The hydrosphere includes all the bodies of water on our planet, as well as groundwater, atmospheric vapors and gases, and glaciers. These sources are necessary for nature to support life. Now water quality has deteriorated significantly due to anthropogenic activities. Because of this we talk about many global problems hydrosphere:

• chemical water pollution;
• pollution by garbage and waste;
• destruction of flora and fauna living in water bodies;
• oil pollution of water;

All these problems are caused by poor quality and insufficient quantity of water on the planet. Despite the fact that most of the earth's surface, namely 70.8%, is covered with water, not all people have enough drinking water. The fact is that the water of the seas and oceans is too salty and unsuitable for drinking. For this purpose, water from fresh lakes and underground sources is used. Of the world's water reserves, only 1% is found in fresh water bodies. In theory, another 2% of the water in the solid state in glaciers is suitable for drinking if it is thawed and purified.

Use of water in industry

The main problems of water resources are that they are widely used in industry: metallurgy and mechanical engineering, energy and food industry, agriculture and the chemical industry. Used water is often no longer suitable for further use. Of course, when enterprises drain it, they do not clean it up, so agricultural and industrial wastewater ends up in the World Ocean.

One of the problems of water resources is its use in public utilities. Not all countries have access to water, and pipelines leave much to be desired. As for sewage and wastewater, they are directly discharged into water bodies without treatment.

Relevance of water protection

To solve many problems, it is necessary to protect water resources. This is done at the state level, but ordinary people can also contribute:

• reduce water consumption in industry;
• use water resources rationally;
• purify contaminated water (industrial and domestic wastewater);
• clean up water areas;
• eliminate the consequences of accidents that pollute water bodies;
• save water in everyday use;
• Do not leave water taps open.

These are the actions to protect water that will help keep our planet blue (from water), and, therefore, ensure the maintenance of life on earth.

Freshwater bodies perform several functions. On the one hand, rivers and lakes form an important part of the water cycle in nature. Freshwater bodies perform several functions. On the one hand, rivers and lakes form an important part of the water cycle in nature.

In the Arkhangelsk region, in addition to the listed functions, rivers play the role of transport routes along which various goods are transported. In the Arkhangelsk region, in addition to the listed functions, rivers play the role of transport routes along which various goods are transported.

Previously, timber rafting was carried out along the Onega, Northern Dvina and other rivers. With this method, a large number of logs were independently floated downstream during the spring flood. Thus, wood was delivered free of charge from logging areas to large sawmills in Arkhangelsk. This method of floating trees caused irreparable damage to nature. The bottom of the rivers where moth rafting was carried out was heavily clogged with rotting logs. Such rivers became summer period unnavigable. As a result of wood rotting, there was a low oxygen content in the water. Previously, timber rafting was carried out along the Onega, Northern Dvina and other rivers. With this method, a large number of logs were independently floated downstream during the spring flood. Thus, wood was delivered free of charge from logging areas to large sawmills in Arkhangelsk. This method of floating trees caused irreparable damage to nature. The bottom of the rivers where moth rafting was carried out was heavily clogged with rotting logs. Such rivers became unnavigable in the summer. As a result of wood rotting, there was a low oxygen content in the water.

Despite its high economic efficiency, this method of transporting wood caused great harm to the environment. Therefore, it has now been abandoned. Nowadays, wood is transported along rivers in the form of large rafts. In this case, there is no loss of logs, and therefore, rivers and the sea are not polluted. Despite its high economic efficiency, this method of transporting wood caused great harm to the environment. Therefore, it has now been abandoned. Nowadays, wood is transported along rivers in the form of large rafts. In this case, there is no loss of logs, and therefore, rivers and the sea are not polluted.

Northern rivers are famous for their abundance of diverse fish. They are inhabited by whitefish, char, omul, and herring. In the spring, the valuable commercial fish northern salmon, or salmon, comes to the rivers flowing into the White and Barents Seas to spawn. Currently, the number of this species has greatly decreased due to poaching. To preserve salmon, the state regulates fishing standards for special fishing teams. But sometimes residents catch salmon with nets on their own without permission from fisheries conservation organizations, and in connection with this, the problem of poaching in northern rivers is particularly acute. Northern rivers are famous for their abundance of diverse fish. They are inhabited by whitefish, char, omul, and herring. In the spring, the valuable commercial fish northern salmon, or salmon, comes to the rivers flowing into the White and Barents Seas to spawn. Currently, the number of this species has greatly decreased due to poaching. To preserve salmon, the state regulates fishing standards for special fishing teams. But sometimes residents catch salmon with nets on their own without permission from fisheries conservation organizations; in this regard, the problem of poaching in the northern rivers is especially acute.

SALMON is an anadromous fish of the salmon family. Length up to 150 cm, weighs up to 39 kg. SALMON is an anadromous fish of the salmon family. Length up to 150 cm, weighs up to 39 kg. After feeding in the sea, it migrates to rivers to breed. There are two known races of salmon in the White Sea: autumn and summer. The Northern Dvina salmon run begins in the spring and continues until freeze-up.

The main negative impact of humans on the condition of rivers and lakes is their pollution by chemical waste. The Northern Dvina is the most polluted. The largest pulp and paper mills in Europe are located on this river. One of them is located near Kotlas, in the city of Koryazhma, and the other two are in Novodvinsk and Arkhangelsk. The main negative impact of humans on the condition of rivers and lakes is their pollution by chemical waste. The Northern Dvina is the most polluted. The largest pulp and paper mills in Europe are located on this river. One of them is located near Kotlas, in the city of Koryazhma, and the other two are in Novodvinsk and Arkhangelsk.

The total pollution of the Northern Dvina is so high that in summer it is not recommended to swim in the river within the city of Arkhangelsk. The problem of water pollution in Arkhangelsk is particularly acute, since in this city the river is the only source of drinking water. To control the quality of fresh water, the state has developed a Water Code. The Law of the Russian Federation “On the Protection of the Natural Environment” has a separate article on the protection of fresh waters. Russia has developed maximum permissible concentrations and maximum acceptable standards discharges of harmful substances from industrial enterprises. The General Directorate of Natural Resources and Conservation is responsible for the implementation of these laws and for monitoring the quality of wastewater. environment. The total pollution of the Northern Dvina is so high that in summer it is not recommended to swim in the river within the city of Arkhangelsk. The problem of water pollution in Arkhangelsk is particularly acute, since in this city the river is the only source of drinking water. To control the quality of fresh water, the state has developed a Water Code. The Law of the Russian Federation “On the Protection of the Natural Environment” has a separate article on the protection of fresh waters. In Russia, maximum permissible concentrations and maximum permissible standards for discharges of harmful substances from industrial enterprises have been developed. The General Directorate of Natural Resources and Environmental Protection is responsible for the implementation of these laws and for monitoring the quality of wastewater.

Another source of pollution of rivers and lakes is domestic wastewater. Most of the large cities in the Arkhangelsk region are located on the banks of large rivers. Therefore, large amounts of insufficiently treated wastewater can end up in rivers and then into the sea. To maintain high water quality in the rivers of the Arkhangelsk region and preserve diverse flora and fauna, industrial enterprises must comply with pollutant emission standards, and the population must comply environmental laws and take care of the riches that nature has awarded. Another source of pollution of rivers and lakes is domestic wastewater. Most of the large cities in the Arkhangelsk region are located on the banks of large rivers. Therefore, large amounts of insufficiently treated wastewater can end up in rivers and then into the sea. To maintain high water quality in the rivers of the Arkhangelsk region and preserve the diverse flora and fauna, industrial enterprises must comply with pollutant emission standards, and the population must comply with environmental laws and take care of the wealth that nature has awarded.

Literature Ecology of the Arkhangelsk region: Tutorial for students in grades 9-11 secondary school/ Under. Ed. Batalova A. E., Morozova L. V. - M.: Publishing house - Moscow State University, 2004. Geography of the Arkhangelsk region (physical geography) 8th grade. Textbook for students. / Edited by Byzova N.M. - Arkhangelsk, publishing house of the Pomeranian International Pedagogical University named after M.V. Lomonosov, 1995. Regional component of general education. Biology. - Department of Education and Science of the Administration of the Arkhangelsk Region, 2006. PSU, 2006. JSC IPPC RO, 2006

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The protection of natural communities is the most important component in the interaction between humans and wildlife. In Russia, for example, this issue is given great national importance. What do people do to protect rivers, lakes, fields, forests and animals around the world? Appropriate measures are being taken, including at the state level.

Nature Conservation Law

The law on the protection and protection of rivers, farmland, etc.) and the use of wildlife was adopted in the Soviet Union in 1980. According to it, the entire flora and fauna of Russia, Ukraine, Georgia and other former Soviet republics are considered the property of the state and the people's property. This regulation requires humane treatment of flora and fauna.

The corresponding decree on nature protection obliges all people living in the territory covered by the law to strictly comply with all existing requirements and rules in their professional and personal lives, and try to preserve existing wealth native land. Special attention should be paid to the protection of natural objects such as rivers. The fact is that currently water bodies around the world are heavily polluted by one or another human activity. For example, wastewater, oil and other chemical wastes are discharged into them.

What do people do to protect rivers?

Fortunately, humanity has realized the damage it is causing to the environment. Currently, people around the world have begun to implement plans to protect water bodies, particularly rivers. It consists of several stages.

