Translation cursive writing: theory and practice. Symbolization in translation cursive

Transcript

1 MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION FEDERAL STATE BUDGET EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION OF HIGHER PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION “ST. PETERSBURG STATE UNIVERSITY OF ECONOMICS AND FINANCE” DEPARTMENT OF GERMAN AND SCANDINAVIAN LANGUAGES AND TRANSLATION O.S. SACHAVA TRANSLATION CURSEWRITING: THEORY AND PRACTICE TUTORIAL MANUAL PUBLISHING HOUSE OF ST. PETERSBURG STATE UNIVERSITY OF ECONOMICS AND FINANCE 2011

2 2 BBK 81 S 22 S 22 Sachava O.S. Translation cursive writing: theory and practice: textbook. allowance / O.S. Sachava. St. Petersburg : Publishing house of St. Petersburg State University of Economics and Economics, p. Tutorial is the result of the author's analysis of various theoretical concepts in the field of psycholinguistics and methods of teaching translation, as well as the result of a generalization of practical experience in teaching consecutive interpreting at the Department of German and Scandinavian Languages ​​and Translation of the Faculty of Humanities of St. Petersburg State University of Economics and Economics. The textbook reveals the concept of translation cursive writing, describes the basic principles of its implementation, provides variants of the signs most often used in consecutive translation, and also offers a number of exercises aimed at developing the skill of translation cursive writing at the initial stage of training. The textbook is addressed to 3-5 year students of the Faculty of Humanities of St. Petersburg State University of Economics and Economics, studying German as a first or second foreign language. The textbook may also be of interest to graduate students, teachers of linguistic departments of higher educational institutions and translators who want to independently master translation cursive. Reviewers: Ph.D. Philol. Sciences, Associate Professor of the department. German language Russian State Pedagogical University named after. A.I. Herzen A.V. Golodnov Ph.D. Philol. Sciences, Associate Professor of the department. Romance languages ​​and translation of St. Petersburg State University of Economics and Economics G.P. Skvortsov BBK 81 SPbGUEF, 2011

3 3 Contents Introduction... 4 The concept of translation cursive... 5 The history of the origin and main stages of development of translation cursive... 5 The place of teaching translation cursive in the translator training system, or why is it needed?... 8 Selecting the type of translation note Methodology development of an individual system of translation cursive symbols Location of the translation record on paper Translation difficulties that cannot be removed by non-linguistic recording of information, and ways to overcome them System of exercises aimed at teaching translation cursive Recommendations for performing the exercises Bibliography... 39

4 4 Introduction In the textbook presented to the reader, translation cursive writing is considered by the author as one of the most important components of a translator’s professional competence. The purpose of the textbook is to give students basic theoretical information and practical recommendations necessary for mastering the technique of translation cursive writing at the initial stage of learning interpreting, as well as offering exercises to make the process of mastering translation cursive writing more systematic and effective. The textbook is the result of the author's analysis of various theoretical concepts in the field of psycholinguistics and methods of teaching translation, as well as the result of a generalization of practical experience in teaching consecutive oral translation of the first foreign language at the Department of German and Scandinavian Languages ​​and Translation of the Faculty of Humanities of the St. Petersburg State University of Economics and Finance. The textbook reveals the very concept of translation cursive and defines its place in the system of training translators in a higher educational institution. Next, the basic principles of translation cursive writing are described and variants of signs most often used in consecutive translation, including in the field of economic communication, are given, and recommendations are given for developing an individual system of signs used in translation cursive writing. Along with the above, a system of exercises is proposed aimed at developing the skill of translation cursive writing, and given general recommendations on organizing the exercises. Particular attention is paid typical mistakes related to the maintenance of translation cursive, which, according to our observations, is most often done by students both in the learning process and directly in translation practice. The textbook is addressed, first of all, to 3-5 year students of the Faculty of Humanities of St. Petersburg State University of Economics and Economics, studying in the specialty “Translation and Translation Studies”. In addition, it may be of interest to graduate students, teachers of linguistic departments of higher educational institutions and translators who want to independently master translation cursive.

5 5 The concept of translation cursive Translation cursive in the context of modern scientific ideas can be defined as a system of auxiliary notes used by a translator when carrying out various types of translation, primarily oral consecutive translation. IN scientific literature such a system of translation notation is designated by the terms “translation shorthand” (R.K. Minyar-Belaruchev), “universal translation shorthand” (A.P. Chuzhakin), “translation notation” (I.S. Alekseeva) or “translation semantography” ( E.V. Alikina). These terms are often used as synonyms, because they essentially mean the same phenomenon in translation activity. However, the terms are different in their internal form and, accordingly, place semantic emphasis differently. Namely, the term “cursive writing” highlights the high pace of the process of recording information; the term “universal” emphasizes the systemic, supra-individual nature of the basic principles that guide the translator when taking notes; the term “semantography” emphasizes the orientation of the process of recording information by the translator not on the linguistic form of the message, but on its semantic, content side. The term “translation notation”, used, in particular, by I.S. Alekseeva, a specialist translating primarily German and Russian materials, is a synonym for the term “cursive writing,” dating back to its German-language equivalent Notizentechnik. Recognizing the right to exist of each of the above terms, in the future we will operate with the most traditional and widely used term today: translation cursive. History of the origin and main stages of development of translation cursive As a special system for quickly recording information in the process of translation, translation cursive has today almost a century-old history, which is described in sufficient detail in the linguistic literature, in particular, in the works of I.S. Alekseeva, E.V. Alikina, A.P. Chuzhakina and others. In this

6 6 connections, we find it appropriate to list here only the main milestones in the development of translation cursive writing systems, leaving their more detailed consideration and study for independent study. As the researchers note, at the beginning of the 20th century, the use or non-use of recording in translation was considered a personal matter for each translator. As a consciously and professionally used method of recording information in writing when performing oral translation, translation cursive writing appears in the 30s of the 20th century, which is associated with the work of the League of Nations. At meetings of the League of Nations, speeches were provided in two languages: French and English, and translation did not interrupt the speech, but was carried out immediately after its end. As a result of this organization of meetings, the requirements for the volume of orally translated texts, on the one hand, and for the accuracy of translation, on the other hand, increased. In 1941, the University of Geneva created vocational school translators, whose representatives develop the basic rules for maintaining translation records. The development of this school is associated in the history of translation with the names of J. Erbert and J.-F. Rosana, M. Lederer, D. Seleskovic. Teaching translation cursive writing during consecutive interpreting has remained the core area of ​​work of this school of translator training to this day. The most famous Russian version of the translation cursive system was proposed by R.K. Minyar-Beloruchev in 1969. In Germany, the development of the technique of translation shorthand is associated primarily with the name of H. Matissek (University of Heidelberg), who also proposed his own comprehensive system of translation notation in the 70s of the 20th century. As the consistent study and comparison of these and some other translation recording systems shows, each subsequent one was a kind of improved version of the previous one. Each subsequent system, on the one hand, was based on the leading principles of the previous one, on the other hand, it proposed new methods and strategies for recording information based on new scientific achievements in the field of linguistics, psychology and information theory. Thus, J. Erbert proposed borrowing signs and symbols for translation cursive writing from other areas of science, and also formulated the following rules for taking notes: start recording from the moment the speech begins;

