Grammatical meaning and grammatical ways (means) of its expression. Means and methods of expressing grammatical meanings

Grammatical meanings are expressed using various means (grammatical indicators): 1) endings; 2) formative suffixes and prefixes; 3) accents; 4) alternation of sounds; 5) prepositions; 6) intonation; 7) auxiliary words.
Using the ending, the following is expressed: a) the meaning of gender, number and case of nouns, adjectives, participles, pronouns: blue sky, blue sky; flying birds, flying birds, flying birds; our schools, our-u ikhkol-u, b) the meaning of the case of numerals: dv-a, dv-uh, dv-um, dv-umya; five-0, five-and, five-yu; c) the meaning of person, number and gender of the verb: sizh-u, sid-ish, sid-yat; sat-0\ sat-a, sat-and would.
One ending can express: a) only one grammatical meaning: tr-i, tr-ex, tr-em\ seb-ya, sob-oh (case meaning); read-i, wrote-i (number meaning); b) two grammatical meanings: read-0, read-a (meanings of gender and number); ink-a, ink-ami, (meaning of number, case); c) three grammatical meanings: red fox, high house-0 (meanings of gender, number and case).
The following are formed by suffixation: a) the past tense form of the verb: thought-l, saw-l, plow-l; b) forms of species: find out - recognize, write down - record (non-sov. view); c) forms of comparative and superlatives adjectives: white - white-ee, rare - rare-aysh-y.
In some categories of nouns, the suffix together with the ending expresses the meaning plural: husband - husband-j-a, son-in-law - son-in-law-j-a, brother - brother-j-a.
In nouns denoting children and young animals, the singular meaning, except for the ending, is conveyed using the suffix -onok (-yonok), and the plural - using the suffix -at-(yat-), for example: doshkol-enok-doshkol- yat-a, bunny-onok i- bunny-at-a. Here also: honey agaric - honey mushrooms, butterdish - boletus.
The following forms of voice are formed in a postfixed way: wash - wash-sya, roll - roll-sya.
By prefixation, the following are formed: a) superlative forms of adjectives: best - the best, highest - the highest; b) perfective forms of verbs: draw - draw (table), build - no-build (house).
Stress as a grammatical device usually appears together with affixes. Wed: create - create, prove - prove. On its own (without other means), stress rarely expresses grammatical meanings. Using stress, they distinguish, for example: a) singular forms. Part gen. pad. and many more h. them. pad. nouns: del-a (no) and del-y (go well); windows-a (no) and windows-a (facing the street); b) forms of types: pour - pour, cut - cut.
The alternation of sounds, like stress, is usually only an additional means of distinguishing grammatical meanings. It accompanies the affixation, for example: osvet-i-t - illuminate-a-t (t-sh), cool-i-t - cool-a-t (d-zh), collect - collect (0-i), send - send (0s).
Prepositions are widely used to express case meanings of nouns, numerals and pronouns. At the same time, they usually appear together with endings (materially expressed and zero): at house-a, to house-u, at house-0, at house-g, at house-e; from tr-ex, to tr-elg, for whom, to whom, with whom, about whom.
Prepositions express the case meanings of unchangeable nouns independently (without endings): had lunch in a cafe (cf. in the dining room), left the cafe (cf. from the dining room), stood at the cafe (cf. at the store). However, in such cases, not only the preposition, but also the control word, the entire model of the phrase, is involved in the expression of case meanings. This is especially clear in cases where one or another preposition is used with several cases. Wed. constructions with the preposition in in the meaning of direction (go to a cafe, enter a depot, go down to the metro - vin. p.) and place (sit in a cafe, work in a depot, meet in the metro - prev. pad.). Wed. also combinations with other prepositions: put under a coat (vin. pad.) - put on under a coat (tv. pad.), sit at the piano (vin. pad.) - sit at the piano (tv. pad.).
With the help of control, the case meaning of nouns in sentences is expressed: D is pleased with (what?) the coat (tv. pad.). There is no cafe on our street (native pad.).
In morphology, grammatical meanings are rarely expressed using intonation. Intonation plays an active role in conveying various shades of meaning of the imperative mood. Wed: sit, don’t move, don’t fall. Get up! Sit down! Get up! Be silent! Read. The main area of application of intonation for expressing grammatical meanings is syntax.
Auxiliary words, i.e. those that do not have their own lexical meaning, serve the grammatical needs of full-meaning words. With the help of formative particles, forms of the imperative mood are formed: Let the storm strike stronger! (Bitter). Long live labor! - and the subjunctive mood: I would rest, I would sleep; using auxiliary verbs of the future complex form: I will try, you will read; using adverbs and adjectives of the comparative and superlative forms
degrees: more pure, less pure; the most beautiful", the least
suitable

More on the topic § 38. Means of expressing the grammatical meanings of a word:

6.3. Basic means and methods of expressing grammatical meanings
§ 62. Ways and means of expressing grammatical meanings of number
7. The word as the main nominative unit of language. Signs of a word. Grammatical and lexical meaning of the word. Connotation.

Grammatical meanings are expressed in different ways material means(suffixes, prefixes, endings, etc.). These funds are combined on the basis general characteristics into groups called methods. For all languages of the world, grammatical methods come down to the following: 1) affixation 2) alternation 3) emphasis 4) repetitions 5) word formation 6) suppletivism 7) method of function words, 8) method of word order, 9) intonation. Methods that express grammatical meanings by means located within the word are called synthetic, and methods that express grammatical meanings by means located outside the words are called analytical.