1. The first stage is to create different treatment facilities. Low-sulfur fuel is used, garbage and other waste is completely destroyed or efficiently processed. People build heights of 300 meters or more. Happening Unfortunately, even the most modern and powerful wastewater treatment plants cannot provide complete protection of water bodies. For example, chimneys, designed to reduce the concentration of harmful substances in certain rivers, spread dust pollution and acid rain over vast distances.
2. What else are people doing to protect rivers? The second stage is based on the development and application of fundamentally new production. There is a transition to low-waste or completely waste-free processes. For example, many people already know the so-called direct-flow water supply: river - enterprise - river. In the near future, humanity wants to replace it with “dry” technology. At first, this will ensure a partial and then complete cessation of wastewater discharge into rivers and other bodies of water. It is worth noting that this stage can be called the main one, since with its help people will not only reduce but also prevent it. Unfortunately, this requires large material costs that are unaffordable for many countries around the world.
3. The third stage is a well-thought-out and most rational placement of “dirty” industries that have a detrimental effect on the environment. These include enterprises, for example, in the petrochemical, pulp and paper and metallurgical industries, as well as the production of various building materials and thermal energy.

How else can we solve the problem of river pollution?

If we talk in detail about what people do to protect rivers from pollution, it is impossible not to note another way to solve this problem. It involves reusing raw materials. For example, in developed countries its reserves are in fabulous quantities. The central producers of recyclable materials are the old industrial regions of Europe, the United States of America, Japan and, of course, the European part of our country.

Nature conservation by man

What do people do to protect rivers, forests, fields and animals at the legislative level? To preserve natural communities in Russia, back in Soviet times, so-called reserves and reserves began to be created. As well as other human-protected areas. They partially or completely prohibit any outside interference in certain natural communities. Such measures allow flora and fauna to be in the most favorable conditions.

As we found out when considering the first and second questions, the main cause of the environmental disaster of our reservoirs is one or another human activity. Now let us turn to the question of how the same person can contribute, if not to the elimination, then at least to the reduction of the harm he causes, as well as the restoration of natural communities of water bodies. In our opinion all measures to protect rivers and reservoirs from pollution, clogging and depletion and for their integrated use:

Security.

Reclamation.

Household.

Now let's try to look at each of these events in more detail.

Security, as the name suggests, should include all activities related to the security of existing communities and their preservation at least in the state in which they currently exist. These measures include the fight against poaching; a special place is given to the protection of nesting sites of waterfowl and semi-aquatic birds, and the protection of places of mass spawning of fish. No less important remains the issue of combating fires and illegal logging along the banks of water bodies, and the pollution of water bodies with poisonous and toxic substances, as well as heavy metals. It should be noted here that the majority of water bodies have not yet lost the ability to self-heal, and if measures are taken to prevent further pollution of water bodies and damage to their inhabitants, then after a certain period of time, which can last for more than one decade, the ecosystem of water bodies will self-heal, and perhaps before that states as they were before human intervention. At the same time, we understand that no matter how much we would like to, people will not be able to completely abandon interference in the life of water bodies (for example, abandon navigation, use water for irrigation of agricultural lands, etc.) This is why the use of protective measures alone insufficient to restore the biocenosis of water bodies, it is necessary to apply the other two types of measures.

The measures taken to rehabilitate and improve ponds, rivers, and streams bring water bodies into a state of ecological balance, which has a positive effect on the flora and fauna of reservoirs and coastal areas.

Ecological rehabilitation of reservoirs includes:

implementation of design and survey work (description of the object: field surveys of adjacent territories, mapping, reporting; laboratory research: sampling and analysis; recommendations on the technical and biological stages of rehabilitation of reservoirs)

cleaning the reservoir bed from contaminated sediments;

pond waterproofing project, bottom strengthening;

accumulation and purification of drainage and storm waters feeding reservoirs

reclamation of watershed areas;

bank protection project, landslide and erosion control measures

colonization of reservoirs with hydrobionts, planting of aquatic vegetation;

environmental rehabilitation and improvement of floodplain areas;

improvement, landscaping, landscape design of coastal and recreational areas.

Environmental rehabilitation consists of several stages:

1. Preparatory work stage;

The study of the hydrogeological characteristics of the reservoir, its morphological parameters (depth, bottom topography), sampling of water and silt deposits for laboratory analysis for chemical pollution is being carried out.

2. Stage of technical rehabilitation of the reservoir;

Depending on the size of the reservoir, availability hydraulic structures, hydrogeological characteristics of the area and a number of other circumstances, the need for mechanical cleaning of the reservoir bed from silt deposits is determined.

3. Biological rehabilitation stage;

A natural reservoir is a balanced ecosystem in which self-purification mechanisms operate.

The colonization of water with living aquatic organisms is carried out based on the results of biotesting of the reservoir. A species community of such microorganisms, invertebrates, and mollusks is selected for colonization, which makes it possible to restore the hydroecosystem of the reservoir.

4. Creation (restoration) of the coastal ecosystem;

Correctly located and formed coastal zones largely determine the future qualitative composition of water. They help shape the natural landscape and provide a food supply for the biota of the reservoir. The restoration of a certain type of green space and various living organisms in the coastal zone has a beneficial effect on the ecosystem of water bodies.

5. comprehensive improvement of the adjacent territory;

The quality composition of the water in the pond largely depends on the surrounding area. During environmental rehabilitation, a necessary condition is the correct layout of the territory, providing convenient approaches to water, observation platforms, and distribution of recreational load. Preventing wastewater from entering the water area.

Reclamation measures also include artificial breeding and subsequent release into the habitat of fry, primarily of those fish species that have suffered the greatest damage and whose populations have either already reached or are on the border of the level at which self-recovery becomes impossible.

The next type of measures under consideration are economic activities, one of which is the rational use of natural resources. Nature management in any industry is based on the following principles: the principle of a systems approach, the principle of optimization of environmental management, the principle of anticipation, the principle of harmonization of relations between nature and production, the principle of integrated use.

Let's look briefly at these principles.

The principle of the systems approach provides for a comprehensive comprehensive assessment of the impact of production on the environment and its responses. For example, rational use of irrigation increases soil fertility, but at the same time leads to depletion of water resources. Discharges of pollutants into water bodies are assessed not only by their impact on biota, but also determine the life cycle of water bodies.

The principle of optimizing environmental management is to make appropriate decisions on the use of natural resources and natural systems based on a simultaneous environmental and economic approach, forecasting the development of various industries and geographic regions. Mining has an advantage over mining in terms of the use of raw materials, but leads to a loss of soil fertility. The optimal solution is to combine open-pit mining with land reclamation and restoration.

The principle of outstripping the rate of raw material extraction by the rate of processing is based on reducing the amount of waste in the production process. It involves an increase in production through better use of raw materials, resource conservation and improved technology.

The principle of harmonization of relations between nature and production is based on the creation and operation of natural-technogenic ecological and economic systems, which are a set of industries that ensure high production performance. This ensures the maintenance of a favorable environmental situation, it is possible to preserve and reproduce natural resources. The system has a management service for timely detection of harmful effects and adjustment of system components. For example, if a deterioration in the composition of the environment is detected due to the production activities of an enterprise, the management service makes a decision to suspend the process or reduce the volume of emissions and discharges. Such systems provide for the prediction of undesirable situations through monitoring. The information received is analyzed by the head of the enterprise, and the necessary technical measures are taken to eliminate or reduce environmental pollution.

The principle of integrated use of natural resources provides for the creation of territorial production complexes on the basis of existing raw materials and energy resources, which make it possible to more fully use these resources, while reducing the anthropogenic load on the environment. They have specialization, are concentrated in a certain territory, have a unified production and social structure and jointly contribute to the protection of the natural environment, such as the Kansk-Achinsk Heat and Power Complex (KATEK). However, these complexes can also have a negative impact on the natural environment, but due to the integrated use of resources, this impact is significantly reduced

The next activity is rational water use. Water use is the totality of all forms and types of use of water resources in common system environmental management. Rational water use involves ensuring the complete reproduction of water resources of a territory or water body in terms of quantity and quality. This is the main condition for the existence of water resources in the life cycle. Improving water use is the main factor in modern economic development planning. Water management is determined by the presence of two interacting blocks: natural and socio-economic. As resource-saving systems, river water intake should be considered as part of the earth's surface. River water intake is a functionally and territorially integral dynamic geosystem, developing in space and time with clearly defined natural boundaries. The organizing principle of this system is the hydrographic network. Water management is a complex organized territorial system, formed as a result of the interaction of socio-economic societies and natural waters ny sources.

The important task of water economic activity consists of its environmental optimization. This is possible if the water use strategy includes the principle of minimizing disruption to the structure of the quality of a water body with a catchment area. Return waters after their use differ in composition from natural waters, therefore, for rational water use, maximum savings and minimal interference with natural moisture circulation at any level are required. The reserves and quality of water resources are a function of the regional conditions of runoff formation and the technogenic water cycle created by humans in the process of water use. An assessment of the water supply of a territory for a region can be presented in the form of a set of highly informative hydrogeological indicators corresponding to various cost options for organizing water use. In this case, at least three options must be presented - two extreme and one intermediate: natural conditions, which correspond to a minimum of resources and zero costs for their extraction; conditions of expanded reproduction that appear as a result of expensive engineering measures; conditions of maximum water use that would occur if the full annual flow generated in a given territory was used, which corresponds not only to the maximum of resources, but also to the maximum of possible costs. Such conditions are unattainable, but when modeling and forecasting in theoretical terms, their consideration is necessary to obtain an idea of ​​the processes being studied and as a comparative value for economic calculations. No less important here is the construction of treatment facilities, or the modernization of existing ones, the use of which guarantees the reproduction of “high-quality” water resources, which, after being used in human economic activity, are returned to water bodies.

An effective form of protecting the natural environment in industrial production is the use of low-waste and non-waste technologies, and in agriculture - the transition to biological methods pest and weed control. The greening of industry should develop in the following areas: improvement of technological processes and development of new equipment that ensures less release of pollutants into the natural environment, large-scale implementation of environmental assessment of all types of production, replacement of toxic waste with non-toxic and recyclable ones, wide application methods and means of environmental protection. It is necessary to use additional protective equipment using treatment equipment such as wastewater treatment devices and systems, gas emissions etc. Rational use of resources and protection of the environment from pollution is a common task, for the solution of which specialists from various branches of technology and fields of science should be involved. Environmental protection measures should determine the creation of natural-technogenic complexes that would ensure the efficient use of raw materials and the preservation of natural components. Environmental protection measures are divided into three groups: engineering, environmental, and organizational.

