The city as a habitat for small mammals. The city as a habitat for small mammals

People have been living in cities for several thousand years. Human settlements have long been accompanied by wild animals that fed on food waste.

Since then, such relations have not changed at all.

And in our time, sprawling cities are replenished with new parasites - wild animals that find shelter and their ecological niche on city streets.

Animal protection organization

Urban vegetation in many states is protected by special laws. A list of suburban forests and parks has been compiled on the territory of which construction work is to be carried out, except for hospitals and agricultural buildings located in green areas.

Urban fauna: “restless nature.”

But construction organizations are trying in every possible way to violate passed laws, because it’s so tempting to build houses in the middle of the forest, and then sell them to buyers at a profit. Security environment Developers are not interested at all. Such areas of land need to be made protected and turned into oases for rest and peace, where various animals adapted to the conditions of the urban environment could live.

Cities are entire gatherings of stray dogs, cats and other feathered-tailed “beasts”.

In the past, green spaces were not usually included in city plans, although they create excellent conditions for healthy image human life and are necessary for the habitat of animals in urban cities. Ideal for creating areas that are as close to natural conditions as possible - parks, rivers, abandoned highways. Suburban parks are especially interesting in this regard; in them, unlike central parks, the territory smoothly transitions into the natural landscape surrounding the city with fields, copses, and forests, in which new inhabitants from the animal world can settle.

Air and water pollution is one of the important issues living in the city, which affects not only humans, but also animals. Emissions of harmful substances into the environment must be sharply limited; these measures would undoubtedly improve the living conditions of people and animals in the city. Constant traffic movement, noise, bright lighting, and confined spaces have a negative impact on living organisms.

In cities, the noise does not subside even for a minute and there is constant movement, there are few natural places for animals to live. However, there are extreme sports people who, with the constant movement of crowds of people and city transport, are capable of not only simply surviving, but giving birth to offspring. The warm urban climate attracts many animals, and garbage dumps with an abundance of food waste make it possible to feed all year round, without particularly straining in search of food. But in order for our smaller brothers to feel at home, we need tolerance and good will of a person.

Animals in the city

Cities, growing larger and larger, occupy more and more new areas natural environment, which leads to disruption of the natural landscape. But such changes for some animals do not play any role at all, and they adapt perfectly to new living conditions.

Masses of animals, attracted by the smell of leftover food, flock to city landfills, crows, sparrows, seagulls fly in, rats simply climb into garbage cans, and foxes timidly pick up food waste. Visiting landfills has become a common activity for wild animals. In England, this type of hunting is carried out by badgers, North America- raccoons, and in Australia - opossums. The number of rats is equal to the population of the city; about 500 rodents live on one kilometer of sewerage. In connection with this circumstance, a joke appeared that every passerby in the city is only 3 meters away from the first one they come across.

Location

If at the beginning of the twentieth century urban population accounted for about 14% of the total population of the planet, in our time this figure has increased several times and is approaching 50%. People constantly migrate in search of work and better conditions residence. In this regard, there is a rapid construction of new houses, shops, and public institutions in cities. New asphalt roads are being laid, train stations and airfields are opening, diversion canals and garbage dumps are growing.

Unwittingly, people are taking away their ancestral territories from animals. There is simply no place for animals nearby big city, although islands remain in some settlements natural landscape in the form of parks and gardens. They are home to animals that have managed to adapt to urban conditions.

The number of wild animals would be much greater if it were not for the constant poisoning of living organisms by waste from households and industrial enterprises. Inhabitants wildlife die not only from direct poisoning hazardous substances, contained in waste, but many of them lose their ability to reproduce due to the impact of man-made substances on living organisms. Many animals have chosen suburban cemeteries as places of permanent settlement; these are real natural oases in the urban desert. Under the treetops and among the grass, timid animals feel protected and behave natural look life.

Climate change

Environmental pollution is another negative factor, playing not in favor of animals.