Synthetic ways of expressing grammatical meanings

Synthetic ways of expressing grammatical meanings include affixation, alternation, stress, reduplication, compounding and suppletivism.

affixations are the expression of grammatical meanings using affixes (suffixes, prefixes, endings, etc.). Since the languages of the world use a variety of affixes, then c. The affix method bi distinguishes the following varieties:

a) suffixation - expressing grammatical meanings using suffixes. It is one of the most common ways of expressing grammatical meanings in Indo-European and Semitic languages. It's time to reread in Ukrainian - pere echituvaty (imperfect form), sleep - bayinki (meaning affection), beautiful - more beautiful (highest degree) rus knock - knock (perfect form), cheerful - more fun (highest degree), sololia - straw (meaning singularity) German Arbeit "work" - Arbeiter "worker" - Arbeiterin "worker", krank "sick" - Krankheit "illness"; English write "to write" - writing "writing"; English write "to write" - writing "how you write";

b) prefixation - expressing grammatical meanings using prefixes. This is the main way of expressing the lexico-grammatical meanings of verbs in Indo-European language family: ukr carry - bring in, bring in, pr rinesty, present, transfer; rus read - read, write - write; nem gehen "to go" - vergehen "to pass", entgehen "to depart"; bolg cherven "red" - cherven "redder" "chervoniy" - cherven "chervonish";

c) confixation - expressions of grammatical meanings by a combination of two affixes - a prefix and a suffix, which, although they represent two morphemes, act collectively, together. IN German with the help of confixation, passive participles arise: machen "work" - gemacht "done", schreiben "write" - geschrieben "written", fahren "to go" - gefahren "arrived" fahren "to go" - gefahren "who has arrived";

d) infixation - expression of grammatical meanings using. INFIX, i.e. morphemes inserted in the middle of the root. Lat vici "won" - vinco "I win", fidi "prick" - findo "stab", Tagalog sulat "pi letter" - sumulat "write" Galsk. sulat "writing" - sumulat "to write";

d) transfixation - expression of grammatical meanings using transfixives, i.e. affixes, which, breaking the root, consisting of only consonants, themselves break and serve as a “layer” of vowels x among the consonants, defining the word form and formalizing it grammatically. Transfixation is characteristic of Semitic languages. Dav-noevr gnob "steal" -. Ganaba "stole", goneb "that which steals; thief". Ganub "Stolen e"; Arabic, kataba "wrote", kutibah "written". Katibi "writer". Kitab "writing", uktub "write" writings", katibu "that which you write", kitab "writing", uktub "write";

e) null affixation, i.e. the absence of an affix in one of the forms of the paradigm in the presence of affixes in other forms. Ukr wall - walls, work - works; rus white - white, water - water, peasant - peasants. In Turkic languages, the zero affix is an indicator of the nominative singular case of nouns: Kazakh, balla "child". Balaga for a child, ballad for a child, balalar for children, balalarga for children, balalarda for children, balalarga for children, balalarda for children.

When talking about affixation, we need to distinguish between fusion and agglutination. In fusion, the affixes are ambiguous (por stena, vola, sleeves, where the ending -a expresses the nominative singular feminine, gender differences between the singular masculine and the nominative case of the plural masculine), non-standard (walls, songs, names, here the endings -and, -and, -a express the same meaning of the nominative plural), stems without affixes , as a rule, are not used (door-i, grab-i, handle-i, red-i), there is a kind of fusion of the base and affix (Cossack with Cossack sk (iy) rus passage - roadway, bald m root can change phonetically composition (sleep - sleep /, friend - friends).

During agglutination, which is inherent in the Turkic and Finno-Ugric languages, the affixes are unambiguous (Kazakh, -я always denotes the dative case, -lar - many others), standard, they are mechanically glued to the stem, and the stem is used without an affix (am "horse ", balla "child", bat "head") and never changes its phonetic structure; it changes its phonetic structure.

Alternation (internal inflection) is a means of expressing grammatical meanings, characteristic of Indo-European languages. So, in particular, in the Ukrainian and Russian languages, with the help of alternation, the grammatical meaning of the form is expressed (collect - collect, you can collect - boil), in English and German - time and number (sing "sing", "I sing" - sang "sang" ", drink "drink", "drink" - drank ogi, tooth "tooth" - teeth "teeth"; Mutter "mother" - Mutter "mother", Bruder "brother" - Br family For example: rus ask - ask, Ukrainian walk - go; dumb Hand "hand" - Hask, Ukrainian walk - nim. Hand "hand" - Hände "hands", Gast "guest" - Gäste "guests", singen "sleep" - gesungen "sleeping" .

Stress is a phonetic means of expressing grammatical meaning. It can perform such a function only when it is mobile and unfixed. This is how it is in Ukrainian, Russian, Belarusian, Bulgarian and other languages. In these languages, changing the place of stress in the paradigm of a word is a way of distinguishing between the forms of that word. For example: hands (genus otm singular) - hands (genus otm many), cut, pour, take out (undo den view) - cut, pour, take out (perfect view). Emphasis as a grammatical method can be combined with affixation: (hands - hands, forest - forests) and with alternation (shout - shout, rus knock - knock) knock)"

Reduplication is a complete or partial repetition of a root, stem or whole word without changing the sound composition or with a partial change in it. It is used to express the plural of names in Chinese, Japanese and Korean, as well as in Indonesian, Paleo-African, Austronesian languages. So, for example, in the Indonesian language orang "person" - orangorang "people", sedulur "friend" - sedulur sedulur "dru so", kuda "horse" - kuda-kuda "horses" in Chinese ren "person" - ren-zhen -kuda "horses"; in Chinese zhen "liudina" - zhen-zhen

“people”, sin “star” - sin-sin “stars” In the Ukrainian and Russian languages, repetitions, in a clearly expressed grammatical way, occasionally appear to convey the aspectual shades of the verb (duration of action): you speak w-you speak, you work-workeshish-you speak, you work- you are working.

In Turkic languages, reduplication serves as a means of expressing the highest degree of adjectives. Kazakh. Kyzyl "red" - kyzyl-kyzyl "the reddest". Jacques sy "good" - zhaksy-zhaksy "best" We have similar things in Slavic languages, although this phenomenon is interpreted here as enhancing signs. Por ukr clean-clean, light-light, big-big (with the prefix) rus white-white, blue-blue with the same fixation); grew up white-white, blue-blue then.