Engineering activities are designed to improve existing and develop new technologies, machines, mechanisms and materials used in production, ensuring the elimination or mitigation of technogenic loads on the ecosystem. These activities are divided into organizational, technical and technological. Organizational and technical measures include a number of actions to comply with technological regulations, gas and wastewater purification processes, control over the serviceability of instruments and equipment, and timely technical re-equipment of production. The most progressive continuous and enlarged production facilities are provided to ensure the stability of the enterprise. They are also easy to manage and have the ability to constantly improve technologies to reduce emissions and discharges of pollutants.

Technological measures by improving production reduce the intensity of pollution sources. At the same time, additional costs will be required to modernize production, however, while reducing emissions, there is practically no damage to the natural environment, thus, the return on investment of the measures will be high.

It is necessary to pay attention and environmental activities aimed at self-purification of the environment or self-healing. They are divided into two subgroups:

Abiotic;

Biotic.

The abiotic subgroup is based on the use of natural chemical and physical processes, which occur in all components.

Biotic measures are based on the use of living organisms, which in the zone of influence of production ensure the functioning of ecological systems ( biological fields wastewater treatment, cultivation of microorganisms for processing pollutants, self-overgrowing of disturbed lands, etc.).

The group of organizational measures is determined by the structure of management of natural-technogenic systems and is divided into planned and operational. Planned ones are designed for the long term of the system’s operation. Their basis is the rational arrangement of all structural units of the natural-technogenic complex.

Operational measures, as a rule, are used in extreme situations that arise in production or in the natural environment (explosions, fires, pipeline ruptures).

The above measures are the basis of human activity creating environmentally friendly production and should be aimed at reducing the technogenic load on ecosystems, and if it occurs, contribute to the prompt elimination of the causes and consequences of accidents. The methodological approach to the selection of environmental protection measures should be based on the principle of their environmental and technical and economic assessment.

In addition to the above, I would like to note that for transboundary water bodies, of which the Amur is an example, the development of national and international legal documents that may be required to preserve the quality of water resources, primarily for the following purposes, is also important:

Monitoring and control of pollution of national and transboundary waters and its consequences;

Controlling the transport of pollutants over long distances through the atmosphere;

Control of accidental and/or arbitrary discharges into national and/or transboundary water bodies;

Conducting environmental assessments, as well as compensation for damage caused by one of the parties, the user of a transboundary reservoir

21. The concept of legal liability and the basis for its application.

22. Criminal and administrative liability.

23. Civil law responsibility.

24. Disciplinary responsibility.

25. Legal liability for pollution of water bodies.

26. Legal liability for contamination of water bodies.

27. Legal responsibility for depletion of water bodies.

Water pollution is a decrease in its quality as a result of the entry into rivers, streams, lakes, seas and oceans of various physical, chemical or biological substances

Depletion of waters (water bodies)- is a sustainable decrease in the minimum permissible surface water flow or a reduction in reserves groundwater

Legal protection of waters

Characteristic feature The legal regime of waters is a comprehensive regulation of their protection from various harmful influences.

Legal protection of waters is a system of measures enshrined by law aimed at preventing their pollution, clogging and depletion. Water legislation recognizes the deterioration of water quality as pollution or clogging as a result of the discharge into water bodies or the entry into them in any other way of harmful substances (pollution) or objects or suspended particles (clogging). Water depletion is a sustainable reduction in their volume (Article 1 of the Water Code of the Russian Federation).

In the field of protection of water bodies, the development and implementation of government programs on water use and protection, environmental monitoring of water bodies, implementation of state accounting of surface and groundwater, maintaining state water cadastre *.

In order to ensure compliance by legal entities and citizens with the established procedure rational use and protection of water bodies, standards, standards and rules in the field of use and protection of water, the regime of use of territories of water protection zones of water bodies and other requirements of water legislation are carried out state control for the use and protection of water by executive authorities of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation, the Ministry of Natural Resources of the Russian Federation, and state bodies in the field of environmental protection **.

The legislation stipulates that the use of water bodies should be carried out with the minimum possible negative consequences for water bodies. When using them, citizens and legal entities need to carry out production, technological, reclamation, agrotechnical, hydraulic, sanitary and other measures to ensure the protection of water bodies. These requirements are disclosed through the system discussed above responsibilities the specified subjects forming the content of the water use right.

At the same time, water legislation establishes a number of special measures, requirements and prohibitions for water protection.

Maintaining surface and ground waters in a state that meets environmental requirements is ensured primarily through the establishment and compliance standards for maximum permissible harmful effects to water bodies. They are set based on:

The maximum permissible value of anthropogenic load, the long-term impact of which will not lead to a change in the ecosystem of the water body;

The maximum permissible mass of harmful substances that can enter a water body and its catchment area.

In order to protect water and ensure the health and safety of the population, standards for the content of pollutants and harmful substances in water are established - their maximum permissible concentrations(MPC). Water legislation that regulates economic activities that have a negative impact on waters is aimed at maintaining water quality that meets these standards.

To prevent and eliminate pollution of water bodies that may occur as a result of this activity, sources of pollution are identified. Sources of pollution objects from which discharge or otherwise enter water bodies of harmful substances are recognized, deteriorating the quality of surface and groundwater, limiting their use, and also negatively affecting the condition of the bottom and banks of water bodies.

The protection of water bodies from pollution is carried out by regulating the activities of both stationary and other sources of pollution.

Citizens and legal entities when operating economic and other facilities that affect the condition of water bodies, they are obliged to take measures to prevent pollution, clogging and depletion of water bodies and the harmful effects of water (Article 106). Wastewater discharge, containing harmful substances, is allowed if there is licenses, issued by the authorities governing the use and protection of the water fund, and also if such a discharge does not lead to an increase in the content of pollutants above the established standards - standards for maximum permissible concentrations of harmful substances in water (MPC).

In this regard, each source of pollution must comply with the standards established for it by the competent government authorities maximum permissible emissions pollutants (MPE). Standards for maximum permissible emissions of harmful substances are established based on the condition of inadmissibility of exceeding the maximum permissible concentrations of harmful substances in water bodies.

When operating economic and other facilities, it is prohibited:

Discharge into water bodies wastewater that is not treated and neutralized in accordance with established standards;

Collect water from water bodies that significantly affects their condition;

Discharge wastewater containing substances for which maximum permissible concentrations have not been established, or containing pathogens of infectious diseases.

In case of exceeding MPE standards or discharge of wastewater containing substances for which corresponding standards have not been established, or violation of other requirements for the rational use and protection of water, the discharge of wastewater may be limited, suspended or prohibited up to the termination of the operation of the production facility by decision of the Government of the Russian Federation or executive authorities of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation on the proposal of water management authorities, environmental protection or sanitary and epidemiological supervision.

When locating, designing, constructing, putting into operation economic and other facilities, as well as introducing new technological processes, their impact on the state of water bodies and the natural environment must be taken into account. Construction (reconstruction) sites economic and other facilities affecting the condition of water bodies, as well as construction, dredging, blasting and other works on water bodies must be coordinated with the water fund management body, the state sanitary and epidemiological surveillance body, and other bodies governing the use and protection of natural resources.

Commissioning is prohibited:

Household and other facilities, including filter storage tanks, waste disposal sites, city and other landfills not equipped with devices, treatment facilities, preventing pollution, clogging, and depletion of water bodies;

Water intake and discharge structures without devices that ensure the accounting of intake and discharge water;

Water intake and other hydraulic structures without establishing sanitary protection zones and creating observation points for indicators of the condition of water bodies.

Sources of pollution located on land should not cause pollution and clogging of water bodies in excess of the established standards for impact on water bodies, which should be ensured by priority use technologies, not providing negative influence on the natural environment, limiting the use of toxic substances and heavy metals, introducing scientifically based methods for measuring and calculating wastewater discharges into water bodies.

The law establishes the obligations of water users to take measures to reduce water consumption, stop the discharge of wastewater by improving production technology and water supply schemes(application of water-free technological processes, air cooling, closed technical water supply systems, etc.) (Articles 98, 105 of the Water Code of the Russian Federation).

In the interests of sustainable satisfaction of the water needs of the population and economic sectors, maintaining optimal conditions for water use, rational use of water resources and ensuring a favorable ecological and sanitary-epidemiological condition of water bodies, the Ministry of Natural Resources of the Russian Federation establishes for water users water use limits.

Water use limits (water consumption and water disposal) are the maximum permissible volumes of withdrawal of water resources or discharge of wastewater of standard quality into water bodies over a certain period of time *.

* Clauses 14-18 of the Rules for the provision of state-owned water bodies for use, the establishment and revision of water use limits, the issuance of water use licenses and administrative licenses, approved by Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation of April 3, 1997 No. 383.

In order to protect waters from clogging It is prohibited to discharge industrial, household and other waste into water bodies and dump them in them (Article 96 of the RF CC).

It is prohibited to bury and discharge radioactive and toxic substances (materials) into water bodies, as well as to carry out work on water bodies that uses nuclear and other types of technologies that are accompanied by the release of radioactive and toxic substances.

Owners of funds water transport, floating and other structures on water bodies, timber rafting organizations must prevent pollution and clogging of water due to loss of oils, wood, chemicals, petroleum and other products.

It is not permitted to operate self-propelled and non-self-propelled vessels, as well as other objects located on the surface of water bodies, without devices for collecting wastewater, waste and waste generated on these vessels and objects.