Plants absorb Sun rays, and brick, asphalt, concrete and dirty air intensely reflect them. Metal and glass are characterized by a high reflectivity. As a result of the large concentration of cars, a cloud of smog often hangs over the city. In winter, the city is warmer and huge flocks of birds spend the night under the roofs of houses, in attics, and hiding in underground passages. Pigeons and house mice have become so comfortable that they breed here throughout the year, and sparrows have become permanent city residents. Some North American birds nest exclusively in cities.

Living conditions differ from natural ones, and this affects the habitat of living organisms in the urban environment. Plants bloom earlier here than in rural areas, because the climate in the city is warmer. Rain also falls more often in the city than in the surrounding area, but after precipitation the water quickly flows through drains into rivers. In cities, asphalt dries out immediately after rain and, therefore, the air is extremely dry. Plants that require excess moisture - ferns and mosses - grow in cities near water bodies.

Pollution

City air is full of soot and soot, and this feature differs from rural air. The same soot settles on the lungs of city residents. The harmful effect of dirty air on plants has been established through observation: dust and soot settle on the leaves and cause clogging of the stomata on the leaves of the plants and interfere with the penetration of sunlight.

In the city, the growth of green spaces slows down, while the same species growing in nature have a lush crown and shiny leaves. Lichens on trees, absorbing water saturated with acid formed during precipitation in a polluted city, turn yellow and shed their leaves from the effects of sulfur dioxide contained in the toxic precipitation.

Dangerous wastewater households and industrial enterprises entering rivers, they cause severe pollution organic substances, which provoke rapid growth of green algae and duckweed plants. Other plants cannot develop due to lack of oxygen. Together with rain and snow, oil waste, heavy metal salts and other substances enter the soil. harmful impurities. Along food chains, they pass into the bodies of earthworms, and then into the bodies of birds that feed on them.

Nature is a decoration of the city, and not a heavy burden for it, as some people think!

In the ecological pyramid, which reflects the relationship between plants and animals, the concentration of harmful substances increases from the base to the top, which leads to the death of birds and animals feeding on poisoned plants. Some species of insects have developed adaptations to living in conditions of environmental pollution. A typical example is the birch moth, which forms two forms - the light-colored moth and the dark-colored moth. In industrial areas polluted by coal dust, the dark color of insects is not noticeable against the background of the environment and it better camouflages butterflies on birch trunks dark from coal. In biology, this adaptation is called industrial melanism.

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There are many cities that got their names in honor of animals. Many of them are quite large and famous throughout the world. Among them are not only Russians, but also German, American, Greek and even African. For example, the name of the capital of Uganda, Kampala, means “antelope” literally translated into Russian from the language of the tribes living there. The city of Ivry, France, was named after the wild. Alupka, the name of the city, which is located on the Crimean peninsula and was founded by the Khazars more than a thousand years ago, translated from Greek means fox hole. Located in the state of New York, a city called Buffalo was also named after the animal, because in English it means “buffalo” or “buffalo”. There are many more to discover interesting examples, if you dig a little deeper.

Stories of some cities

Vorkuta, a city in Russia that was founded in 1963, has a name that literally means “many bears.” Although there are no bears in the vicinity of this city.

The Belarusian city of Bobruisk is another matter. Here, according to chronicle data, at the time Kievan Rus There was a village whose main occupation was fishing and beaver hunting. In some countries of the world at the beginning of the last century, these animals practically disappeared. Belarus was no exception, but the authorities intervened in time and created the Berezinsky Nature Reserve for animals, which helped stop the disappearance of beavers in the country. The city has several monuments also dedicated to these animals, with which tourists from all over the world come to take photos.

The Ukrainian city of Lviv, as ancient chronicles report, was founded by Prince Daniil Glalitsky. But most often city residents say romantic story about a lion who stole people who dared to walk alone in the forest, and a brave knight who saved people by killing the beast.

City in Yaroslavl region, Myshkin, known since the 15th century. At that time it was a small village. Its name is associated with a legend. One day the head of the village was resting on the banks of the Volga. His mouse saved him from a snake crawling towards him. Since then, the mouse has been a favorite animal of the city residents.

The Swiss city of Bern, founded in 1191, was named after a bear. Duke Berthold V swore an oath that he would name the city after the first animal he killed on a hunt. The bear became the trophy, and the city was given the name Bern. On German bear is translated as Bär.