In some languages (mainly Turkic) incomplete repetitions are used to express conciliarity (the first consonant is replaced by a labial b, p or m). For example: Kazakh "camel" - tuyo-muyo "camels and other cattle", kulak "rich man, kulak" - kulak-Mulaku "fist" The same phenomenon is observed in the Ukrainian and Russian languages, however, repetitions here act as a means of expressing grammatical meanings: tar-i-bars, tur-murs, figli-migli, gogol-mogol, shurum-burum. Note also that in modern languages reduplication is most often used in onomatopoeic words: Ukrainian and Russian ku-ku, oink-oink, knock-knock, clap-clap; Persian khor-khor "grunt", tag-tag "knock"; Tamil kubu-kubu "gurgle", sala-sala "slap, clap"; Tamil kubu-kubu "gurgle", sala-sala "slap, slap".

Word formation is a combination of a root morpheme with a root one, resulting in the appearance of a new word. Word-folding is a way of conveying only derivational grammatical meaning. It resembles affixation, because morphemes are combined here and there, but in word-composition only root morphemes are combined.

Full roots and truncated ones, stems and whole words can be combined. In the languages of the world, two tendencies of composition can be traced: 1) mechanical (agglutinating), when the meaning compound word equal to the sum of the values of its constituent parts (for example, Ukrainian wall newspaper, Russian professional work, German Kopfschmerz "headache", Augenapfel "eyeball") and 2) organic (fusional), when the value of the whole is not equal to the sum of the values of the glass parts (English typewriter = not “font” “scribe”, but “typewriter”, killjoy = not “kill” “joy”, but “a person who spoils everyone’s mood”, French cachnez = not “hide” “on, as it spoils everyone’s mood”, French cachnez = not “howy” + “nes”, but “scarf, muffler”).

Not all languages are equally characterized by composition. Of all languages, the German language is distinguished by its richness of composition: Taschenworterbuch “pocket dictionary”, Kaufmann “merchant”, Handschuh “glove”, Wand duhr “wall clock”, Stundenplan “lesson schedule”, Vergilad of lessons”, Vergißmeinnicht “forget-me-not”.

With the historical development of a language, one of the elements of a complex word may lose its lexical meaning and become a suffix or prefix. Thus, the German suffix-heit (Schonheit "beauty", Wahrhe eit "truth", etc.) was previously a noun with the meaning "type, method", the suffix schaft (Wissenschaft "science", Gesellschaft "society") meant "property, state , quality"English suffixes -ful (useful"useful", beautiful"good"),"less (helpless"helpless", endless"), -able (suitable"appropriate", companionable"sociable, sociable", valuable" valuable") and now have homonymous significant words full"full", less"less", able"capable" In the Ukrainian language, the suffix in (Kievite, tradesman, peasant, etc.) was once the pronoun yin with the meaning "that , one", which is why this suffix does not appear in the plural forms (Kievans, townspeople, peasants). In German there is a prefix ein-(einfahren "to enter", einlegen "to invest", einkaufen "to buy", einschlafen "to fall asleep ", eindecken "covered") and the numeral ein "one line"). German language has the prefix ein- (einfahren "to squeeze", einlegen "to invest", einkaufen "to buy", einschlafen "to sink", eindecken "to crumple" ) and number ein "one".

suppletivism - the formation of grammatical forms of the same word from different roots or from different stems. For example: brothers (imperfective) - take (perfective), speak (imperfective) - say (d perfective) rus sits down (imperfective) - sit down (perfective), put (imperfective) - put (perfective) , Human ( singular) - people (plural) German Der Mensch "man" - die Leute and Leute "people".

suppletivism as the only way of expressing grammatical meanings is characteristic of the paradigm of personal pronouns in Indo-European languages: Ukrainian i - me, she - her, we - us; German ich - mich, sie - ihr, wir - uns, English / - me, she - her, we - us; fr je - t- those.

In Indo-European languages, the method of supletivism is also used to create degrees of comparison of adjectives with the meaning “good” and “bad”: Ukrainian good - best, Russian good - better, German gut - - besser, English good - better, fr, bon - meilleutter, fr , bon-meilleur.

Synthetic ways of expressing GS:

1) Affixation is the use of affixes to express grammatical meaning (do - do, exchange - exchange, table - table - table). The most common way of expressing GZ.

2) Internal inflection – grammatically significant change phonemic composition of the root (walked - walked, dik - game, dial - dial)

3) Reduplication (repetition) - expression of the GC by complete or partial repetition of the base (you walk and walk, barely, the very best).

4) Emphasis. Changing the stress serves as a way of expressing GZ. In RY, stress can distinguish between forms of nouns, mood and type of verb (Windows - windows, love - love, pour - pour)

5) Suppletivism - combining words of different roots into one grammatical pair to express GC (good - better, bad - worse, I - me, child - children)

Analytical methods of expressing GS:

1) Word order. Distinguishes between the syntactic functions of words in a sentence (subject-object relations, relations of the defined and the definition) and the communicative types of the sentences themselves: Joy (S) replaces sadness (O) – Sadness (S) replaces joy (O); deaf scientists are deaf scientists.

2) Function words - units that accompany significant words and free them from the expression of grammar or accompany inflectional affixation.

Prepositions (or aftersyllables)

Particles

Articles

Reformatsky also highlights auxiliary verbs, words of degree (more, less)

3) Intonation. This method does not refer to a word, but to a phrase, so it is related to the sentence and its structure.

ü Distinguishes between communicative and modal characteristics of a sentence: distinguishes interrogative sentences from affirmative, expressing doubt, surprise, motivation, etc. (You wrote. Did you write? You wrote!)

ü The arrangement and gradation of pauses can divide the sentence differently (I couldn’t walk for a long time and I couldn’t walk for a long time)

ü Pausing can distinguish between simple and complex sentence: I see a face in tears - I see a face in tears.