Enterprises, organizations and institutions are obliged to prevent pollution and clogging surfaces of watersheds and ice cover of reservoirs industrial, household and other waste and waste, as well as oil products, pesticides and other harmful substances, the flushing of which will lead to a deterioration in the quality of surface and groundwater.

An essential feature of the legal protection of waters is the establishment water protection zones water bodies.

A water protection zone is an area adjacent to the waters of rivers, lakes, reservoirs and other surface water bodies, where a special regime of economic and other activities is established in order to prevent pollution, clogging, siltation and depletion of water bodies, as well as to preserve the habitat of animal objects and flora.

Compliance with a special regime on the territory of water protection zones is integral part a set of environmental measures to improve the hydrological, hydrochemical, hydrobiological, sanitary and environmental condition of water bodies and the improvement of their coastal territories.

Within water protection zones, coastal protective stripes, in the territories of which additional restrictions on environmental management are introduced. The legal regime of these territories is regulated by the Regulations on water protection zones water bodies and their coastal strips.

In order to protect water bodies used for drinking and domestic water supply, as well as medical, resort and health needs of the population, zones and districts of sanitary protection.

Water Code The Russian Federation also regulates issues emergency water pollution as a result of salvo discharges of harmful substances, the concepts of zones are defined environmental emergency and environmental disaster on water bodies(Articles 97, 116 of the RF CC), measures to prevent and eliminate consequences are provided harmful effects of water(floods, inundations, destruction of banks, dams, etc., waterlogging and salinization of lands, soil erosion, mudflows, etc.).

The legislation provides for the creation of various categories specially protected water bodies- natural ecosystems that have special environmental, scientific, cultural, aesthetic, recreational and health value, which are completely or partially, permanently or temporarily withdrawn from economic activity. These can be areas of inland sea waters, wetlands, watercourses and reservoirs classified as unique natural landscapes, protection zones for the source or mouth of water bodies, spawning grounds valuable species fish, etc. The Special Federal Law “On the Protection of Lake Baikal” established a special legal regime for the protection of a unique ecological system - the Baikal natural territory, which is natural object world heritage.

Our reservoirs and their protection (E. S. Liperovskaya)

Water protection and school

The importance of reservoirs in the national economy. School curricula pay little attention to such an important object national economy like bodies of water.

Meanwhile, the water resources of our country are enormous. In the Soviet Union there are more than 250 thousand lakes with an area of ​​over 20 million hectares and 200 thousand rivers. The total length of our medium-sized rivers is 3 million kilometers. The annual flow of rivers in the USSR reaches 4000 billion cubic meters. Hundreds of thousands of kilometers of rivers are used for water transport. Since ancient times, rivers have been the main routes of communication, trade and cultural connections between peoples, and cities arose along their banks.

The USSR ranks first in the world in terms of hydraulic energy reserves. Hydroelectric power stations with a capacity of about 300 million kilowatts can be built on large and medium-sized rivers of the USSR. Even on small rivers there is an energy reserve of 20-30 million kilowatts, which ensures the construction of collective farm power plants.

The construction of dams, locks, and hydroelectric power stations contributes to the integrated use of rivers: navigation conditions are improved, field irrigation is improved, river flow is regulated, and water is provided to populated areas. The construction of large dams and hydroelectric power stations is transforming the entire region. Construction of the canal named after. Moscow allowed part of the Volga waters to turn towards Moscow and created a shipping route, turning Moscow into a major river port of three seas: the Caspian, White and Baltic. The construction of a powerful hydroelectric power station named after Lenin in the area of ​​the city of Kuibyshev and the Volgograd hydroelectric power station, generating about 10 billion kilowatts per year each, will supply Moscow, Donbass, the Urals, Kuibyshev with energy, electrify railways, ensure land irrigation and shipping.

Reservoirs are sources of water supply, fishing, hunting, and useful aquatic animals and plants.

Rivers and lakes are also places of recreation and tourism.

Participation of schoolchildren in the protection of water bodies. We must be well aware of, protect and increase our water resources.

Article 12 of the Law on Nature Protection of the RSFSR, dedicated to the protection of water bodies, poses tasks of enormous importance to every Soviet citizen.

Promoting the protection of natural waters among schoolchildren is of great importance. Already in the elementary grades, the teacher must instill in students an attentive and careful attitude towards water sources, teach them to keep wells and other water supply sources clean, not pollute the water with garbage when boating, and explain the importance of water sources for health and the national economy.

In secondary schools, the topic of water protection can be the subject of special excursions, during which the teacher must show the relationship of reservoirs with the surrounding landscape and the dependence of aquatic animals and plants on the state of pollution of reservoirs.

In high school, students can not only get acquainted with the life of reservoirs, but also actively contribute to their protection. Regular observations of the regime of local reservoirs by schoolchildren can bring considerable benefit.

The Main Directorate of the Hydrometeorological Service under the Council of Ministers of the USSR is responsible for recording all water resources, including rivers. Monitoring of rivers and their regime is carried out at special hydrometeorological posts and hydrometeorological stations. The number of such stations was 5510 in 1957 and has now increased greatly. At these stations, water levels, flow rates, temperature, ice phenomena, sediment, water chemistry and other data are recorded daily. All this information is summarized and published in a periodical publication of the Hydrometeorological Publishing House, called the “Hydrological Yearbook”. The data obtained is used for planning the national economy. Along with this, the study of rivers by local organizations, including school organizations, can be very great value, and all observations obtained in this way should be reported to hydrometeorological service organizations - preferably to the nearest water-measuring station.

To successfully familiarize students with the life of our reservoirs and participate in their protection, the teacher must himself acquire basic information about this area.

Nature and life of reservoirs

River flow. Movement of water in the river. The movement of water in rivers has a number of features and is characterized by complex phenomena specific only to rivers.

River runoff is formed from atmospheric precipitation flowing into the river along the surface (surface runoff) and seeping through the soil (underground runoff). The unevenness of precipitation and snow melting both within one year and in different years causes continuous changes in flow rates and water levels in rivers. In accordance with this, rivers experience periods of prolonged low levels, the so-called low-water period, when the river is fed mainly by groundwater, and seasonal long-term rises in levels (usually with the release of water onto the floodplain), caused by snowmelt, called floods. In contrast to floods, irregular, relatively short-term significant rises in water levels can also occur in the river - floods resulting from heavy downpours or heavy rains. Floods can occur at any time of the year, depending on local geographic and climatic conditions. They reach particular strength when destroying forests in the river basin, regulating spring snowmelt and weakening erosion from the soil surface. That is why the protection and proper exploitation of forests is one of the most important tasks in regulating river flow.

The main force that determines the forward movement of water in rivers is the force of gravity due to the slope of the river from the source to the mouth. In addition to gravity, the mass of water in the river is affected by inertial forces, called Coriolis forces, arising as a result of the rotation of the Earth, since points on the surface of the globe located closer to the poles move in a circle more slowly than those lying near the equator. The mass of water in a stream flowing in the northern hemisphere from north to south will move from lower to higher speeds, i.e., it will receive acceleration. Since the Earth's rotation occurs from west to east, acceleration will be directed to the east, and inertial forces in the opposite direction - to the west and will press the flow towards the western (right) bank. When the flow moves from south to north, it will receive negative acceleration directed against the direction of the Earth's rotation - from east to west. In this case, inertial forces will press the river to the eastern, i.e., also right, bank. Also, the stream flowing along the parallel will be pressed against the right bank. Thus, it turns out that Coriolis forces in the northern hemisphere always push the flow to the right bank, regardless of the direction of the river flow, and in southern hemisphere- vice versa. Coriolis acceleration, acting on a moving mass of water, causes the appearance of a transverse slope of the water surface of the flow.

The centrifugal force acting during the river flow at turns, similar to the Coriolis force, also creates a transverse slope in the river. As a result, water begins to move in the plane of the living section of the river. In this case, near the concave shore, water particles move from top to bottom, then along the bottom to the convex shore and further, near the surface, from the convex shore to the concave one. These internal currents are called transverse circulations. The movement of water in the river in the longitudinal direction combines with transverse circulations, and as a result, the paths of movement of individual water particles take the form of spirals elongated along the riverbed (Fig. 1).

River bed formation. Despite the fact that the transverse speeds of water movement are many times less than the longitudinal speed of the flow, they have a serious impact on the internal structure of the flow and on the deformation of river channels. Since soils are usually heterogeneous, in the place where they are most susceptible to erosion, the shore will begin to collapse. The river will take on a characteristic meandering shape. The bends of river channels, formed in the process of erosion and deposition by the flow of soil particles, are called meanders (meo in Latin - flow, move).

In the process of gradual development the branches of the meander can become so close to each other at the base that when high levels water (during floods and floods), the remaining isthmus will break through (Fig. 2), the channel will straighten in this section and the flow will be directed along a more shortcut. The flow velocities in the bend that remains to the side will drop sharply, and sediment deposition will begin at the beginning and end of it. These sediments can eventually completely separate the bend from the main channel. An isolated section of the old channel is formed - an oxbow lake. A flow moving along a straightened section with a greater slope will increase its speed, the process of meandering the channel will continue, and the formation of new bends will begin.

As a result of intense water circulation at bends, the concave banks are washed away and deep-water sections of the channel-reaches are formed near them, and near the convex banks the flow slows down and shallow sections - shoals - are created. Gradually growing downstream, they can lead to the formation of shoals and spits near the convex bank. Since the reaches are formed alternately at the right and left banks, the transverse circulation of one direction is transformed into circulation of the opposite direction. This leads to the fact that the transverse circulations at the point of transition from one reach to another are weakened and break up into two (or more) independent equally directed circulations. Sediment begins to settle across the entire width of the river and forms shallow areas - riffles that cross the river from bank to bank and completely or partially connect two adjacent shallows. The river seems to slide down the river valley and gradually recycles all the soils that make up the floodplain.