7 7 implement logical analysis speech by highlighting the main thing, underlining, putting in brackets; use the target language in the recording; use abbreviations, write down multi-digit numbers; cross out when negative. In 1956, J.-F. Rosan, a follower of J. Erbert, illustrated these principles in his book with specific examples, proposed his own symbols to designate individual grammatical categories, in particular, tense and voice of the verb, gender and number of the noun, and also formulated the principle of vertical arrangement of writing on paper. R.K. Mignar-Beloruchev, based on systems of non-linguistic information recording that already existed by that time, developed a functional classification of translation cursive signs, namely, he identified predicative, modal symbols, time symbols, quality symbols, etc. In the 80s in France, a scientist-translator D. Seleskovich described from a psycholinguistic point of view the mnemonic function of the translation record, i.e. the role of recording in the processes of memorization, actualization in consciousness and subsequent reproduction of information during oral translation. A.P. Chuzhakin improved the principle of verticalism by proposing a stepped-diagonal arrangement of signs on paper. In accordance with his concept, you should first write down the subject group, below it is the predicate group to the right, below it is the direct object, and below it is the indirect object to the right. Homogeneous members of a sentence should be recorded on paper in a column, one below the other in the order in which they appear in speech. E.N. Sladkovskaya put forward the idea of ​​​​improving the principle of verticalism, proposing to rely on the stepwise diagonal arrangement of symbols on paper not on the syntactic, but on the semantic side of the statement, namely: first the semantic subject is fixed, under it is the action to the right, below it is the semantic object to the right [the main milestones in the history of translation cursive are given from: Alikina, 2006: 12-18]. Thus, based on the above, we can conclude that the entire history of translation cursive writing from the time of its emergence in the 30s of the 20th century to the present is characterized by a gradual transition from the use of linguistic means to non-linguistic recording of information, a gradual shift

8 8 emphasis from linguistic form to the level of content and semantic analysis of information. The place of teaching translation cursive in the translator training system, or why is it needed? Why is translation cursive needed? First of all, written recording of information reduces the load on memory and helps to cope with stress caused by high mental and intellectual stress in the process of performing oral consecutive interpreting. The use of translation cursive ensures minimal information loss during full-text translation of a large message presented to the translator orally. In addition, the translation record is a kind of “draft”, on the basis of which the translator can reconstruct all the texts he translates and prepare for further work within the framework of this event or at other events on this topic with the same or another speaker. Along with the above, translation cursive writing is also the answer to the traditional question of students: “Where should you keep your hands during the translation process?” Maintaining translation cursive writing does not allow you to hide your hands in your pockets, gesticulate excessively or cross your arms over your chest (the posture is considered by psychologists as a signal of isolation and unpreparedness for communication). A translator who notates looks more “professional” and feels more confident. The latter is due to the nature of man himself and the basic principles of his perception of information: since ancient times, man, being part of the material world, drew information from it, and recorded it, in turn, on “material” media: in rock paintings, sculpture, books, etc. .d. This is the most natural and familiar way for us to store and perceive information. This is why it is psychologically more comfortable and easier for us to read a book we hold in our hands than text on a screen. Tactile perception always helps us concentrate our attention and therefore relieve stress. This pattern is actively used in preschool and correctional pedagogy and psychology; in this regard, one can recall rosary beads, etc. It should also be noted that a translator who records the speaker’s speech in writing is limited to conducting translation work.

9 9 cursive from extraneous, external, primarily visual, information not related to translation, and it is easier for him to concentrate on the content of the text with which he is working directly at the moment. From the above, it logically follows that training in translation recording today occupies a significant place in the system of professional training of translators in higher education institutions. In each specific university, the time devoted to teaching translation notation is determined by the curriculum for one or more translation disciplines, and teaching cursive writing itself fits organically into the general system of training bachelors/specialists/masters. However, when choosing the time devoted to mastering the skill of translation cursive writing, it is necessary to take into account the following two fundamentally important points: 1. The main prerequisite for successfully mastering the skill of translation cursive writing in the process of translation is developed operational and associative memory. Therefore, learning translation cursive should be preceded by exercises on mnemonics, i.e. on the development of memory and mastery of various strategies and techniques of memorization. A system of such exercises is proposed, in particular, in textbooks on interpretation by I.S. Alekseeva. 2. Systematic training in translation cursive writing should precede training in consecutive translation as a type of translation using recording, on the one hand, and translation practice, where such skills may be required from the student, on the other hand. In other words, the translator training system should be built in such a way that the student, not by himself, by accident, due to external circumstances, but consciously, under the clear guidance and control of the teacher, takes up a pen for the first time to write translation notation. Because in this case, you won’t have to waste time and effort on relearning and overcoming a spontaneously formed “wrong” skill. Thus, the skill of translating cursive writing occupies a significant place in the structure of a translator’s professional competence. Teaching translation cursive writing should be based on the student’s developed memory and thinking and precede training in direct consecutive translation in the translator training system. However, improving the skill of translating cursive writing continues throughout the entire learning process, as well as in further professional translation activities.