Mixed (hybrid) way of expressing civil rights:

Combines characteristics of synthetic and analytical types.

GZ of the prepositional and other cases is expressed in two ways - case inflection and preposition (tell about the conference, visit Botanical Garden, go fishing, meet an artist)

Means of expressing civil language (grammatical indicators):

1) Endings (beautiful)

2) Formative suffixes (verbs, adjectives: screaming, shouted, woven)

3) Alternation (friend-friends)

4) Accent (oknA - Windows)

5) Prepositions (without a hat, in a hat, under a hat)

6) Intonation (I hope you are sitting comfortably? Sit.)

7) Auxiliary words (I will study, stronger)

4. Basic concepts of morphology: grammatical meaning, grammatical method, grammatical form, grammatical category. The concept of morphological paradigm.

Grammatical meaning is a generalized, abstract linguistic meaning inherent in a number of words, word forms, syntactic structures and finding its regular/standard expression in the language.

Grammatical method - a way of expressing GC

Grammatical form – regular modifications of a word, united by the identity of its TL and differing in morphological/grammatical meanings.

GC is a system of rows of morphological forms opposed to each other with homogeneous meanings.

An example of a category that has a double position is the category of number in nouns. The GC can be recognized as a two-sided unit of the morphological level of language, since it has a plan for the content of PS and a plan for the expression of PV.

From a semantic point of view,GK is a set of homogeneous gram values. Thus, the general meaning of the case category includes the particular meaning of 6 cases. Private civil orders can also be composite. Using cases as an example: in R.p. stand out: meanings of belonging, part, subject, spatial. They are elementary and cannot be expanded into other meanings.

From a formal point of view, GK - a set of grammatical forms used to express private grammatic meanings.

GCs differ from each other:

By the nature of the relationship

By the number of opposing members

Binary opposition - number

Triple - time

Civil Code system in the Socialist Republic

Inflectional and non-inflectional GCs

Inflectional- categories, the forms of whose members can be represented by forms of the same word.

Non-inflectional (classificatory)- cannot be represented by forms of the same word.

A paradigm is an ordered set of grammatical forms of a word. Functional parts of speech do not have a paradigm.

The totality of all particular paradigms is a complete paradigm. The complete noun paradigm consists of all singular and plural forms.

At the head of each complete paradigm is the original form, which has a naming function and is recorded in the dictionary.

Incomplete (scissors, barefoot, vacuuming, getting dark) and redundant paradigms (tea - tea, years - summer) are also distinguished.

Words with a complete paradigm - table, fresh, run, etc.

With an incomplete (flawed) paradigm - milk, barefoot (has no degree of comparison), dawn (because it describes the state of nature, cannot be applied to humans).

With a zero paradigm - borrowed words, for example: metro, cliche, cockatoo, burgundy, beige

With a redundant paradigm - word forms that have two paradigms (waving - waving)

Basic ways of expressing grammatical meanings:

Synthetic (from Greek - “connection”) - implies the possibility of combining several morphemes (root, word-forming and inflectional) within one word: the grammatical meaning is expressed within the word;

Analytical (from Greek - “decomposition, dismemberment1”) - involves the separate expression of the lexical and grammatical meanings of a word, which is manifested in the morphological invariability of the word and the use of auxiliary elements that, in combination with full-nominal lexical units, form complex (analytical) grammatical forms (in Russian read - a complex form of the future tense of the verb, more important - a complex form of the comparative degree);

Mixed, or hybrid - combines the characteristics of synthetic and analytical types (in Russian, the grammatical meaning of the prepositional case is expressed in two ways: synthetically - by case inflection and analytically - by a preposition).

Depending on whether synthetic or analytical methods expressions of grammatical meanings predominate in the language, there are two main morphological type languages:

Synthetic - in which the synthetic way of expressing grammatical meanings dominates (English, Chinese);

Analytical - in which the tendency towards analyticity prevails.

Varieties of synthetic way of expressing grammatical meanings:

Affixation (using different types of affixes);

Reduplication (from Late Latin reduplicatio - “doubling”) - expression of grammatical meaning by complete or partial repetition of the stem (Latin mordeo “bite” - momordi “I bitten”);

Suppletivism (from Latin suppleo - “I replenish, replenish”) is the combination of words of different roots into one grammatical pair to express grammatical meanings (in Indo-European languages when forming degrees of comparison of adjectives with the meaning “good / bad” and forms of pronouns: English good - better , I - me, German gut - besser, ich - mich, Russian bad - worse, I - me);

Stress and differences in tone - whether a word belongs to one or another part of speech is determined by the place of stress (in English, progress is the verb “to develop”, progress is the noun “development”; in line, stress can distinguish between the forms of the number of nouns and the type of verb:

heads - heads, pour - pour).

Affixation types:

Inflectivity;

Agglutination.

Inflection(from Latin flexio “bending”) - inflectional affixation or inflection through inflection, which can convey several grammatical meanings simultaneously:

With the help of endings, including zero ones (domO - at home, shelO - walked);

With the help of internal inflection - a grammatically significant change in the phonemic composition of the root (English foot - feet "leg - legs"; mouse - mice "mouse - mice"). Varieties of internal inflection (according to J. Grimm):

Ablaut (German Ablaut "alternation") - historical alternations of vowels in roots, expressing inflectional or word-formative meanings (English sing "sing" - sang "sang"; German singen "sing" - sang "sang");

¦ umlaut (German Umlaut - “revocalization”) - a change in the vowels (shifting them forward) of the root under the influence of the vowels of the suffix or ending, performing a grammatical function (German Vater “father” - Vnter “fathers”).