Floodplains can be of different widths. On the Oka River near Kashira the width of the floodplain is 1 km, near Ryazan - 15 km, and on the Volga between Volgograd and Astrakhan there is the Volga-Akhtuba floodplain, the width of which ranges from 30 to 60 km.

Flood meadows are very fertile, as they are fertilized every year with river silt. In small floodplains that mostly dry up in summer, a large number of aquatic animals breed, which are washed into the river during floods.

Lake formation. A lake is a natural body of water, which is a large mass of water inside a closed pit, constantly at rest or slowly flowing. The formation of lake depressions (otherwise called beds or pits) in the Moscow region depends on the following main reasons:

1) damming of the river with accumulated sediment; 2) the formation of failures in place of dissolving calcareous rocks; 3) excavation of soil from quarries; 4) glacier activity.

Most lakes in the Moscow region are of glacial origin. As the glacier moved, it created a channel, rolling stones, sometimes of considerable size. Glacial lakes can be recognized by the presence of ridges of huge smooth boulders along the shores and at the bottom of the lake.

Over time, the lake changes, causing significant impacts on its shores. As a result of the processes of erosion and sedimentation, the following series of zones are formed in the lake in the direction from the shore to depth (Fig. 3):

1) surf zone (as much) - at the water’s edge;

2) coastal shallows (zhz);

3) underwater slope (sg);

4) deep-water zone - in the middle of the lake (gd).

Lake inhabitants. The bottom and water column of the lake are inhabited by animals and plants; Among them, two main groups are distinguished depending on their habitat: bottom - benthos and organisms of the water column - plankton. The benthos (animals and plants) spend their entire lives at the bottom of the lake. Planktonic organisms float or seem to float in water without sinking to the bottom (A. N. Lipin, 1950).

Plants in the reservoir are distributed in the so-called littoral zone, which is located along the coastal shallows and partially extends onto the underwater slope. Littoral is limited by penetration range sunlight underwater. As can be seen in Figure 4, plants grow closer to the shore, rooting at the bottom, whose hard leaves rise above the water: reeds, reeds, lake horsetail, cattails.

Further, in the direction from the shore to the middle of the reservoir, there are plants with floating leaves: water lilies, egg capsules, duckweeds, and even further submerged plants - pondweed, villain, hornwort, which are completely under water and expose only flowers to the air.

The smallest lower plants, such as blue-green algae, green algae and diatoms, form plant plankton, which during periods of their strong reproduction causes the so-called bloom of the reservoir. During flowering, all the water appears green.

Chemistry of water. Fresh water contains small amounts of salts - from 0.01 to 0.2 g per liter, in contrast to sea water, where the concentration of salts reaches 35 g per liter.

Fresh waters are dominated by calcium salts, which form the skeletons of fish and the shells of some invertebrates. Iron salts are also present in water. Iron deposits can be seen as rusty spots along the banks of rivers or lakes where springs come to the surface. If there is a high iron content in drinking water, an unpleasant rusty taste occurs and a brown precipitate forms.

For aquatic organisms The gases dissolved in water - oxygen and carbon dioxide - are of great importance. Oxygen comes from the air and is released by aquatic plants; it is consumed during the respiration processes of organisms. Carbon dioxide is produced by respiration and fermentation and is consumed by plants to assimilate carbon. As the temperature rises, the amount of gases dissolved in water decreases. By boiling water, you can free it from all dissolved gases, including oxygen, and therefore fish placed in boiled, cooled water instantly dies from suffocation.

Reservoirs are sources of water for drinking and technical water supply systems. At the point where water is collected for the water pipeline, a security zone is established, within which the release of wastewater, swimming, livestock watering, and any pollution of the banks is prohibited. The water intake site should be located along the river above the city, away from large factories, bathhouses, sewers, and also, if possible, away from tributaries that can introduce pollution from the upper reaches. The degree of purity is controlled by water tests. At the site where water is taken from the reservoir, pumps are installed to pump water. Water is taken from a depth of at least 2.5 m, passes through large gratings to retain plant residues and large suspended matter, and then flows through pipes for purification. Aluminum sulfate is usually added to precipitate turbidity. After partial separation from turbidity in settling tanks, the water enters the filters. Slowly passing through the sand layer, it is freed from suspended particles and algae. Purified water is disinfected by chlorination and supplied to a clean water reservoir, and from there it is pumped into the water supply network.

Fishes of our waters. Numerous lakes and rivers of the USSR are rich in valuable species of commercial fish. In large rivers there are, for example, sturgeon, stellate sturgeon, beluga, sterlet, pike perch, carp, and bream. However big fish It is caught only with special gear, and amateur fishermen, including schoolchildren, usually catch smaller fish: roach, bleak, rudd, dace, asp, perch, pike, ruffe, crucian carp, burbot, tench.

In order to protect fish stocks in water bodies and catch fish correctly, you need to know how fish live. Unfortunately, there are still frequent cases of predatory fishing - poaching. Often children also fish using illegal methods. Therefore, in those schools where there are many amateur fishermen among the students, the teacher must either explain to them the rules of fishing himself, or invite a knowledgeable fisherman to do this.

Schoolchildren need to be educated in the spirit of fighting poaching. Catching juveniles of valuable fish species causes great damage to fisheries; Likewise, predatory fishing by poachers during spawning undermines the fishery. Therefore, the law prohibits fishing with a fine-mesh net, fishing with a spear and fishing large manufacturers during spawning periods.

A teacher in the Moscow region should have an idea of ​​the main types of local fish (Fig. 5, 6, 7); it can be compiled from the literature (Cherfas B.I., 1956, Eleonsky A.N., 1946).

Fish are bottom-dwelling (for example, bream, crucian carp, tench, burbot) and pelagic, i.e., living in the water column (pike perch, pike, roach, dace). There are also peaceful and predatory fish. Predatory fish are those that feed on other fish, while peaceful fish eat algae and invertebrate animals such as mollusks, worms, and insect larvae.

Bream It has a strongly laterally compressed body, its head and mouth are small, and there is a characteristic narrow keel in front of the dorsal fin. It is found both in lakes and rivers, lives in reservoirs near the bottom, and sometimes reaches a length of 45 cm.

crucian carp usually lives near the bottom in low-flow ponds. This fish is sluggish, inactive, but extremely hardy. Crucian carp are easily distinguished by the golden hue of their scales and the jagged ray of their dorsal fin.

Asp distinguished by a long lower lip, which is curved like a bird's beak; There is a notch in the upper lip where this beak fits. The fins are gray or slightly reddish. The fish is strong and lives in fast currents. It feeds on dace, gudgeon, and bleak.

Som- a voracious predator, eats not only live prey, but also carrion. Caught on pieces of meat and frogs. Usually it lies in holes under snags, only in hot weather it swims out to the middle of the pool. Slow sedentary fish. Reaches a weight of 20 kg.

Zander also a predator (Fig. 6). Its scales are grayish on its back, its sides are golden with dark stripes. The dorsal fin is in the form of a spiny fan. Found in rivers and lakes in deep places and holes, on clean sandy or rocky soil. Spawns in mid-May. It is caught only at dawn with bait of small live fish: bleak, gudgeon, ruff.

Pike characterized by spotted sides, while the back is black and the belly is white (Fig. 7). The fins are orange. The elongated head ends flattened, as if duck nose. The mouth is full of many very sharp teeth of different sizes - from the smallest to large fangs with hard enamel. The teeth are curved inwards towards the pharynx. Each of the teeth is movable, as if on a hinge, but does not fall out. Pike is a large predator. Pike can be found everywhere, but it prefers calm water near grass and snags, where it hides, lying in wait for prey. It is caught with live bait, even with small squints.

Rudd distinguished by red fins. The eyes are red-yellow. Lives in thickets of plants.

Tench has rounded fins and a small mouth directed upward. The body is dark, always thickly covered with mucus, the eyes are red. Lives in lakes, bays and oxbow lakes on muddy bottoms. The fish is calm and lethargic, but strong and tenacious (Fig. 5).

At the burbot very small scales are covered on the outside with a thick layer of mucus. The body is dark with light spots, the eyes are also dark, it lives in rivers at the bottom under driftwood. It feeds on fish and caviar, of which it eats a lot. Hunts at night. Caught on pieces of fish or frogs. The fish is strong.

Ruff- small fish, up to 15 cm in length. It has one dorsal fin, the front part of which is spiny and the back part is soft. There is a spine on the ventral fin. In spring it eats fish eggs. Caught with an earthworm.

Perch has two dorsal fins and small scales. The body is green-yellow with black stripes on the sides. Eats caviar and small fish.

Pike and pike perch feed on young fish. Pike, eating up to 30 kg of small fish from other fish, increases in weight by only 1 kg. Pike perch makes better use of food: it gives a gain of 1 kg in exchange for 15 kg of small items eaten. Pike perch is advantageous in that it does not stay in the coastal strip, but on the stretch and feeds on low-value fish species (verkhovka).

In relation to harmful, i.e. predatory, fish, measures must be taken to reduce their numbers by catching them during the spawning period. But control is also needed over peaceful fish, since overpopulation of a reservoir with them can lead to their grinding due to lack of food.

Fish ponds. Many fish ponds were built in the USSR, but many collective farm ponds and peat quarries could also be equipped for fish farming and stocked with fish, thereby increasing the country’s fish output.

About 250 thousand quintals of fish are currently produced in ponds alone; however, this does not reach even 1% of all fish production in the USSR. And by the end of the seven-year plan, in 1965, it is planned to increase the yield of pond fish to 2.6 million centners (Gribanov L.V., Gordon L.M., 1961).