10 10 Selecting the type of translation record If there is a huge number methodological developments and scientific works devoted to the technique of translation cursive writing, several fundamentally different types of writing coexist in parallel in translation practice to this day. If we take the language in which the recording is made as a criterion, then, following I.S. Alekseeva, the following three main types of translation cursive writing can be distinguished: 1) recording based on the original language; 2) entry based on the target language; 3) recording information with non-linguistic signs. Each of the above methods has both its positive aspects and its disadvantages. Let's look at them in more detail. 1. When focusing on the original language, the heard text is abbreviated in the same language in which it was presented by the speaker. The advantages of such recording: speed (if you have the appropriate skill) and the absence of intellectual stress in the process of recording. The main disadvantages of this method: possible loss or distortion of information due to many abbreviations and a large amount of time spent deciphering the text, because in the process of deciphering, it is necessary to read a large volume of text written down quickly and, therefore, often illegible. In addition, when fixing the text in the original language, the translator actually spends twice as much time perceiving the text. It’s paradoxical, but true: in this case, the translator perceives the text as if twice. The first time a text is perceived orally as a set of linguistic signs and is predominantly mechanically recoded into written form. The second time, after the end of the sound and immediately before the start of the translation of the text/its fragments, the same text, already in written form, is perceived by the translator as encrypted information, subject to decoding, comprehension and recoding into another language. Of course, such “double” recoding of a text (from oral to written form, and from written to oral form in the target language) is irrational in conditions of time shortage when carrying out consecutive translation. 2. In the case of focusing on the target language when maintaining a translation record, the advantage is the reduction of time for reproducing the text in the target language, because restoring the text,

11 11 the translator no longer wastes time searching for a foreign language equivalent. The main disadvantage is that such a recording ties the translator to an almost word-for-word translation of the text into another language and often does not allow him to reformulate the phrase in accordance with the syntactic norms and usage of the target language. In addition, without listening to the sentence to the end and without comprehending it, the translator cannot always find the equivalent of individual words necessary to convey the meaning in a given context. As a result, when recording information in writing in the target language, the translation text is often more or less a “set of words” with a violation of their semantic or syntactic compatibility. Thus, the two methods of linguistic recording of information indicated above are bad in that the translator, recording information in words, becomes dependent on the linguistic form of the text offered to him. The purpose of translation, on the contrary, is to convey information in a different form, in the form of a different text, formulated in accordance with the norms and usage of a different language of the target language. And any “tracing” or approximation to the linguistic form of the original (even without violating the norms and usage of the target language!) often makes it impossible for a speaker of a different language and culture, thinking within a different categorical system, to correctly decode information. Vivid examples of this are non-equivalent phraseological units, real words that require explanation, intertextual references that are not understandable to a speaker of another culture, etc. In the cases mentioned above, the translator’s task is not literal translation, but, on the contrary, the maximum possible abstraction from the form of the original and the transfer of content by other linguistic (and, possibly, non-linguistic) means. 3. From the above, it logically follows that the translation process, in its form and structure, should be focused, first of all, on the content side of the message. This problem can be solved by recording information through non-linguistic signs, or symbols. The main advantage of this type of information recording is that this recording, unlike recording by linguistic means, does not establish a strict connection between the content of the text and its linguistic form. In addition, fixing information with symbols involuntarily forces the translator to focus his attention on the content of the original text already at the stage of perception, which significantly saves the time of decoding the meaning at the stage of transcoding the message into another language. First action

12 12 the translator, when fixed by symbols, becomes a semantic analysis, which ensures minimal information losses. It should also be noted that symbols, on the one hand, are more economical, i.e. they are much faster to record; on the other hand, they are more visual, because actualize encoded information in the mind just by looking at them. Along with the above, this method of recording information is effective means overcoming interlingual interference in the process of translation. The experience of teaching a practical course in translation of the 1st foreign language at the Department of German and Scandinavian Languages ​​and Translation of St. Petersburg State University of Economics and Economics allowed the author to identify the following pattern: as soon as students master translation cursive writing, their oral translations using cursive writing become significantly less errors caused by interference between two different language systems. For example, these are cases when the translation mistakenly preserves the order of the words of the original, which is not typical for the target language, or chooses the same grammatical form as in the original, which is not typical for the target language: gender, case, etc. However, in written and oral translations without recording, the number of such errors does not decrease. These observations were confirmed by the results of a fairly long pedagogical experiment, during which the same texts were given to different groups of students for translation. One of the groups was asked to translate the text using translation cursive, the other sequentially without writing, from sight or in writing. The results were recorded. By analyzing the resulting translations, it turned out that in the case of using cursive writing, students had fewer errors caused by interference, not only at the grammatical, but also at the lexical level, primarily in the compatibility of words, as well as in pronunciation. This gives us reason to assume that when translating without cursive, the language form of the original text remaining in the RAM, to which the translator constantly mentally returns, provokes interference, not allowing thinking to completely “switch” to the target language. In the case of using translation cursive, the process of speech generation occurs in a fundamentally different way. When answering the question: “What should I say?”, the translator does not mentally return to the linguistic form of the original, because information is recorded through non-linguistic signs, symbols, drawings of ancient forms of information encoding, which were used in rock art. The translator's task in

13 13 in this case, only verbalize this information. Consequently, thinking completely “switches” to the target language. The number of errors caused by interference is significantly reduced. All of the above indicates that it is advisable to teach translation cursive with a focus on the system of recording information with non-linguistic symbols. At the same time, it must be emphasized that the choice of a non-linguistic recording system by both the teacher and students must be conscious. To do this, it seems logical to have practical acquaintance with other options for maintaining notation, including the described methods of recording information in the original language and the target language. It is recommended to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of different types of information recording in pairs or groups, put forward your own hypotheses and justify them. As an impetus for further thought and visual evidence in favor of non-linguistic recording of information, the following experiment can be conducted. Students are asked to translate several texts sequentially using different ways recording information, recording their oral translations on tape or electronic media. Then the recording is listened to in a group, the mistakes made are collectively analyzed and the time spent on translation is compared. Methodology for developing an individual system of symbols for translation cursive writing In practice, translation cursive writing is a system symbols, which is gradually developed and improved by the translator himself, both in the learning process and in the implementation of real translation activities. It should be emphasized that even at the initial stages of training, the signs of translation notation are not imposed on the translator, because each person has his own characteristics of associative memory, his own logic of thinking, his own figurative ideas about certain phenomena. The symbols of translation notation may, at first glance, even be strange. For example, one of the students designated oil with the sign O (an image of a frying pan), because she associated oil with oil spreading over a frying pan (German: Rohöl). And the image of a spring (Fig. 1) meant two fundamentally different concepts for two students. For one of the students, the symbol meant “telephone” (based on the type of telephone wire), for another, “cattle breeding” (a pig’s tail).