Agglutination(from Latin agglutinare - “to stick”) - when each grammatical meaning of a word is expressed by a separate standard affix, and each affix has one function; types of agglutination:

With the help of suffixes expressing grammatical meanings (in Russian, past tense forms are formed using the formative suffix -l-: read-l-0, preach-l-a);

Prefixes (in Latvian, the prefix )a - serves as an indicator of the obligatory mood of the verb);

Confixes (confixation) - complex intermittent morphemes of the encircling type (in German, the formation of the participles gefunden, gemachf);

Infixes (Latin - vici-vinco, rupi-rumpo);

Transfixes - the use of affixes, which, breaking the consonantal root, serve as a “layer” of vowels among consonants (in Arabic, the general idea of “scripture” is expressed by the consonantal stem ktb, and the past tense form of the active voice is formed using the transfix a-a-a - kataba " wrote", and the form of the passive zapog is through the transfix u-i-a - kutiba "he wrote").

Varieties of analytical method:

The use of function words - prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliary verbs, particles, articles and postpositions;

Through intonation, which performs the following functions:

¦ forms a statement and reveals its meaning;

¦ distinguishes between different communicative types of sentences (question, incentive, narration);

¦ identifies parts of a statement according to their semantic importance, formalizes the syntactic structure as a single whole and at the same time divides it into separate segments;

Through the use of word order - a specific arrangement of words in a sentence or phrase. Word order distinguishes the syntactic functions of words in a sentence and the communicative types of the sentences themselves (along with intonation). There are languages in which a fixed order of components expresses certain syntactic relationships.

38. Parts of speech - basic lexical and grammatical classes according to which

the words of the language are distributed. These sets of words have some common grammatical features. Depending on the structure of the language and the theoretical positions of researchers, from 2 to 15 parts of speech are distinguished.

Signs, on the basis of which the lexicon units are distributed into large grammatical classes:

Semantic criterion - the general categorical grammatical meaning of words;

Syntactic criterion is a common, primary syntactic function, i.e. the ability to act in the position of a certain member of a sentence and be combined with certain classes of words), on the basis of which in most languages of the world nouns and verbs are distinguished primarily (according to I.I. Meshchaninov);

Morphological criterion (features of formation and composition of grammatical categories, i.e., the system of its morphological categories and morphological categories), according to which words are divided into changeable (inflected and conjugated), consisting of a main part and a formal part, and unchangeable (F.F. Fortunatov);

Derivational criterion - features of word formation, i.e. a set of word-formation models and word-formation means, as well as the ability to identify the bases for replenishing the vocabulary of other parts of speech;

Phonological - features of the phonemic and prosodic structure of words of different classes.

When dividing the entire set of lexical units on the basis of a syntactic criterion in combination with a semantic criterion, the bulk of lexical units are divided:

For significant words (full-valued, full-valued, autosemantic) - they can function as members of a sentence; a separate significant word can be the minimum of a sentence (statement);

Functional words (incomplete, incomplete, synsemantic, formal) cannot function as members of a sentence;

Interjections are isolated on the basis that they are sufficient in themselves to formulate a statement, and do not enter into syntactic connections with other words in a given speech formation.

Types of significant words:

Denominatives - have the most clearly expressed part-speech features: their characteristics are based simultaneously on both syntactic and associated semantic features;

Pronouns (pronominal-demonstrative, deictic);

Numerals (numerical, numeral).

In the structure of a sentence, first of all, the positions of actants (subject participants in affairs, events, situations) and the positions of predicates (features) are distinguished.

Within the framework of one objective situation, actants act as carriers of signs that characterize their attitude to the situation as a whole and their attitude to each other.

Actant classification of nominal words:

Actant (non-predicate, non-attribute, subject) - nouns that are characterized by such primary actant (syntactic) functions as subject and object. The use of a noun as a function of circumstance, definition or

the predicate is secondary for him;

Predicate (feature) - a verb for which the predicate function is primary (attribution of some currently relevant attribute to an object put forward as a subject). Its functioning in any other position (subject, object, adverbial, attribute) is secondary for it. Adjectives and adverbs, as well as the verb, belong to characteristic words. Adjectives that express the characteristics of objects as if outside of time (i.e., non-actualized predicates) are specialized for use in the function of definition, and adverbs, the meanings of which are characteristics of other characteristics, are specialized in the function of circumstances. An adverb is syntactically related to a verb, and

adjective - with a noun. This classification system does not distinguish classes of pronouns and numerals.

Grammemes (formal indicator) of the main parts of speech:

Noun - grammeme of objectivity (substantiality): substantive word-classifying grammemes of gender or nominal class; inflectional grammes of case, number, animation - inanimateness, certainty - uncertainty, alienable - inalienable belonging;

Verbs - procedural grammeme™ (verbal): predicative verbal grammemes of tense, aspect, mood, voice, version, gender, interrogative, negation, as well as concordant grammemes of person, number, gender; grammes of transitivity - intransitivity, dynamism - staticity, ultimacy - infinity, modes of action (initiativeness, repetition, one-act, unidirectionality - non-unidirectionality of movement, cumulativeness, distributivity);

Adjective - grammeme of attribute (adjectivity): opposition of full and short forms, categories of degrees of comparison and categories of intensity, as well as concordant grammes of number, gender and case;

Adverbs - adverbial grammeme (adverbial™): grammemes of the category of degrees of comparison and the category of intensity.

Transitivity of parts of speech- a phenomenon that can be traced between significant and auxiliary parts of speech, the volume of which is largely replenished by significant words. The phenomenon of transitivity is also observed between significant parts of speech due to conversion - a morphological-syntactic method

fishing The essence of this process:

From a phonetic point of view, a new word is not formed;

As a result of its transition from one part of speech to another, the word acquires new structural and grammatical properties, while losing a number of its grammatical features.

37 Grammatical category- a system of grammatical forms opposed to each other with a homogeneous meaning (for example, nouns in singular and plural form are opposed to each other and form the grammatical category of number). Members of one grammatical category are united by a common grammatical meaning (for example, the meaning of number) and differ in private meanings (for example, the meaning of singularity - plurality). Grammatical categories provide a systematic organization of the morphological component of a given language.