A common form of fish ponds is carp farming (Eleonsky A.N., 1946). For carp spawning, standing or low-flowing, shallow, well-warmed by the sun reservoirs located on fertile soil with aquatic vegetation are suitable. Carp spawning occurs at the end of May, when the water heats up to 18-20°. The eggs attach to aquatic plants, and after 4-6 days tiny fry emerge from them and soon begin to feed on small aquatic animals. As they grow up, they switch to feeding on worms and larvae. The favorite food of adult carp is red bloodworm. Carp is different rapid growth: in spring it weighs 20-30 g, and by autumn it reaches 500-700 g.

Carp ponds have an average productivity of 2 quintals of fish per 1 hectare, in other words, 300 pieces weighing up to 600 g. A pond can produce such products due to the use of fish for feeding living aquatic organisms. But thanks to the use of measures to intensify the economy - fertilizing ponds, fertilizing with grain, vitamins, microelements, combined compacted planting (carp along with silver carp, crucian carp and tench) - it is possible to increase the productivity of ponds by five, ten or more times. For example, on the collective farm in the village of Dedinova, Podolsk district, Moscow region, they raised about 9 centners of fish and received an income of 5.7 thousand rubles per 1 hectare of pond (Gribanov L.V., Gordon L.M., 1961). And in the fish farm "Para" of the Saraevsky district of the Ryazan region, in ponds with an area of ​​140 hectares, they even grew 19.1 centners of fish per 1 hectare of pond ("Pravda" dated July 4, 1962).

Water pollution and water purification. Enormous harm to fishing, water supply and the use of reservoirs for any other economic purposes is caused by pollution caused by waste effluents from factories and enterprises. A number of our rivers (this especially applies to small rivers) are extremely polluted. In many places, fish have ceased to be found, livestock watering places are dangerous, swimming is prohibited, and pollution threatens to reach such proportions that even after the cessation of sewage discharge, such reservoirs are still for a long time will be unsuitable for national economic purposes. Pollution of water bodies is continuously increasing. The variety of wastewater is increasing. If in pre-revolutionary Russia The main pollutants were household, textile and leather waste, but now, in connection with the development of industry, oil, artificial fiber, detergent, metallurgy, and paper and pulp waste have become important. Industrial wastewater may contain toxic substances: compounds of arsenic, copper, lead and other heavy metals, as well as organic substances: formaldehyde, phenol, petroleum products, etc.

The reservoir has the ability to self-purify. Organic contaminants entering water are subject to bacterial decay. The bacteria are consumed by ciliates, worms and insect larvae, which in turn are eaten by fish, and organic pollution disappears from the reservoir. It is much more difficult to get rid of toxic substances: some substances, when absorbed by fish, make the fish meat taste unpleasant or even harmful to eat. Therefore, the sanitary inspection provides for standards for the release of toxic substances into bodies of water, above which descent is prohibited, and monitors their implementation.

Wastewater containing a lot of organic pollutants is treated biochemically. Depending on the nature of the contaminants, wastewater treatment proceeds in two ways: 1) oxidation of pollutants with air oxygen or 2) oxygen-free fermentation with the release of methane formed from the carbon of organic compounds.

Among the oxidative cleaning methods, the oldest is cleaning in irrigation fields. The disadvantage of this method is that the field area is too large. Soviet scientists have developed more intensive cleaning methods in structures that occupy a smaller area: aeration tanks or biofilters, where cleaning is carried out using activated sludge when blown with air. Activated sludge is similar to sludge from the bottom of reservoirs: the same microorganisms (ciliates, rotifers and flagellates) that can usually be found at the bottom of a reservoir develop in it, but, thanks to the abundant continuous influx of organic matter with the waste liquid, which serves as food for microorganisms, and good condition aeration, an excessively large number of bacteria and protozoa develop in the aeration tank. They intensively consume organic matter and thereby purify waste liquid. After being in the aeration tanks, the water settles to separate from the silt and, already purified in this way, is discharged into the reservoir.

Excursions to reservoirs

Purposes of excursions. Students can be introduced to bodies of water on one-day school excursions, in summer camps, during agricultural practice, and on hiking trips. To explore the bodies of water different types(lake, reservoir, pond, river), you need to conduct at least 3-4 excursions. It is also advisable to visit a fish farm, waterworks and wastewater treatment plant.

The goals of excursions with students to bodies of water are as follows:

1. Show the importance of reservoirs in the life of the region - the benefits they bring and the beauty they add to the native nature.

2. Instill in schoolchildren a love for water bodies, the habit of treating them with care and striving to increase their natural wealth.

3. In the process of observing aquatic animals and plants, develop students’ powers of observation, the ability to analyze nature and establish the patterns of life of organisms in communities.

4. Show how communities of animals and plants are closely related to the surrounding habitat conditions and landscape.

5. Involve students in the proper use of this reservoir.

Preparing for excursions. Equipment. When organizing an excursion to a reservoir, the teacher must first familiarize himself with it and find out what the surrounding landscape is like, especially vegetation and soil, the nature of the banks, and, if possible, determine the origin of the reservoir. He must find out from the local population the prevailing depths, dangerous places and holes, muddy banks, the nature of the bottom soil, find out the possibility of traveling by boat.

From a conversation with fishermen, the teacher finds out what types of fish are found in the reservoir, what were found before, what are the reasons for their disappearance; where industrial wastewater or domestic wastewater is located along the banks.

It is advisable to collect some of the most common species from plants and animals and identify them yourself using keys or find out their names from specialists.

Before going on an excursion, the teacher conducts a conversation in which he explains its purpose - getting to know bodies of water, their life and significance for humans.

The teacher explains how each excursion participant should keep a diary. The recording must be accurate and is always done immediately, on the spot, under the fresh impression of the observed phenomenon. The initiative of students in searching for new original forms of recordings should be welcomed.

In advance, together with the students, the teacher prepares equipment for the excursion (Fig. 8, 9, 10).

To take a plan of the lake you need: tape measure, milestones. You should stock up on special sticks as milestones, rather than breaking trees; you also need a homemade compass. To make a compass, you need to take a ruler, draw a straight line on it and attach a compass in the middle so that the north-south arrow of the compass coincides with it. At the ends of the line, two pins should be inserted strictly vertically. The resulting compass needs to be mounted on a tripod.

To measure depths you need a lot. To do this, the rope is marked with colored ribbons at meters and half meters, and a weight or stone is tied to the end. The lower surface of the load is rubbed with lard so that pieces of soil stick when the lot falls to the bottom.

It is better to take a thermometer with divisions in tenths of a degree or at least half a degree. The end of the thermometer is tied with hemp from a rope, like a tassel. Then, when quickly raised from depth, the thermometer retains the temperature of the water in which it was immersed for several minutes while it is counting degrees.

A Secchi disk is used to measure water transparency. A metal round plate the size of a plate is painted with white oil paint and tied horizontally in the center with a rope. When immersing a disk, the depth at which it is not visible is taken into account.

The plankton mesh is made from silk mill gas, which is distinguished by its strength and uniform size of holes (cells); The gas number corresponds to the number of cells per 10 mm of fabric. To collect daphnia, you can use gas No. 34, and for small plankton - No. 70. The mesh consists of a metal ring with a diameter of 25 cm, bent from thick copper wire, and a fabric cone. A funnel (like a kerosene) made of stainless material with a clamp or tap at the end is attached to the end of the cone. The mesh pattern is made from a square piece of fabric (Fig. 8). Before sewing both halves of the cone, you need to use the same pattern to make arc strips (a) from calico or canvas and sew them onto the gasket.

A dredge for collecting benthos consists of a metal frame to which a bag made of rare burlap and a rope are attached. The frame is made from an iron strip 2 mm thick, 30 mm wide and 1 m long, bent into a triangle and fastened at one end.

The net is made from a metal hoop with a diameter of 20-30 cm. The hoop is attached to a stick. The net bag is made of burlap or mill gas, rounded towards the end (for its pattern, see the first article).

The scraper is used to collect fouling and organisms living in plant thickets. It is a type of net, but has a flat steel strip 2-3 cm wide. To attach the bag, holes are made on one side of the steel strip. The bag is made of coarse mill gas. To collect organisms, you need to have several jars with stoppers and alcohol or formaldehyde.

Excursion to the well. You can start the cycle of excursions by getting acquainted with the nearest well, from which they take drinking water. A well differs from an artesian well in the shallower depth of its aquifer. In this regard, contamination from the soil can penetrate into the well, and when constructing wells, they are located away from garbage cesspools, cemeteries and sewage drains.

By examining the well, you can become familiar with the influx of groundwater. To do this, you need to measure the depth of the well using a rope with a heavy metal glass at the end, attached to it with the bottom up. When you hit the water in the well, a loud sound is made. In the morning and evening, the water levels in the well are different due to water consumption and groundwater inflow. A bottle of water is taken from the well for chemical analysis in the school office.

Excursion to the river. When going on an excursion to the river, you need to familiarize yourself with a map of the river and its basin. If this river is small, with high school students you can measure the speed of the flow and its flow.

Current speed is measured with floats. Two alignments are selected - upper and lower. The distance between the gates is taken such that the duration of the float's travel along the river core between them is at least 25 seconds. Above the upper target at a distance of 5-10 m, another launch target is selected. It is done so that the float thrown in this alignment, when approaching the upper alignment, takes on the speed of the flow jets. After setting out the alignments, the living cross-sectional areas on two alignments are measured. The measurement of live sections is carried out by measuring the depths with a rod or pole with divisions at equal intervals, usually at 1/50 or 1/20 of the width of the river, along the towline, which is pulled at each section from bank to bank. The living cross-sectional area can be calculated using the formula: W = (n 1 + n 2 + n 3 ... n n ⋅ b, where n are the measured depths, b are the intervals between measurements in meters. Wooden circles are used as floats, sawn off from a log with a diameter of 10-25 cm and a height of 2-5 cm. For better visibility, the floats are painted with bright paint or equipped with flags. It is advisable that the float protrude as little as possible above the surface of the water to avoid the effects of wind.