Of course, these are not all cities that are named after animals. There are many of them, and their stories and origins of names are very interesting and exciting.

In the fauna of Russia there are 312 species of mammals, including acclimatized representatives of the faunas of other continents (musk ox, raccoon, American mink, Canadian beaver, muskrat, etc.).

The species composition of the population of mammals, like other groups of vertebrates, is subject to seasonal changes, but to a lesser extent. Overcoming negative consequences seasonal changes are carried out in different ways. Most species are characterized by sedentary image life. Very few, mostly large mammals(saiga, reindeer etc.) make seasonal migrations over larger or smaller distances. Some species avoid unfavorable seasons by spending them in hibernation or falling asleep during sharp drops in temperature (brown and black bears, badgers, marmots, ground squirrels, hamsters and hamsters, dormice, etc.). Many bats fly south for the winter, and those that remained throughout the entire period low temperatures sleep in caves and other shelters.

In winter, individuals of those species are active, although they have access to food. Most of them are herbivorous mammals: small animals leading a snowy lifestyle (voles, mice, lemmings, etc.), medium-sized animals (hares, beavers, squirrels, musk deer, etc.) and large animals (elk, red deer, roe deer, etc. .), feeding on twigs and rags in winter. Omnivorous mammals are active in winter - wild boar, wolverine, sable; carnivores (hunting warm-blooded animals) - wolf, fox, corsac fox, ferrets, ermine, weasel, weasel, solongoi, harza, lynx, etc. and piscivores - otter, European and American mink.

In the spring-summer period, associated with reproduction in most species, the mammal population is characterized by the greatest species diversity and total abundance. The breeding season determines the subsequent state of most mammal populations and their life expectancy. This time (late spring - early summer) was chosen to reflect the patterns of their distribution on the map.

Since food resources and protective conditions in habitats change from year to year, and the efficiency of reproduction depends on them, the total abundance of territorial groups of mammal populations is subject to long-term fluctuations, which are characterized by large amplitude in the north and in non-forest habitats. The map and legend reflect the average state of mammal population complexes in the spring-summer period, derived from long-term observations.

The population of mammals naturally changes in accordance with the natural and human-induced heterogeneity of their habitat. On the plains and in the mountains, it generally obeys general geographic patterns of distribution of heat and moisture, perceived by biological complexes through the heterogeneity of the habitat.
The boundaries between types and regional variants of mammal population complexes are drawn along the lines dividing different conditions their habitat. The habitats of mammals are heterogeneous in composition, abundance and availability of life-sustaining resources.

Among mammals, there are quite a few ecologically flexible species, widely distributed throughout Russia and mastering a variety of life-sustaining resources in a variety of habitats. Their participation in most territorial groupings leads to smoothing out differences between types and regional variations of the population, especially in forests.

Many mammal species are rare. Rarity may be natural, naturally conditioned, since the territory of Russia includes peripheral parts of their ranges, where relatively favorable conditions habitats are distributed unevenly and in small areas. The rarity of other species (especially large ungulates and animals with valuable fur- otter, muskrat, beaver, flying squirrel, etc.) is associated with negative changes in habitats under the influence economic activity of people. In areas of industrial development of territories, the area and diversity of forest habitats are reduced, and natural and artificial reservoirs become unsuitable for life. During the construction of railways and highways, oil and gas pipelines create obstacles for mammals whose seasonal movements are associated with the spatial separation of their habitats (reindeer, elk in the north, saiga antelope in the south).

Under conditions of annual plowing of the land, a significant proportion of individuals survive only small mammals, whose burrows are located below the arable layer. Autumn and especially spring plowing leads to mechanical destruction of the burrows of small animals and the extermination of animals by birds following the tractor. The most negative impact on herbivorous mammals sharp fluctuations in the amount of forage in the fields, the abundance of which is limited to 1 - 1.5 months. In such conditions, only animals that stockpile food (hamsters, hamsters, gophers) are able to survive. Therefore, the dominant ones in the population before plowing different types gray voles are replaced by hamsters, the number of which is never excessively high. Voles move and concentrate in bushes, forest belts, meadows and weeds along the boundaries. Their density there is much higher than that in natural conditions. As a result, territorial groupings of mammals that are uniform in abundance and species composition are formed in forest and field habitats.