At the heart of the grammatical category As a specially organized system of linguistic elements, opposition lies. If one of the members of the opposition is actually absent, then the second one is also absent (in meaning and content), even if it is formally represented in the word (material nouns have a singular form, but these words do not have a singular meaning, since they actually do not and cannot have a plural form).

Types of oppositions:

Private opposition is a contrast between two members in which one member (strong, marked) has a pronounced semantic feature, and the second (weak, unmarked) is characterized by its absence, which leads to the fact that the weak member can act as a strong one

Transposition is the figurative use of a grammatical form, when one of the forms of a grammatical category can act in the meaning of another form of the same paradigmatic series (for example, present, time can be used in the context of the past (historical present), which makes the story more lively).

Types of grammatical categories.

By the number of members they unite (grammatical forms):

Binary (binary) - combines two grammatical forms that are opposed to each other;

Three-membered (trinary) - combines three members;

Polynomial grammatical categories are a system of more than three members opposed to each other.

By the nature of grammatical forms:

Inflectional (formative) - represented by forms of the same word;

Non-inflectional grammatical categories are classifying; they combine grammatical forms that are not forms of the same word, but independent lexical units that do not change, but are distributed among the forms of a given category; members of a non-inflectional category or may be connected by word-formation relations.

In relation to extra-linguistic reality and. hence the functions:

Interpretive, or meaningful grammatical categories interpret certain phenomena and relationships in extralinguistic reality;

Relational, or formal grammatical categories serve only as a means of expressing syntactic connections of linguistic units.

A morphological category, a closed system with a limited number of elements, is not just a system of oppositions of elementary grammatical meanings, but a system of oppositions of grammes as two-sided entities, each with its own

the signified and its signifier (or a standard set of signifiers). The number of elements determines the number of morphological oppositions and the set of differential semantic features of grammemes (the grammatical category of case in Russian includes 6 grammemes, the number of oppositions between them reaches 16);

Syntactic grammatical categories that belong primarily to the syntactic units of language (the category of predicativity or the category of sentence members), but they can also be expressed by units belonging to other language levels (the word

and its shape). This division is typical mainly for languages of the inflectional type; in languages of the agglutinative type, the boundaries between morphological and syntactic categories are erased.

45. Classification of languages- determining the place of each language among the languages of the world; distribution of the world's languages into groups based on certain characteristics in accordance with the principles underlying the study.

Issues of classifying the diversity of languages of the world, distributing them according to certain taxonymic (from the Greek taxis - arrangement in order, nomos - law) headings are being actively developed in early XIX V. From the second half of the 20th century. Interest in the possibilities of other classifications of the world's languages increased, and the areal and functional classifications of languages gained recognition. Each classification explains linguistic similarity from its general theoretical positions and subdivides languages accordingly. The most developed and recognized are two classifications - genealogical and typological (or morphological).

Genealogical (genetic) classification:

Based on the concept of linguistic kinship;

The goal is to determine the place of a particular language in the circle of related languages, to establish its genetic connections;

The main method is comparative-historical;

The degree of stability of the classification is absolutely stable (since each language initially belongs to one or another family, group of languages and cannot change the nature of this belonging).

Typological classification (originally known as morphological):

Based on the concept of similarity (formal and/or semantic) and, accordingly, differences between languages; is based on the peculiarities of the structure of languages (on the characteristics of the morphological structure of a word, methods of combining morphemes, the role of inflections and affixes in the formation of grammatical forms of a word and in conveying the grammatical meaning of a word);

The goal is to group languages into large classes based on the similarity of their grammatical structure (principles of its organization), to determine the place of a particular language, taking into account the formal organization of its linguistic structure;

The main method is comparative;

The degree of stability of the classification is relative and historically changeable (since each language is constantly developing, its structure and the very theoretical understanding of this structure change).

Geographical (areal) classification(possible within one

language in relation to its dialects):

Associated with the place of distribution (initial or later) of a particular language (or dialect);

The goal is to determine the area of the language (or dialect) taking into account the boundaries of its linguistic features;

The main method is linguogeographical;

The degree of stability of the classification is more or less stable depending on the characteristics underlying it.

Functional classification comes from the sphere of language functioning; is based on the study of acts of speech and types of linguistic communication and divides languages:

In natural ones, which are a means of communication (oral and written languages);

Artificial, i.e. not reproducing the forms of natural languages;

Graphic, used in the field of science and technology (programming languages, information, logical, etc.).

Cultural-historical classification examines languages from the point of view of their relationship to cultural history; takes into account the historical sequence of cultural development; highlights:

Unliterate;

Written;

Literary languages of nationality and nation;

Interethnic communication.

Based on the prevalence of the language and the number of people speaking it, they are divided into:

Languages that are common among a narrow circle of speakers (tribal languages of Africa, Polynesia; “one-aul” languages of Dagestan);

Languages spoken by individual nationalities (Dungan - in Kyrgyzstan);

Languages spoken by the entire nation (Czech, Bulgarian);

Languages that are used by several nations, the so-called interethnic (French - in France, Belgium, Switzerland; Russian, serving the peoples of Russia);

Languages that function as international languages (English, French, Spanish, Chinese, Arabic, Russian - which is also an international language).

According to the degree of activity of the tongue, they are distinguished:

Living are actively functioning languages;

Dead (Latin, Gaulish, Gothic) - preserved only in written monuments, in place names or in the form of borrowings in other languages, or disappeared without a trace; some dead languages are still used today (Latin is the language of the Catholic Church, medicine, scientific terminology).

44. Members of a sentence- structural and semantic components of a sentence, expressed in words or phrases with their characteristic syntactic categories. Parts of speech and members of a sentence differ from each other and interact with each other, since each significant part of speech in a statement acts as one or another member of the sentence.

