason, in the European part of Russia in the coming decades there will remain a shortage of high-quality coniferous wood. The share of the regions of Siberia and the Far East, where 3/4 of Russia's forest reserves are concentrated, does not exceed 40% of the total volume of timber exported in the country.
- Sawmill industry - production of sawn timber in the North-Western, Siberian and Ural federal districts - Kotlas, Mezen, Perm, Omsk, Barnaul, Novosibirsk, Krasnoyarsk, Igarka, Chita, Khabarovsk, etc. The largest sawmills are the enterprise LDZ and joint venture "Igirma-Tairik" in the Irkutsk region.
- Woodworking industry - production of plywood, building parts, standard houses, furniture, matches, etc. Half of production plywood in the country is concentrated in the Northwestern and Ural federal districts. The main centers of plywood production are St. Petersburg, Cherepovets, Bratsk (JSC Bratskkompleksholding), Tyumen Plywood Mill, Biysk Plywood Match Factory, Beregovoy Lumber-Bratsk, Lesosibirsk and New Yenisei Timber Processing Plants, and Ust-Ilimsk Timber Industrial Complexes.
- The pulp and paper industry (production of cellulose, paper, cardboard, etc.) includes both chemical and mechanical processing of wood raw materials. Chemical and chemical-mechanical processing of wood contribute to a more rational use of forest resources (at the same time, waste is disposed of: sawdust, shavings, twigs, pine needles). The main centers of the pulp and paper industry are Arkhangelsk, Kotlas (Arkhangelsk region), Syktyvkar (Komi Republic); Kondopoga, Segezha (Republic of Karelia), Krasnokamsk, Solikamsk, Krasnovishersk (Perm region), Novaya Lyalya (Sverdlovsk region), Balakhna (Nizhny Novgorod region), Volzhsk (Republic of Mari El), etc. In these regions of Russia almost 2/ 3 of all paper.
- Wood chemistry (production of rosin, phenol, turpentine, ethyl and methyl alcohol, glucose, acetone, camphor, glue, etc.).
Wood chemistry, primarily hydrolysis production, focuses primarily on raw materials (waste from logging, sawmilling and woodworking).
The main product of hydrolysis production - ethyl alcohol - is used in the food industry, agriculture, in the production of building materials, and medicine. The main centers of hydrolysis production are Arkhangelsk, St. Petersburg, Saratov, Volgograd, Solikamsk, Sokol, Tavda, Krasnoyarsk, Zima, Tulun, Bratsk, Biryusa, Kansk, and the village of Khorsky in the Khabarovsk Territory. Hydrolysis production has been developed in Tatarstan and Bashkortostan.
Conclusion
The main goal of the environmental policy of states is to ensure environmentally safe conditions for people to live, rational use and protection of natural resources. To achieve this goal, it is necessary to consistently carry out a structural restructuring of the production sector, implement a technical policy based on resource conservation, and the use of low-waste and non-waste technologies.
The irrational placement of forest industry branches leads to the fact that, despite the presence of huge forest resources in certain regions of Russia, there is an acute shortage of raw materials, as a result of which there is a need to reduce production and increase the export of forest raw materials and products from other countries. This deficit applies primarily to the European regions of Russia, where there are significant overcuts and insufficient reforestation work is being carried out. At the same time, in many forest areas of Siberia, valuable wood is disappearing, and the number of ripe and overmature trees is increasing. Nevertheless, the expansion of logging in the Asian part of the country requires significant capital investments and is planned only in the future.
Increasing forest productivity is the most important task of the forestry sectors. Its solution requires further improvement of methods for reproducing forest resources and the species composition of crops, taking into account forest vegetation zones, forest types and the intensity of forestry production. Forest care, conservation and protection are especially necessary.
Problems of conservation of natural resources can only be solved on the basis of objective international agreements. The ultimate goal of natural resource conservation is to ensure favorable conditions life for the present and subsequent generations of people, for the development of the national economy, industry and science.
References.
- Skopin A.Yu. Economic geography of Russia: Textbook. - M.: TK Welby, Prospekt Publishing House, 2003.
- Komar I.V. Rational use of natural resources, Moscow, 1986.
- Economic geography of Russia. Textbook / Under general. Ed. Vidyapina V.I. - M: INFRA-M, REA 1999.
- Economic and social geography of Russia. Textbook for universities / Ed. Khrushcheva A.T. - M: KRON-PRESS 1997.
- Regional economy: problems, strategy for the development of the agro-industrial complex. Ed. Kuznetsova V.V. Rostov-on-Don, 1998.
Did you like it? Click on the button below. To you not difficult, and for us Nice).
To download for free Test work at maximum speed, register or log in to the site.
Important! All submitted Tests for free downloading are intended for drawing up a plan or basis for your own scientific works.
Friends! You have a unique opportunity to help students just like you! If our site helped you find the job you need, then you certainly understand how the work you add can make the work of others easier.
If the Test work, in your opinion, is of poor quality, or you have already seen this work, please let us know.
Related articles
The best amulets against the evil eye and damage Amulet against the evil eye with hands for children
How to read the Psalter correctly
Delicious dishes with sausages
A glimpse of Bella. Romantic chronicle. A glimpse of genius. Messerer about Akhmadulina Boris Messerer glimpse of Bella romantic chronicle
I dreamed that I was sailing on a boat on the river
How to cook beef entrecote in a frying pan
About the company Foreign language courses at Moscow State University
Which city and why became the main one in Ancient Mesopotamia?
Why Bukhsoft Online is better than a regular accounting program!
Which year is a leap year and how to calculate it