On rivers up to 20 m wide with more or less fast current, at the launch site, 10-15 floats are sequentially thrown into the pitch area. The moments of passage of each float through the upstream and downstream alignments are noted with a stopwatch, and the duration of the float's travel T between the alignments is calculated.

The float speed Vpop is found using the formula

V pop	L	,
	T

where L is the distance between the targets, T is the time it takes for the float to pass in seconds. Of all the floats, select the two with the highest speeds and derive Vmax from them. pov - average maximum surface water velocity in the river. Then calculate the average flow speed of the entire river V av = 0.6 V max. pov And average area live section W along two sections - upstream and downstream. River flow Q is determined by the formula

Q = V avg × W.

For example, let us point out that the flow of the Moscow River at Pavshin is on average about 50 m 3 per second.

On the river, the temperature and transparency of water are measured in deep places, near the shore, near springs and tributaries. The differences indicate the presence of current jets.

It is useful to have students talk to local fishermen. It is advisable to attend net fishing conducted by the local population and see representatives of the local ichthyofauna.

When observing small river organisms, you should pay attention to adaptations to life in fast-flowing water. Thus, mayfly larvae, which can be found under stones, have a flattened shape that protects them from being moved by the current. Mayfly larvae differ from similar stonefly larvae by three tail filaments.

The adaptations of caddisfly larvae consist of the formation of strong houses from the surrounding material (grains of sand, leaves, sticks), due to which the animal is protected from damage when rolling along the bottom. In addition, caddisfly larvae have strong hooks with which they can cling to plants or other hard substrate. There are predators among caddisfly larvae, so it is dangerous to place them in the same aquarium with fish fry.

Along the banks of rivers you can find large bivalves(toothless and pearl barley), crawling along the bottom in places with silt rich in organic matter. They partially bury themselves in the mud, exposing their respiratory siphons into the water above the mud to draw clean water to their gills.

Excursions to a lake or pond. There are several excursions available to the lake:

1) for shooting a plan; 2) for measuring depth; 3) to get acquainted with plants and animals. An excursion to the lake can be replaced by a visit to a quiet backwater of the river, which is approaching it according to its regime.

The first excursion to the lake takes place along the shores.

If the lake or pond is small, then it is quite possible to film its plan with high school students. It is recommended that you familiarize yourself with the methodology for this case according to Lipin’s book and use the method that uses a compass. Two people work with the compass, the rest set up milestones and measure distances. Coastal places are plotted on the plan: villages, arable lands, vegetable gardens, forests, streams flowing into a reservoir. At home, students draw a plan to a certain scale. The task is given to calculate the area of ​​the lake.

The next excursion to the lake is by boat. This excursion, like the previous one, should be carried out with older schoolchildren. Having chosen a stable flat-bottomed boat, they sail across the lake in a straight line. If we measure the depth at several points along the course of the boat, we will obtain data for compiling a longitudinal profile of the lake.

During the next trip, temperature and water clarity are measured and living material is collected. To work on collecting material, five students are needed, a minimum of three students and a teacher: a rower, a helmsman, a planktonist, a collector of plants and benthic organisms, and one person for all records. Under no circumstances should the boat be overloaded with extra people.

The work is distributed as follows: the rower rows and at certain intervals, at the command of the leader, stops the boat. It is good to have an anchor that holds the boat in place during work. The helmsman gives the direction of the boat, he can also make entries in the diary and write labels. When the boat stops, one person measures the temperature (first of the air in the shade, then of the water), depth, and transparency.

The planktonist lowers the plankton net into the water while the boat is moving slowly and, holding it barely under the surface of the water for 5-7 minutes, pulls it behind the boat. After this, he takes out the mesh, concentrates the contents in the bottom funnel of the mesh, rinses it into a bottle and immediately fixes it with alcohol on the boat, adding 1 part alcohol to 2 parts water. It can also be fixed with formalin (5 cm 3 per 100 cm 3 of water) or even with a solution of table salt (about 1 teaspoon per 100 cm 3 of water). Organisms are well preserved in formaldehyde, but you need to work with it with caution and under no circumstances give it undiluted to children, as it is very caustic; This fixative can be used when working only with those students who can be relied upon.

One of the participants on the boat trip must be busy collecting plants, as some plants cannot be obtained from the shore. When collecting plants, the teacher draws students' attention to the arrangement of plants in zones.

Plants on the boat can be collected in damp pieces of gauze, labeled with pencil on parchment paper, and placed in a herbarium folder upon return to shore.

In order to beautifully arrange small filamentous algae on paper, you must first immerse them together with the paper in water and then carefully remove them; then the individual threads will lie evenly on the sheet, after which you can dry them.

While going around on a boat, the teacher draws attention to the flowering of the reservoir. If the bloom is intense and gives the water a thick color, you can directly scoop the water into a bottle, fix it with alcohol and then examine it in the laboratory under a microscope.

A special excursion is carried out along the shore on foot to examine the littoral zone of the lake, i.e., the coastal zone of higher vegetation. Plants are collected for the herbarium, the rhizomes of aquatic plants are dug up, and green filaments are taken into jars. Plant identification can be done using the books of Yu. V. Rychin (1948) and A. N. Lipin (1950) or other plant identification books. Not only older, but also younger schoolchildren (IV grade) can participate in such an excursion, but the teacher can change the excursion program in accordance with the level of knowledge of the students.

The littoral zone with thickets of plants is the busiest and rich in organisms, since plants provide a solid substrate for the attachment of organisms, release oxygen necessary for respiration and, when they die, produce organic remains that serve as food for aquatic animals.

Among the vegetation you can find water beetles and other insects, as well as their larvae, visible with the naked eye or through a magnifying glass.

Before catching animals, the student observes their behavior underwater. He records on what plants or on what soil the specimen was found. On a quiet summer day, the underwater population is clearly visible along the banks of shallow reservoirs. Let students try, by observing a beetle, worm, or insect larva, to decide how this organism feeds, how it breathes, whether it is a predator or whether it itself becomes a victim of others. Back at school, you can look at the characteristics of each organism in more detail under a microscope.

Approximate tasks for individual groups of excursionists may be the following: 1) fishing with nets between plants; 2) scrapings of organisms attached to stems, leaves of plants and underwater rocks; 3) collection by dredging of benthic organisms living in the mud. The material obtained in this way can be easily systematized according to the habitats of animals and relate the distribution of organisms to living conditions.

To extract organisms, the dredged sludge is washed through a sieve (sieve side size 0.5 mm). The sludge should be taken from the surface layer, since this is where the most organisms are found. Usually red bloodworm larvae, worms and small mollusks live in the silt, which need to be examined through a tripod magnifying glass and under a microscope, preferably alive, and before that kept in a jar of water. If the day is hot and the laboratory is far away, they should be preserved in alcohol or other fixing liquid.

When examining the water surface, water striders and small dark shiny whirling bugs catch the eye. Examine a bug's eye under a magnifying glass: when swimming, the lower half of their eye is immersed in water, and therefore is structured differently than the upper half. Of the large beetles, the most common beetles are the water lover, the diving beetle, and their larvae. Water bugs breathe atmospheric air. They are good swimmers, as evidenced by the structure of their limbs (Fig. 11).

Water bugs - smooth bugs, comb bugs, water scorpions - are distinguished by their sucking proboscis at the mouth.

Mollusks crawl on the floating leaves of plants (a large pointed pond snail, a reel, a meadow - all these mollusks belong to gastropods) and the eggs of the mollusks are sometimes attached in the form of transparent mucous strands and rings.

Familiarization with signs of water pollution. When walking around the banks and collecting material, you need to pay attention to whether there are signs of pollution of the reservoir. The teacher, together with the students, can provide direct benefit by reporting the presence of pollution in a given place to the district sanitary inspection or the branch of the Society for the Conservation of Nature.

Cemeteries, villages, factories, farmyards - all these are sources of pollution. However, both older and older students junior classes should be aware that due to river currents, pollutants are sometimes carried down the river far from the sources of pollution and deposited in quiet backwaters.

According to the requirements of the state standard (GOST), clean water of a reservoir should not have any foreign odor, its color when observed in a layer 10 cm high should not be clearly expressed, and continuous floating films should not form on the surface of the reservoir. These GOST requirements must be taken into account. During the excursion, you can take some water with you into a bottle for testing in the laboratory.

If traces of oil are noticeable on coastal plants and rocks near the shore of a reservoir, if a foreign odor is felt, for example phenol, hydrogen sulfide, oil, etc., films of oil and debris float on the surface of the water, or even clusters of blue-green or black cakes form - this is means that the reservoir is polluted. You cannot drink water from contaminated bodies of water, you cannot swim in them, and samples must be collected carefully so as not to cause harm. A sample from clusters of blue-green algae on the surface of the water should be collected in a jar for viewing under a microscope. Taking into account the degree of contamination by chemical analysis or microscopy of samples is available for students of at least VII grade.

One of the methods for distinguishing clean water bodies from polluted ones is a microscopic analysis of the composition of coastal fouling that forms a border on underwater objects at the water's edge.

Almost clean reservoirs are characterized by bright green fouling of algae from the green group (cladophora, edogonia, etc.) or a brownish coating of diatoms. In clean water bodies there is never the white flocculent growth characteristic of polluted water bodies.

Blue-green fouling, consisting of algae of the blue-green group (a number of oscillator species), characterizes not clean, but polluted water (with excess organic pollution). Similar fouling occurs in runoff with an excess of total salinity.

Fecal wastewater produces white-grayish flocculent fouling consisting of attached ciliates (carhesium, suvoika). Such fouling indicates poor treatment of wastewater after treatment facilities.

Almost no different from them in appearance are the whitish-fawn mucous deposits of filamentous bacteria spherotilus, which also develop in the contaminated area organic substances. Spherotilus sometimes produces powerful, felt-like cushions.