14 14 Fig. 1. Spring In this regard, we recommend giving free rein to your imagination. The main thing is that the symbolic notation is understandable to the translator himself. Apart from him, no one needs these notes, and the translator himself refers to them, with rare exceptions, only twice: the first time in the process of recording information, the second time in the process of deciphering it. Along with the countless potential individual and unique signs of translation cursive, there are also a number of generally accepted, fairly successful symbols that denote the most common concepts. Thus, arrows are widely used as verb symbols (see Table 1). Table 1. Use of arrows in translation cursive to leave, fly away, send, carry out remittance, give, send, etc. come, receive, accept, attract, approach, go back, etc. improve, increase, increase, strengthen, develop, etc. decrease, decrease, deteriorate, shrink, lose, subside, fall, etc. gradually increase, grow slowly, go up gradually decrease, slowly decrease take off, rise sharply, significantly increase fall, sharply decrease, unexpectedly decrease

15 15 Continuation of the table. 1 collide, approach, enter into confrontation influence, influence control, supervise, check exert pressure win lose lag behind overtake, get ahead replace, exchange something return, react Along with arrows, mathematical signs and punctuation marks are widely used in translation cursive (see. Table 2 and Table 3, respectively). Table 2. Use of mathematical signs in translation cursive = to be, to appear, to represent< меньше >more + more, moreover, in addition to the above, add, positive

16 16 Table continued. 2 (start, open an event, start) end, come to an end sum, total quantity combine, in total parallel, simultaneously approximately, about, approximately t time / temperature S V area volume consider Table 3. Use of punctuation marks in translation cursive say, express your opinion, make a toast! pay attention, focus on something? to puzzle, to cause difficulty, to create a problem to be the basis, to be based on something You can substantive verbal signs, in particular the signs presented in tables 1 and 3, by circling them. For example, a question mark in a circle will indicate a task, question, complexity, problem. Quotes circled speech, speech, toast, address, congratulation, report, lecture, newspaper, note, article, etc. depending on the context. It is also proposed to record time in translation notation with symbols. The most frequent and successful, in our opinion, symbols of time, proposed in various manuals, as well as those invented by the students themselves, are presented in Table. 4. Table 4. Time designation in translation cursive morning (rising sun) day (sun at zenith)

17 17 Table continued. 4 evening (a ray of sun behind the horizon) night (crescent) winter (snowflake) spring summer autumn (raindrop) now, today, currently 3 hours later 8 days ago It is recommended to write down the days of the week with the corresponding numbers circled. So, Monday will be indicated by the number “1” in a circle, Thursday by the number “4” in a circle, etc. Dates are also written only in numbers, with the year being shortened if the date is not more than 50 years away from the moment of speech. For example, January 15, 2008; March 26, 1994, etc., May 20, but April 14 The most common symbols used in translation in the economic and political spheres are presented in table. 5. Table 5. The most common symbols used in translation in the field of economics and politics planet, world, on a global scale (globe with an axis)

18 18 Continuation of table. 5 country, city, federal land, republic, state, continent, village (any territory, area) Motherland, Fatherland district, federal land, district, region (part of the territory) 1. international, international (i.e. covering several territories) ; 2. mail export, export from the country, access to foreign markets, import, import, purchase, etc. developing countries energy, electricity, power plant, power supply, stress employer (from English work to work) performer negotiations, meeting (round table) official negotiations, summit meeting (table and flag on it) loan, raising capital (bag of money)

19 19 Table continued. 5 payment of debts, payment of taxes income, profit, profit growth losses, costs, waste tense time, deficit, financial crisis alliance, fusion, merger of enterprises, cooperation, conclusion of an agreement (two rings as a symbol of marriage) head of state, president, mayor, chief, chief physician, leader, deputy, boss, teacher, manager, mentor, scientific supervisor, tour guide, conductor, etc. (head, i.e. head, head of an organization) Supervisory Board, members of the administration, Pedagogical Council, etc. (“top”, consisting of several people) war, quarrel, dispute, conflict, disagreement (crossed swords) law, document, code, normative act woman

20 20 child End of table. 5 work (hammer) aviation, airplane water transport, boat, ship railway transport (rails and sleepers) agriculture environmental protection (flower under a cap) chemical industry (flask) research, high technology (magnifying glass) terrorism, threat (man with a belt ) cemetery, death, mourning (cross) victim (lying person)

21 21 In addition to lexical meanings, various translation cursive systems offer to record conventional signs a range of grammatical meanings. See table for examples. 6. Table 6. Methods of fixing grammatical meanings in translation cursive: subjunctive mood and other modal meanings (possibility, probability, doubt, etc.)? interrogative sentence _ negation (affirmative category) (crossing out) Big 2 Big 3 comparative degree adjectives and adverbs, as well as the plural of nouns superlative adjectives and adverbs future tense past tense However, as practice shows, symbols that fix grammatical meanings, are quite rarely used. This is explained by the phenomenon of linguistic redundancy. For example, if the text indicates the date of the event, then information about the tense form of each individual verb turns out to be redundant. Moreover, the tense forms of the verb do not always reflect the real time of occurrence of the events described. The grammatical form of the present tense in many languages ​​can be used to express both future and past tense, for example: “The train leaves in 15 minutes,” “She was walking, walking, and suddenly she sees: there is a tower at the edge of the forest,” etc. It should also be noted that tense systems in the grammar of different languages ​​often do not fundamentally coincide. In this regard, the same meaning is expressed, for example, in one language by grammatical means, and in another by lexical means. Suffice it to recall the so-called “pre-past” tenses in German and English Plusquamperfekt and Past Perfect, respectively. Due to the presence of these tense forms, the meaning of precedence

22 22 one action to another in German and English will be expressed at the grammatical level. And in the Russian language, the explication of this meaning is often carried out by introducing additional lexical units into the text (“before”, “before this”, “previously”, etc.) or through a complete syntactic transformation of the sentence, first of all, the introduction of participial and participial phrases . Consequently, speaking about the so-called “grammatical” signs of translation cursive, it should be noted that what is important here is not so much the grammatical form itself, but the content side, the meaning, which needs to be recorded. Otherwise, translation shorthand may become a kind of “ciphering” of grammatical forms and relationships in the text, which will begin to “tie” the translator to the language form of the original, making it difficult to express the received information in the target language in accordance with its other grammatical norms. From the above examples it is clear that the non-linguistic signs of translation cursive represent a kind of metalanguage. Moreover, the signs of this metalanguage, on the one hand, allow one to abstract from the linguistic form of the text and capture only the content side of the message. On the other hand, translation cursive signs have much in common with linguistic signs. In particular, these are polysemy, synonymy, motivation, as well as the possibility of their transformation and combination to express new meanings. In this regard, let us recall the use of the image of a square (“area”, “country”, “territory”, etc.) and examples of the possible transformation of this image to denote other concepts (see Table 5). At the same time, we emphasize that the ambiguity and synonymy of the signs of translation cursive writing are not its disadvantage, because oral translation is always carried out within a certain thematic area, and it will not be difficult for the translator to remember from the situation who is designated as the “head” - the president of the country, the head of the company, chief physician hospital or school principal. It should also be noted that the individual symbol system of translation cursive is always potentially open; it is replenished in the process of translation practice. Therefore, from a methodological point of view, the most important thing in the learning process is not to learn the maximum number of ready-made signs, but to master mental strategies that allow you to quickly come up with signs for new concepts, including transforming and combining already known ones.