Criteria for selecting sentence members:

Logical (or semantic);

Formal (or grammatical);

The communicative function of a sentence, which allows one to determine the topic and rheme of the message. Members of a sentence according to their function and in relation to the grammatical minimum of the sentence divide:

The main members are the subject and the predicate (they perform logical functions in a sentence and act as nuclear, grammatically supporting components of the sentence);

Secondary members - definition, addition and circumstance (perform structural and semantic functions in a sentence, expanding, clarifying, detailing the content of the statement).

There are dependency relationships between the main and minor members in a sentence: the minor members are grammatically dependent on the main members.

Functions of the main members of the proposal:

They are the center of the structure of the sentence, its core, since they are the ones who organize the minimal basis of the sentence;

They formally determine the grammatical organization of a sentence, express its grammatical meanings (modality, tense, person);

Perform a logical function.

Functions of minor members of a sentence:

The semantic function, that is, they are the distributors of its remaining members (main and secondary) or the entire sentence as a whole, when the needs of communication force the components of the sentence to be clarified, specified, and “expanded”;

They can be more informative than the main ones.

Subject(tracing paper from Latin subjectum “subject”) is a significant grammatically independent member of a sentence, denoting an object and pointing to a “logical subject” (in the traditional concept) or, more broadly, to the object to which the predicate refers. The subject can be expressed by a noun in it. etc., but in this position it can

any substantivized form, phraseological unit and even a whole sentence can be used.

Predicate- the main grammatically semi-independent member of a sentence, depending only on the subject and indicating an action, state, property or quality in their relation to the subject or, more broadly, to the object expressed by the subject, i.e. the predicate expresses the predicative attribute of the subject.

Signs of the predicate:

Formally depends on the subject;

Conveying modality and tense, it forms the predicative center of the sentence;

Usually expressed as a verb, but its place can also be taken by various adverbial phrases.

Secondary members of the sentence:

definition- a minor grammatically dependent member of a sentence, extending and explaining any member of a sentence with an objective meaning and denoting a sign, quality or property of an object. It is connected with the defined name (or any other substantivized part of speech) by an attributive connection according to

by the method of coordination, less often - by the method of control or adjacency.

The definition is usually expressed as an adjective;

addition- a minor grammatically dependent member of a sentence, extending and explaining any member of a sentence with the meaning of an action, object or characteristic and denoting an object in its relation to the action, object or characteristic. The object is usually expressed by a noun in the indirect case and is attached to other words using a control. Types of add-ons:

The direct (expressed in the accusative case form without a preposition) correlates with the subject, so it is sometimes classified as the main member of a sentence;

Indirect;

circumstance- a minor grammatically dependent member of a sentence, extending and explaining the members of the sentence with the meaning of an action or attribute or the sentence as a whole and denoting where, when, under what circumstances the action is performed, or indicating the condition, reason, purpose of its implementation, as well as the measure, degree and the method of its manifestation. Circumstances are expressed by an adverb, the main type of syntactic connection is adjacency.

43. Proposal- the central unit of the syntactic system, and according to many modern linguists, in general, the central unit of language, the generation of which in speech is served by all other components of the language system as a whole. In the syntactic system, the sentence occupies a fundamental position, since it marks the transition from the sphere of language to the sphere of speech.

Offer functions:

Formation and expression of thoughts;

Description of a certain state of affairs as an integral ensemble of elements of the situation.

Offer properties:

Has a high pragmatic potential (compared to a phrase);

The connection to the communicative-pragmatic context is less than that of the text, when it is only one of the components of the text, and does not act autonomously (being a potential minimum of the text) in the role of a speech act, i.e., minimal discourse;

Ability to be the minimum possible text;

It is a unit of text, i.e. a unit closer to the text than to a phrase;

Has a communicative purpose;

Intonationally designed;

Acts both as a speech and as linguistic unit(like a phrase);

In itself, it is not reproducible as a finished, inventory item;

It is built from words (more precisely, from word forms) that are members of a sentence;

Each time it is built anew in speech: in the process of implementation (updating) of one of the invariant formal-content schemes (models) included in the syntactic system of the language; in the process of using certain (also invariant, belonging to the language) rules for its transformation from the original form to the final one.

The multidimensional nature of the proposal is manifested in the fact that it:

It is a communicative sign (a complex sign formation capable of serving to convey a message; acts as a minimal communicative unit that directly correlates with a minimal communicative action - a speech act);

It has situational relevance (i.e., it correlates with a certain class of situations that are complex in structure as its complex denotation in the subject line and, accordingly, with a complex significative in the mental series);

“linking” a sentence to a specific situation is carried out using means that relate the situation being described to one or another modal plan and time plan;

It has a structural minimum, an initial structure, which can be reduced to the unity of subject and predicate; unity of subject, predicate and object; only to the predicate in itself (zero subject position);

Spreads and collapses, combines with other sentences into more complex complexes in accordance with a finite set of expansion rules and transformation rules;

When describing a sentence grammatically, a hierarchy of syntactic significant units is revealed: syntaxeme - sentence member - sentence;

The multidimensionality of the content structure of a sentence is manifested in the fact that

As a complex nomination, it describes a certain holistic state of affairs (as an ensemble of participants in the situation and the relationship connecting them, i.e., the unity of semantic actants and a semantic predicate);

As a predicative unit expresses a certain holistic judgment (as the unity of a logical subject and a logical predicate correlated with it);

How a communicative-information unit conveys a certain holistic message about something, which is embedded in one or another “package” (as the unity of the given and the new, as the unity of the definite and the indefinite, as the unity of theme and rheme, etc.);

As a communicative-pragmatic unit, it includes an invariant, context-independent part (propositional, factual component, or dictum) and a variable, contextually determined part (pragmatic frame, or communicative mode).

The same sentence combines several different content and formal structures, each of which acts as a way of “packaging” the information conveyed through the sentence:

Propositional (propositional, predicate-argumentative);

Predicative (predicative, subject-predicate);

Actualization (informational, identification, thematic and a number of other additional) - structures through which the conceptual categories of modality, temporality, personality, or personality - impersonality, affirmation - negation, etc., which have formative paradigms, are realized), ensuring the “binding” of the sentence to the described objective situation and the situation of utterance;

Intensional (speech-actual, or communicative-pragmatic).