The entry of toxic waste into a body of water in large concentrations can cause complete or partial death of living organisms. Therefore, comparing the composition of animals above and below the release of polluted water will give us an idea of ​​the degree of harmful influence of the runoff on the reservoir. The complete absence of fouling below the drain also indicates a strong (poisonous, toxic) effect of the drain.

When examining, you should pay attention to the state of higher (flowering) aquatic vegetation - pondweed, reeds, reeds, etc. Toxic wastewater can inhibit vegetation, and, conversely, the presence of biogenic salts (nitrogen, phosphorus, as is the case, for example, in wastewater phosphorite mines) causes excessively increased development of vegetation.

If familiarization with a lake or river can be continued in winter, then the degree of pollution can be more reliably determined. Winter season is, as it were, a touchstone, since in winter the reservoir is isolated from the air by ice and the supply of oxygen in the event of severe pollution may be insufficient for a long winter. With a lack of oxygen, death occurs, and the sleeping fish floats up in the ice holes.

The hottest time for schoolchildren and youth to protect water bodies should be spring, before the flood. At this moment, the snow melts and all the pollution along the banks of reservoirs is exposed. If you do not take care of cleaning the banks in time, then the spring melt water and flood will wash away all the dirt into the reservoir, harming the fishery, and depriving the population of the opportunity to use water for a long time. The task of the schoolchildren is to, together with the teacher, under the guidance of a sanitary doctor, organize local residents for the timely removal of industrial and household waste from the banks of the reservoir.

Pollution of water bodies has a detrimental effect on fish. From a lack of oxygen in the water or a large amount of toxic substances, fish die - suffocation, without visible changes in organs and tissues. In case of heavy contamination toxic substances the fish sometimes rushes about randomly, floats to the surface, lies on its side, makes sudden movements in a circle or jumps out of the water and, as if exhausted, sinks to the bottom with its gill covers wide open.

In cases of chronic poisoning of carp, bream, and ide, the phenomenon of dropsy is observed: ruffled scales with a large accumulation of liquid underneath. Bulging eyes are often noticeable. Changes in the internal organs are also noticeable: the liver, instead of the normal cherry color and relatively dense consistency, becomes dirty-whitish, sometimes marbled, flabby, and in some cases a shapeless mass. The buds also often have an off-white color and a flabby consistency. However, similar changes are also observed when fish become infected with rubella.

All these signs of poisoning can be observed in fish, which the guys can either catch themselves or examine from fishermen. It is also useful to tell fishermen about the listed signs of fish poisoning. Seventh grade students familiar with fish anatomy can lead these conversations themselves.

Processing excursion material

Material Definition. After the excursion, the collected material must be put in order and processed at the school.

Sixth grade students identify aquatic plants using keys. It can be determined not only by flowering specimens, but also by leaves alone (according to the book by Yu. V. Rychin, 1948).

To quickly understand the structural features of organisms, the teacher himself first determines the mass forms, writes down their main characteristics and then distributes to each of the students a specimen of the same species for examination under a magnifying glass or microscope.

As an example, let us consider the larvae of “rocker” dragonflies (with students in grades VI-VII). This is a large larva. It has three pairs of jointed legs, like all insects. The shell of the larva is hard chitinous. Let's plant a living larva in a deep saucer of water and observe its movement. It has a reactive method of movement: a stream of water is ejected from the rear end of the intestine, and the larva thereby jumps forward. Sometimes you can find empty larval skins from which an adult dragonfly has already emerged. The larva has a mask on the underside of its head that covers the lower jaw. If you carefully take a non-living larva into left hand, then you can use tweezers or a stick to pull the mask forward. It serves the larva to catch prey.

If students, due to lack of time, cannot use the determinants, then it is enough to tell them the names of individual large representatives of the fauna and indicate only some of the most characteristic features. It is very useful to sketch animals, at least 2-3 copies. Sketches must be approached strictly: the drawing must be made not from a book, but from nature, resemble the object and reflect characteristic features.

Sixth grade students can examine beetles, water bugs, insect larvae, small mollusks, and leeches under a tripod magnifying glass.

Independent work with a microscope and sketching specimens can be entrusted to older schoolchildren only after they have acquired the skill in a circle.

Under a microscope, they examine: 1) algae that create a bloom in the reservoir; 2) contaminated films with accumulations of algae; 3) filamentous algae; 4) contaminated fouling removed from objects in the coastal part of lakes and rivers; 5) small organs of aquatic animals that are characteristic features of species, for example, gill filaments of mayflies; 6) daphnia (they are examined entirely and preferably alive); 7) plankton (considered live or fixed in alcohol in a drop).

Under a microscope, it can be seen that the fouling, which is green in color, consists of filamentous green algae (should be viewed under a high magnification of the microscope; the teacher prepares the specimen). Filamentous algae in each cell have a green chromatophore in the form of a plate, spiral or grain.

Colorless threads of fungi, molds or filamentous bacteria are found in the contaminated area. These threads are very thin, sometimes their diameter reaches only a few microns (1 micron is equal to 1/1000 of a millimeter). The threads show cell division (at high magnification).

Whitish fouling is also found in the contaminated area. Under a microscope, among them one can distinguish ciliates - suvoek, and others that have the shape of a bell, attached to a solid substrate with a thread-like leg.

Observations and experiments on living objects. Some animals can be placed in an aquarium to observe their movement, breathing and feeding. This can be done with beetles, dragonfly larvae, water bugs, mollusks, coil and pond snails. To determine the toxicity of river water as a result of industrial runoff flowing into it, in high schools it is quite possible to conduct a three-day experiment on the survival of aquatic organisms in this water. For testing, it is best to use daphnia, but leeches or mollusks can also be used; Mayfly larvae and bloodworms are not suitable for this, since these latter do not live well in laboratory conditions. Daphnia is caught in any small pond and kept in a jar of clean water until experiment. The water from the reservoir that they want to test for toxicity is poured into small flasks. For comparison, obviously pure river water is poured into other exactly the same flasks. 10-12 daphnia are placed in each cone. Daphnia should be replanted with a small, sparse mesh quickly and carefully, trying not to dry out or crush the crustaceans. Immediately after transplantation, check whether the crustaceans are well preserved, and exclude those flasks where they are poorly preserved from the experiment. In the remaining flasks, observe the state of the organisms for 2-3 days. If daphnia swim normally both in the experiment and in the control, it means that the water is harmless to the reservoir.

Chemical water tests. If the school has a chemical laboratory, it is possible to conduct some chemical analyzes of water, for example, determining the active reaction (acidity and alkalinity) of water. To do this, take one sample from a reservoir near the wastewater discharge and, for comparison, another from its clean area. To both samples add 2-3 drops of the indicator methyl orange, which changes color from red in an acidic environment to yellow in an alkaline environment. In case of contamination with industrial wastewater, the color of the test and control samples will be different.

The color of water is determined in cylinders 10 cm high, comparing contaminated water with distilled water.

Determination of the hardness of water from a well is carried out with soap foam. You need to make a solution of soap in alcohol. Pour water from different wells into a row of cones or bottles, and distilled water into one of them. Then you should gradually add a soap solution from a burette or pipette, shaking the liquid in the flask. In distilled water, foam is formed from a few drops of soap, and the harder the water, the more soap is needed to form foam.

Material design. The materials collected during the excursion are prepared for the school museum as follows.

Aquatic flowering plants are collected in a herbarium on sheets in a folder or on a stand under glass. You can make a poster diagram of the distribution of aquatic vegetation of a pond by zone (see Fig. 4).

The results of surveying the plan of the pond and measuring the depths are drawn in the form of a schematic drawing, as well as a model of the pond, with the coastal landscape and coastal settlements depicted.

Calculations of the area of ​​the lake, the amount of water in the lake, water flow in the river, and the speed of the river flow can be compared with measurement data from the regional water metering station.

Collections of aquatic insects are made dry on pins in boxes; insect larvae are stored in test tubes or jars with alcohol, filled with paraffin, with labels.

Drawings of microscopically small forms and drawings made when identifying species, indicating distinctive features, are compiled in the form of an album. An album or exhibition of photographs taken by the students themselves at the pond is also compiled.

The teacher’s final conversation is devoted to the national economic significance of this reservoir, the possibility of raising fish or fishing in it, the degree of pollution of the reservoir and measures for its protection.

Literature

Gribanov L.V., Gordon L.M., Increasing intensity is the main thing in the development of pond fish farming in the USSR, Sat. "The use of ponds for intensive fish farming, M., 1961.

Dorokhov S. M., Lyaiman E. M., Kastin B. A., Solovyov T. T., Agricultural fish farming, ed. USSR Ministry of Agriculture, M., 1960.

Eleonsky A.N., Pond fish farming, Pishchepromizdat, M., 1946.

Life of fresh waters of the USSR, ed. Zhadina V.I., ed. USSR Academy of Sciences, M. - L., 1940-1956.

Kulsky A. A., Chemistry and water treatment technology, 1960.

Landyshevsky V.P., School and fish farming. State uch. ped. ed., M., 1960.

Lipin A.N., Fresh waters and their life, M., 1950.

Martyshev G.V. et al., Pond fish farming on collective and state farms, 1960.

Polyakov Yu. D., A manual on hydrochemistry for fish farmers, Pishchepromizdat, M., 1960.

Raikov B. E. and Rimsky-Korsakov M. N., Zoological excursions, 1938.

Rychin Yu. V., Flora of hygrophytes, 1948.

Skryabina A., My work with the young people, ed. "Young Guard", 1960.

Cherfas B.I., Fish farming in natural reservoirs, Pishchepromizdat, M., 1956.

Zhadin V.I., Gerd S.V., Rivers, lakes and reservoirs of the USSR, their fauna and flora, Uchpedgiz, 1961.