23 23 Arrangement of the translation record on paper The most convenient in modern methods of teaching translation is considered to be a stepped-diagonal arrangement of the record on paper. Each semantic structure is recorded from top to bottom, left to right. As a rule, the semantic subject is fixed first, the action is lower to the right, the semantic object is below it even further to the right, and even lower, again with a shift to the right, all the circumstances (see Fig. 2). Subject Action Object Circumstances Fig. 2. Stepped-diagonal arrangement of writing on paper This fixation scheme is proposed in most modern textbooks on translation cursive writing. However, it should be noted that not every proposal can or should be presented on paper in the proposed form. For example, it would be more logical to record the sentence “It was snowing” with a snowflake, and the sentence “Everyone was very happy” with an emoticon in a square: 2. Consequently, the scheme proposed above should not be absolute; it should be considered only as one of the possible options for recording semantically complex fragments of a message, which is not universal, but has its advantages. The advantages of such a stepped-diagonal arrangement of the record on paper are that each individual semantic unit (often coinciding with a sentence) begins “on a new line” and is divided into several semantic parts. The proposed spatial composition of the recording makes the presentation of a complex semantic unit more visual and logical. In addition, in the case of step-diagonal recording when switching to new line The time for moving the hand is distributed more rationally and evenly, namely, there is no need to move the hand from one edge of the paper to the other after each line. The trajectory of hand movement in the case of traditional recording and stepwise diagonal recording of information is presented in Fig. 3 and fig. 4, respectively.

24 24 Fig. 3. Trajectory of hand movement when recording in the traditional way Fig. 4. Trajectory of hand movement during stepwise diagonal fixation of information Separately, it is necessary to say about translators who write with their left hand. In this case, the inclination of the letters and the text itself naturally turns out in the opposite direction, and the time it takes to move the hand from one edge of the sheet to the other with a step-diagonal

25 25 location of the record does not decrease, but, on the contrary, increases. The trajectory of hand movement in the case of recording with the left hand is shown in Fig. 5. Fig. 5. Trajectory of hand movement in the case of recording with the left hand. In this situation, it is logical to try to hold the sheet horizontally and write in narrower columns. The sheet can be divided in advance into 3 equal parts by vertical lines (see Fig. 6). Rice. 6. Optimal placement of signs when taking notes with the left hand

26 26 Traditional paper format when conducting translation cursive during negotiations and official meetings when working at an A4 table. When working while standing, for example, when translating reports at conferences, a notepad is used. It is most convenient to use lined notebooks with a hard cover and a vertical layout of the sheet, because They can be held either on your lap or in your hand. A notebook on a spiral is preferable to one on a paper clip or hot glue, because... it does not close “on its own” and does not fall apart into leaves when flipped multiple times, allowing you to easily and quickly turn pages. Both in a notebook and on A4 sheets, writing is done only on one side of the sheet. It is not recommended to turn the notebook/sheets over while writing. The written sheet is simply turned over/put aside with the text facing down and the entry is made on the next sheet. When the notepad/stack of paper runs out, it is turned over and the recording is made on back side sheets according to the same logic. For convenience and confidence, you can number the sheets/pages in advance. Another significant point: at the initial stage of learning cursive, each translator needs to find the optimal character size for him. On the one hand, the notes should not be very small so that they are easy to see at arm's length and in a dimly lit room. On the other hand, translation cursive signs should not be too large, because the greater the total length of the line drawn with a pen, the more time such recording of information takes. In addition, the larger the entry, the more often you will have to turn the pages of the notebook or rearrange the sheets, which also requires additional time and attention. It is advisable to teach translation cursive in conditions as close as possible to real ones. Namely, you need to learn how to record both while sitting at a table and standing. A student translator should always have a well-written, comfortable and presentable pen at the ready, as well as a spare pen, because, as practice shows, a student translator’s pen stops writing or begins to leak at the most inopportune moment. It is necessary to learn to begin the notation simultaneously with the beginning of the text and end it immediately after the end of the speaker’s speech. It is not recommended to write notation with a pencil or felt-tip pen, because... in this case, the friction force of the lead/felt rod on the paper is significantly greater, and, consequently, writing takes more time, and the hand gets tired faster.

27 27 Translation difficulties that cannot be resolved by non-linguistic recording of information, and ways to overcome them Despite all the above-mentioned advantages of the system of recording information with signs-symbols when carrying out consecutive translation, such recording cannot be absolutized. Experience shows that in real translation practice it is often advisable and even necessary to combine linguistic and non-linguistic signs. Thus, it is recommended to record in words all proper names (surnames, names of organizations, countries, cities, rivers, etc.). Moreover, proper names are written without any abbreviations, since it is very difficult to remember them using their initial letters under conditions of stress and time pressure. For example, Iv. Ivanov, Ivanovsky, Ivashin or Ivanchenko; Al. Alexander or Alexey, etc. And distortion of proper names by the translator is unacceptable. It seems logical to also include generally accepted abbreviations in letters (USA, UK, Ministry of Internal Affairs, etc.). It is also worth paying attention to the fact that in the text to be translated there are often concepts that, for one reason or another, in a situation of time shortage, are difficult to denote with a symbol, for example, terms. In this case, their abbreviated fixation in letters is also acceptable. The most well-known and frequently used methods of abbreviated writing of words in letters when maintaining translation records are the following: fixing the initial letters of the word (for example, abbreviated abbreviation; maybe m.b.); fixing the initial and final letters (which one); writing a word using only consonants. The latter method is considered today in many textbooks as one of the most productive. From a theoretical point of view, this is indeed justified, because, as is known, consonants in a language primarily carry a semantic, semantic load, and vowels carry a grammatical load (it is enough to compare the words of different languages: Russian cat, English cat, German Katze). In this regard, let us also recall the internal inflection in German and English: mouse mice, foot feet; ablaut in German gehen ging, sehen sah, etc. However, practice shows that at the stage of deciphering information, if words are fixed with consonant letters, difficulties often arise and the pace of reading the text slows down. This is due to the fact that reading is based (with the exception of children who only