1. The most important features of a sentence as a syntactic unit:

The act of predication (from Latin praedicatio - statement) - a statement about the subject of thought, the original image and its interpretation;

Predicativity is the grammatical expression of predication.

Predication (in the broad sense) establishes a connection between an object and a feature, and predication establishes a connection between what is communicated in a sentence and the situation in existence itself.

Predication is the act of connecting independent objects of thought, expressed in independent words, to display and interpret in language an event, a situation of reality; it involves attributing a certain attribute to an object - a subject: S is P. This attribute is called predicative, or predicate (from late Latin praedicatum - “said”). A simple sentence is characterized by one predication. Combining several predications in the structure of one sentence

called polypredicativity. The basic form is a complex sentence.

Grammar is the specific grammatical structure of a language, which includes means of word formation, etc.

Grammar concepts:

Grammatical meaning

Grammatical form

Grammatical methods (means)

Almost any word contains two meanings: lexical and grammatical. If the lexical meaning of a word is individual, concrete, then the grammatical meaning is non-individual, it is abstract, it will be common to a number of words of the same type, and always has formal means of expression. The grammatical meaning is always in a certain way formally expressed. It is connected with the grammatical forms through which it is expressed.

Means (methods) of language:

Grammatical means functionally equivalent to affixes:

Internal inflection - significant alternations of consonants, vowels inside the root (external inflection - endings) - for example, man - men, foot - feet, read - read, sleep - sleep, there are languages in which all meanings are conveyed only by internal inflection, for example Arabic.

Suppletivism is a means when the grammatical meaning is conveyed using another root (child - children, person - people, take - take, I - we, I - you - he, good - best)

Reduplication is the repetition of either the whole, or the root, or part of a word: kuni (country) - guniguni (country) (Japanese), for adjectives: kind - kind.

Addition is a word-formation method, a way of forming new words: steam locomotive, water locomotive. There are languages in which all word formation comes down to addition.

Function words - grammatical meaning is conveyed not inside the word, but outside it: articles (number), prepositions (subordinating relations between words in a sentence), postpositions (in those languages where there are no prefixes): for God's sake, conjunctions (coordinating relations, between words), particles (mood), auxiliary verbs (tense).

Word order – both a word-building device and a grammatical meaning can be used, for example, mother loves her daughter.

Stress is a means that can be used as a word-forming device (lock - castle) and inflectional (hands - hands)

The most common method is affixation (expressing grammatical meaning using affixes), for example, for verbs: aspect, tense, person, number; for nouns: gender, case.

Depending on the expressed meaning, postfixes are divided into suffixes (having a derivational, that is, word-formative meaning) and inflections (having a relational, that is, indicating a connection with other members of the sentence, meaning). The suffix conveys both lexical and (more often) grammatical meaning; can translate a word from one part of speech to another (transposing function).

Inflections are word-modifying affixes. The traditional name for inflections in the Russian language is endings, since they are mainly located at the very end of words (external inflection), foot-feet is an internal inflection.

Grammatical meanings can be expressed by changes in the sound composition of the root itself. Or in other words – internal inflection. But not all root changes are internal inflection. To do this you need to be able to distinguish different types alternations of sounds.

Phonetic - when the change in sound is due to position (water-water, each other, forehead-frontal);

Non-phonetic - the change in sound does not depend on position, but different phonemes alternate (friend-friends-friendly);

Morphological alternation is mandatory according to tradition (stump-stump, forehead-forehead). All these alternations are an internal phenomenon. inflections; o Grammar. The methods are the same for all languages, but languages can use all and only some of them.

1. Affixation. Affixes are morphemes with grammatical meaning. They do not serve outside words; they accompany the root, serving for word formation and inflection. Prefixes - before the root, postfixes - after the root. Postfixes are divided into suffixes and inflections, divided according to the principle of grammatical meaning; suffixes are word-forming affixes, and inflections are inflectional ones. In many languages, zero affixes play an important role - the absence of an affix in one form of the paradigm and the presence in another (horn-horn-horn).

2. Agglutination (gluing) (knit – untie – untie) and f u s i o n - (alloy) (wealth, carver), i.e. during fusion, affixes are closely fused both externally and internally with roots, etc., and in the composition of these alloys they seem to fade.

3.Alternations and internal inflection.

Grammar meanings can be expressed by changes in the sound composition of the root itself, or, in other words, by internal inflection. Alternations of sounds (i.e. mutual replacement in the same places, in the same morphemes) can be:

Phonetic - variations of the same phoneme alternate without changing the composition of phonemes in morphemes;

Nephonetic - different phonemes alternate (friend-friends-friendly). Among the non-phonetic ones: morphological - alternation is mandatory according to tradition, but not for expressiveness (Stump-stump, bake-bake, simple-simplification); grammatical - such alternation itself may be sufficient to form a word form (sush-suh, dik-dich, avoid-run). This is internal inflection.

4. Repetitions - consist of complete or partial repetition of a root, stem or whole word without changing the sound composition or with a partial change in it. In some languages, to express plural numbers, as a means of strengthening a given message (No, no, long, long ago), onomatopoeic repetitions are used.

5. Method of addition - in one lexeme the root is combined with the root, both full and truncated (God forbid, thank you, hide your nose French - muffler), maybe through a connector. vowel (surveyor, shipping company) and without connect. vowel (collective farm, People's Commissariat).

6. The method of function words - they free significant words from expressing grammar:

Prepositions - express subordinating relationships between members of a sentence (I’m riding the subway, I’m looking at you);

Articles are not found in all languages; sign of a name, distinction between definite and indefinite, distinction of gender (in German), distinction of number (in French).

7. Method of stress: in Russian - different words from different stress: pour out - pour out; to differentiate short adjectives and adverbs: narrowly-narrowly.

Found on material from Indo-European languages.