28 28 learn to read) lies not in composing a word from letters, but in the general “recognition” of the image of a word when looking at it. This is why we often do not notice letters mixed up in the middle of a word during typing, the so-called “misspellings”. Consequently, a text recorded only by consonants cannot be read in the usual way. It can be deciphered by "picking" suitable vowels, which is often a labor-intensive and time-consuming process. This is especially evident if the vowel was in a strong position at the beginning of the word, for example, in the words pchtk typo, nfrmt information, etc. Thus, the method of shortening words by recording only consonant letters on paper is not perfect in conditions of time shortage when performing consecutive interpretation. The next difficulty that cannot be overcome through non-linguistic recording of information is the frequent discrepancy in the original language and the target language of individual concepts denoted by non-linguistic symbols. For example, in Russian and German the concepts denoting times of day or seasons do not coincide. So, when we hear the German word “Winter”, we designate it as a snowflake, associating it with December, January and February. In Germany, winter begins at lunar calendar between December 21 and 23 and ends between March 21 and 23 (and there may not be any snow there at all). In other words, it is necessary to clearly understand that the signs of translation notation are signs developed primarily on the basis of our own picture of the world and allow us to abstract from the linguistic form of the message, but not from the specifics of conceptual systems and pictures of the world of different cultural and linguistic communities. Another difficulty when maintaining translation cursive is numerals, which is especially important for translators in the field of economics. At first glance, it seems that recording numerals is more than simple. In fact, “large numbers” pose a particular difficulty for a translator, because a linguist, not being a mathematician or an economist, often perceives a numeral not as a concept, but rather as a kind of linguistic form. And the system of linguistic designations for numbers in different languages ​​is often fundamentally different. As an example, let’s compare the notation systems in Russian and German for “large numbers,” or numbers of large orders, as they are scientifically called (see Table 7). Upon careful study of this table, the logic is obvious.

29 29 Table 7. Comparison of linguistic designations for numbers of large orders in the Russian and German languages ​​Number Designation in Russian Designation in German =10 3 Thousand Tausend = 10 6 Million Million = 10 9 Billion, Billion Milliarde = Trillion Billion = Quadrillion Billiarde Quintilion Trillion = = Sextillion Trilliarde A modern method of teaching translation cursive offers various ways fixing such numbers. Thus, the number “twenty-five million” can be written in full, but it is necessary to put dots after every three digits, otherwise there is a risk of getting lost in zeros. The number can be fixed in the same way as or 25 (each apostrophe corresponds to three zeros). Accordingly, when mastering translation cursive writing, it is necessary to pay attention to this kind of complexity, to understand the systems of linguistic notations for numbers of large orders in the native and foreign languages. Experience shows that translation errors associated with the translation of numerals are often associated precisely with ignorance of these systems. Fixing two-digit numbers is also often difficult for students, because, for example, in German such numbers are read (and, if it seems convenient to you, written!) “in reverse order” (83 = dreiundachtzig, i.e. “three and eighty "). The most reliable way to prevent errors in translating numerals is to perform exercises aimed at developing the corresponding skill. A system of exercises aimed at teaching translation cursive writing Based on all of the above, we can conclude that translation cursive writing helps the translator and makes his work easier

30 30 only when it is brought to automaticity. Otherwise, maintaining translation cursive writing can only complicate the translation process. In other words, translation shorthand should be considered not as an elementary, easy-to-use auxiliary tool used in oral consecutive translation, but as a special skill, the formation of which requires certain theoretical preparation and practical training. At the initial stage, such training, as in the formation of any other skill, is implemented in a system of exercises. The exercises proposed below are aimed at developing the skills of maintaining and decoding a translation record. The exercises are systematized according to their target orientation and arranged in accordance with the general didactic principle “from simple to complex.” The first group of exercises is aimed at developing the ability to use well-known and generally accepted signs and abbreviations in modern culture in translation cursive. The exercises also help broaden one’s general cultural horizons and develop the ability to independently work with modern sources of information, a skill that is one of the basic components of a translator’s professional competence. At the discretion of the teacher, exercises can be performed in the form of a frontal survey, in pairs, groups; It is possible to restore recorded information both in the original language and in the target language. Exercise 1.1. Learn for yourself the common symbols used to represent minerals. Record and restore the proposed sequence of semantic units at a natural pace. Oil, natural gas, iron ores, salt, dolomite, gypsum, limestone, marble, quartz sand, clay, chromite ores, aluminum ores, copper ores, sulfur pyrites, table salt, agate. Exercise 1.2. Study on your own the generally accepted designations of the chemical elements of the periodic table D.I. Mendeleev. Record and restore the proposed sequence of semantic units at a natural pace.

31 31 Hydrogen, carbon, sodium, magnesium, chromium, iron, cobalt, nickel, oxygen, helium, chlorine, potassium, lithium, calcium, silver, tin, iodine, aluminum, silicon, phosphorus, sulfur, xenon, tungsten, platinum, gold, mercury, boron, arsenic, nitrogen, fluorine, copper, zinc, arsenic, lead, uranium. Exercise 1.3. Learn for yourself the common symbols used to represent basic terms in astronomy and the twelve signs of the zodiac. Record and restore the proposed sequence of semantic units at a natural pace. Sun, Moon, Venus, Mars, star, Universe, planet, Milky Way, Aquarius, Aries, Taurus, Gemini, Cancer, Leo, Virgo, Libra, Scorpio, Sagittarius, Capricorn. Exercise 1.4. Study the generally accepted designations of car brands yourself. Record and restore the proposed sequence at a natural pace. Alfa Romeo, Audi, BMW, Bugatti, Cadillac, Chery, Chevrolet, Chrysler, Citroen, Dacia, Daewoo, Fiat, Ford, Honda, Hummer, Hyundai, Infiniti, Jaguar, Jeep, Kia, Lada, Lancia, Land Rover, Lexus, Mazda, McLaren, Mercury, Mitsubishi, Nissan, Opel, Peugeot, Plymouth, Porsche, Renault, Rolls-Royce, Saab, Skoda, Smart, Subaru, Suzuki, Tatra, Tianma, Toyota, Volkswagen, Volvo, VAZ, GAZ, ZAZ. Exercise 1.5. Learn on your own the common abbreviations used to refer to countries around the world. Record and restore the proposed sequence of countries at a natural pace in the original/translated language. Japan, Israel, Australia, Vietnam, Denmark, Egypt, China, Korea, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Mexico, Turkey, Switzerland, Thailand, Sweden, Ukraine, USA, Netherlands, Monaco, Iran, Iraq, Canada, Germany, UK, Albania. Exercise 1.6. Learn on your own the common abbreviations used to denote the world's languages. Record and restore at a natural pace the proposed sequence of languages ​​of the world. Swedish, Czech, Polish, Portuguese, German, Chinese, Hebrew, Dutch, Hungarian, English, Danish,

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The emergence of UPS n Translation cursive writing appeared in the West in the 1930s, but its principles were scientifically substantiated and developed in the late 1950s in Switzerland. n In our country, the system of translation cursive writing based on the Russian language was outlined in 1969 by R. Mignard. Beloruchev

Some theoretical provisions n n n Translation cursive writing is a purely individual thing, although it has certain regularities. At the same time, it is specific, just like your handwriting is specific, although the letters of the alphabet are understandable to everyone who can read and write. Cursive writing is not an end in itself, but a means. It is of no use to anyone except yourself, and “lives only twice”: once, when you recorded the information and reproduced it, and again, if you used it to compile a recording of a conversation or other material. Cursive writing is not a panacea, but a flexible tool, the use of which depends on you and your assessment of the situation. It is not always necessary to use it (and sometimes it is enough to use it partially to record key information).

Some theoretical provisions of the UPS do not replace working memory, but create an additional and effective support for medium and long-term memory as the basis for analysis and synthesis in bilateral translation. As a result of the combination of all these factors, an adequate translation is born.

Some theoretical provisions To achieve the adequacy of the UE, the main thing is to materialize the information received, thereby creating a more or less detailed and convenient support for memory for an almost unlimited amount of data received - human memory can not retain the entire amount of information and lead either to a failure in data transfer, or to their distortion.

Some theoretical provisions Memory alone, no matter how trained it may be, is hardly worth relying on. In translations, cursive writing is the most helpful - a practical system for achieving adequacy in professional EP.

Some theoretical principles In the end, the translator himself decides whether to use the UPS, or risk relying entirely on memory, and situations often arise in the combined use of both.

Some theoretical provisions Many years of domestic and foreign experience indicate that masterly mastery of cursive writing is a necessary tool of work, especially for a diplomatic translator, diplomat, journalist, executive assistant (assistant), and can more than once help out representatives of other professions related to information processing in various languages, as well as in the field of public relations.

UTS in oral translation (IT) n Some translation scholars and translator practitioners believe that UTS is not so relevant, since it is not always applicable in real situations, and that the basis of translation is the reliance on developed working memory, skills of grasping the main message and the ability to maximize concentrate on the semantic aspect of information. n But UPS is also a capacious, trained memory, concentration, self-confidence, and lack of anxiety, which are integral components of successful translation activity at all its stages, sometimes in the most unpredictable situations.

The use of UPS § increases the adequacy of translation and the quality of its speech format; n makes it possible to transmit precision information practically without loss; n reduces unnecessary memory load and general fatigue

The use of UPS n n n makes it possible to encode and then translate almost any length of speech, reducing the inevitable loss of information to a minimum; makes it possible to make a logical, information-rich and correctly formatted, virtually minute-by-minute recording of the conversation, which is necessary during important negotiations; gives the translator the opportunity to feel confident and calm in any situation.

Opinion of specialists UPS is designed to optimize the two-way translation process and increase its adequacy level to 9598%

UPS design system n n Paper format: A 4 - for negotiations, official conversations, etc. when working at a desk; notebook A 8 - for working while standing. For additional convenience, speed and clarity of writing, it is good to use lined notebooks with a hard cover that can be placed on your knee. It is also worth taking care of a spare pen/pencil. It is advisable to set the date and even the time if there are several meetings a day (above right). Mark the location and topic of the negotiations.

The design system of the UPS sheet is divided into three columns. n write on one side of the paper. n If you run out of paper, turn all the sheets over and write on the back. n

In what language should the records be kept? n each translator chooses for himself the most acceptable, rational methods of recording.

The location of the UPS is step-diagonal, from top to bottom. n First stage - subject group n Second - predicate group n Third - direct object n Fourth - indirect n Block of homogeneous sentence members n

Layout of UPS Position notes freely, leaving large margins and white space for easier reading of notes, as well as for additional notes as needed. n Number sentences or groups of phrases, theses, to better distinguish them. n Look not at the paper, but at the speaker n

Recording the meaning! The cursive writing system records only a limited number of basic semantic units and the relationships between them are not reflected by the UPS. individual words, and thoughts and uses both English and Russian languages.

Application of the UPS n n It is advisable to use the UPS primarily for recording precision vocabulary (numbers, dates, proper nouns, titles), which causes particular difficulty in memorizing during any type of interpreting. UPS is used depending on the situation at the discretion of the translator, but, as a rule, specifically for important negotiations where special accuracy, competence and professionalism are required

Fixation of semes in the UPS, i.e., the main meanings included in different words. So, for example, the concepts: give, hand over, give away, impart, add, transfer, give out, sell - differ from each other, but there is a common elementary meaning: “to make someone have something.”

Features of UPS Diffusion n Incompleteness n Elementarity n low information redundancy n universality and unambiguity of the symbol/sign for a given context, its recognition. n

Syntax in the UPS The syntactic relationship between the members of a sentence is indicated in the recording by direct word order. Whatever the order of the bishops in the “original”, they are written in direct order, and it is not necessary to write from left to right: strong points can be marked from right to left, or from the middle, but the text is read linearly - stepwise - from left to right.

Syntax in UPS Direct word order is required when interpreting into English, German, French, Italian and spanish languages

Morphology in the UPS n When abbreviating words, it is necessary to proceed from the fact that there are fewer vowels in the alphabet than consonants - it is easier to read a word in which the vowels are omitted. n You should not shorten final morphemes if they carry important information.

When should you record? n n when interpreting two-way translation (official conversations, interviews, negotiations, press conferences) and consecutive translation of monologue speech (speeches at conferences, presentations, lectures), start recording with the beginning of the speech. As soon as the speaker paused to translate, the interpreter stopped taking notes and began translating. write down the first phrases in more detail, and then reduce the number of entries, since much will already be known and write down only new information.

What to write down? n Key words I arrive on Sunday by train at 7 pm at Yaroslavsky station

Abbreviated letter notation n n a) loss of vowels in the middle of a word: ability - spsbnst, competition - knkrs, strategy - strtgy; b) loss of vowels in the middle of a word and simplification of double consonants: program - program; c) the use of telescopic formations: for example - e.g., page-page, maybe m. b. , information-info. d) replacing parts of a word (frequency suffixes, affixes, etc.) with an index sign

Example iuiaiaia industrialization industrialization But: building - task and building Text written in consonant letters is reduced in volume by 30 -40%, but is still readable. Save space and time up to 24%!

Using short or shortened words n n n n n pro - professional; demo -demonstration; coop - cooperation, cooperation, partnership; envo - ambassador, diplomat, representative; bid - application, requirement, request, tender; info - information, information, message; op -opportunity; to up - increase; to ink - sign, to ax - fire.

Replacing parts of a word with a signindex n n n n n Sign θ λ φ Ψ t g d ŋ English -(t)ion -logy philopsycho-ment -age -ed -ing Russian -tsia -logy philopsycho-

Abbreviation: sound (MID) n graphic (Ministry of Emergency Situations); n alphabetic (USI) n syllabic (Uralsvyazinform) n mixed (IAEA - International Atomic Energy Agency). n

Examples of universal signs of the letter symbols of the UPS MR - Member of Parliament, deputy, people's representative, State Duma deputy, member of the British Parliament, US Congressman, deputy of the Sejm of Poland, member of the Riksdag of Sweden, etc. The decoding of the multi-valued symbol MR depends on the situation and context.

Examples of universal signs of letter symbols UPS n RM - Prime Minister - prime minister, head of the executive branch (government), chairman of the government (head of the cabinet of ministers), chairman of the State Council, prime minister

Examples of universal signs of letter symbols UPS n VIP - Very Important Person - in various contexts denotes a high-ranking official, member of a delegation, important person, chief guest, official, etc. n HQ - Headquarters - headquarters, main office of the company, main facility, corporate center, etc.

Examples of universal signs of letter symbols UPS n n n Emergency - emergency, problem, unpleasant situation, catastrophe, force majeure, natural disaster, private entrepreneur, etc. Armed Forces - armed forces, army, troops, soldiers and officers, paramilitary forces, etc. G-8 - Group of Eight - the most industrialized countries, the Big Eight, the largest industrial countries in the world.

The main components of the UPS are based on abbreviations and abbreviations, both widespread and individual. But: BBC - Air Force and Air Force - British Broadcasting Corporation

The abbreviations in the UPS are as clear as possible, easy to write and then decipher; n universal, easy to remember; n denote a certain concept, symbol, meaning that is clearly and unambiguously manifested in a given context; n are recognizable at this particular moment of speaking and translation. n

Recording numerical precision information Sometimes you can round numbers: 484, 569, 991 - about half a billion; 502.7 - more than five hundred 99 - almost one hundred

Days of the week - Monday; - Tuesday; - environment; - Thursday; - Friday; - Saturday; - Sunday.

Names of the months I – January; II – February; III – March; IV – April; V – May; VI – June; VII – July; VIII - August; IX – September; X – October; XI – November; XII – December.

Cardinal numerals: 15" fifteen thousand; 15" fifteen million; 15"" fifteen billion; ordinal numbers: 1) first; n

Large “round” numbers 17,000 – 17 t; n 20, 000 – 20 m; n 99, 000, 000 – 99 b; n 62, 000, 000 – 62 tr; n n 62, 099, 020, 17000 62 tr 99 b 20 m 17 t

Dates 2007 = "7; 1997 = "97; 1812 = "812 31. XII. 3 - December thirty-first two thousand and three;

Period of the year "03 beginning of two thousand and three; 0"3 middle of two thousand and three; 03" end of two thousand and three;

Seasons O 1 – winter; O 2 – spring; O 3 – summer; O 4 – autumn. Quarters: I 4 - first quarter; II 4 - second quarter; III 4 - third quarter; IV 4 - fourth quarter.

Talking symbols X - war, conflict, clash; 8 - meeting, congress, congress, round table; ↯ - aggression, tension;

Arrows → - send, transmit, subordinate, direct, inform, lead, arrive, move, direction, transfer n ← - receive, import, accept, attract, leave; n ↓ - present time, today, current situation; n

Arrows ↲ - past tense, yesterday, the day before; n ↳- future tense, tomorrow; n / - increase, improve, strengthen, grow, develop; n - reduce, reduce, worsen, lower; n →← - bring closer, push; n

Arrows ↓ - force, apply pressure; n / - influence; n ↓ - control; n - support; n → - push off; n ⇌ - get ahead; n ⇋ - fall behind; n

Quotes ” - speak, declare, report, tell, speech; n “” - dialogue, conversation, negotiations; n “ - press, radio. n

Question mark? - question, problem, task; n ¿ - ask; n!? likely; n ¿op - review, study, survey. n

Exclamation mark: ! - must, obliged; n - law, constitution; n!! - of course, certainly; n i - motivation. n

Parentheses - include; n ] [ - exclude; n [ - start, open, beginning, opening; n ] - finish, close, end, closing. n

Equal sign = - to be, to be, to constitute, to equal, total; n ≠ - not to be, to differ; n ≡ - agreement, identity, sameness. n

Plus-Minus: + - add, increase, income, most, in addition; n + - positive effect. n - - expense, loss, minority. n

Circle O - business, conference, meeting, council; n ♀ - head, chief, director; n O - president. n

Square □ - country, state; n ⍁ - national, fatherland, homeland; n ⊠international, foreign, foreign, abroad; n □g government; n □р parliament; n ⍈ - export; n ⍇ - import. n

Usage various signs Speaking (also press conference, speech, statement, etc.) - : More - > Less -

The use of various signs is approximately - ~ rise, growth; improvement, increase, future - decline, fall; deterioration, decrease, past - ↓ country, state - ∆ departure, export - → arrival, import - ←

Letter symbols NO- prohibition, prohibit n W- work n Pg- program n h- have n op- opinion n id- idea n inf- information n

Quality symbols n Strengthening the designated concept? (important question). n Superlative reinforcement? = (extremely important question). n Weakening or worsening? _ _ _ (minor question)

Grammatical devices n n n n designation of gender and number of nouns and adjectives; designation of affiliation (genitive case); designation of degrees of comparison of adjectives and adverbs; marking the person of verbs; time designation; passive form designation; modality designation; sign of negation.

Gender and number of nouns and adjectives n n n The feminine gender of nouns is indicated by the index e (from the French ending of nouns and adjectives feminine). For example: RU-Russian, RUe-Russian int- interesting, inte - interesting The plural of nouns is indicated by the index 2. For example: □ - country; □ 2 - country MR-deputy; MP 2 = deputies

Designation of affiliation (genitive case) n Genitive is indicated by the sign ", which is placed in front of the corresponding noun. For example: n S "□ - area of ​​the country n " " Ru - border of Russia

Designation of the passive form The passive form of verbs is indicated by the symbol of the verb “to be” - = and the index ed. For example: n =%еd - interested n = )