Human economic activities can have positive consequences for mammals. For example, small cutting areas at different times help to increase the availability of branch food, which is used by elk and hare. Protective conditions at cutting sites are favorable for the growth of the number of small mice. Following them, the abundance of predatory mammals that feed on these rodents increases. The growth of the number of some species of game animals (wolf, wild boar, elk, etc.) was positively affected by consolidation in the central part of Russia settlements, which led to a reduction in the area of cultivated farmland. On abandoned lands, the life of animals is not affected by the disturbance factor and the feeding and protective properties of the habitats are much better.

In completely changed and disturbed areas species composition mammals are extremely small (gray rat, house mouse), but their abundance is extremely high, never observed under natural conditions. These types of animals (synanthropes) are omnivores and can tolerate extremely high levels disturbances and make their homes in structures and buildings located near food sources. Synanthropes undertake massive movements from habitats that have become unfavorable to places where there is more food and more reliable shelter.

Of these, the most common are the gray rat (pasyuk), house mouse, cat and dog.
Gray rats They live mainly in basements and lower floors of buildings, as well as in landfills, where more garbage and food waste accumulate.
Rats are intelligent, quick-witted, and easily adapt to changing environmental conditions. They cause great harm to humans: they eat and spoil food, spread dangerous infections(tularemia, leptospirosis, trichinosis, rabies, plague, etc.), damage structures, underground cables and communications. According to American scientists, almost 20% of fires in cities are caused by short circuits in electrical wiring caused by rats. Hordes of rats around the world are destroying enough food to feed almost 0.15 billion people.
However, upon completion of measures aimed at exterminating rats, other ecological problems. Thus, rats leave behind the ticks that lived on them, which gradually move on to people and other animals, causing a blow to their health. The ecological niche vacated by rats is quickly filled by house mice.
Unlike rats, mice master all floors, even the top ones. They especially prefer the lower and upper floors, where there are more opportunities for nesting (basements, attics). According to experts, mice most often appear in buildings that have technical violations.
The invasion of mice into urban settlements mainly occurs in the fall, after the onset of cold weather. As for rats, their relocation is often facilitated by repair work in their original habitats (for example, in areas of underground communications) or the elimination of landfills.
The fight between humans and these rodents is going on with varying degrees of success. They counteract efforts to survive by either an increased rate of reproduction (mice) or an amazing ability to adapt to the created stressful situations. Thus, rats learned to bypass many traps and even developed immunity to some poisons. Many scientists believe that before dying, these animals manage to transmit a danger signal to their relatives, and they avoid the corresponding place. Very effective are those drugs that, without destroying animals, suppress their ability to reproduce or lead to an increase in the proportion of males in the litter.
Thanks to the highly developed higher nervous system Some people adapt well to city life carnivorous mammals, such as black ferret, weasel and even common fox. During the day they hide in burrows, and at night they get food for themselves by catching small rodents or visiting landfills, containers with food waste, etc.
Among the mammals living in the city there are insectivores and chiropterans. The first group includes hedgehogs, moles, shrews and shrews. Chiropterans are represented mainly bats. The latter settle in shelters with a suitable microclimate (stone buildings with an iron roof and wooden ceilings) and feel comfortable in the presence of a high number and diversity of night-flying insects.
Of particular concern to people among representatives of the urban fauna are stray animals, mainly dogs and cats. They are dangerous to humans: they worsen the sanitary and epidemiological situation, since they are capable of transmitting certain diseases (rabies, leptospirosis, helminthiases, etc.); often attack people. Stray dogs often form packs that pose a threat not only to people, but also to domestic animals.
Due to the above, the number of feral animals should be regulated. However, methods such as catching them and then killing them (euthanasia) should be eradicated due to their cruelty and moral damage that they cause to the human psyche, especially a child. Moreover, the extermination of some animals contributes to the filling of the vacated ecological niche with other individuals, sometimes more aggressive and at the same time cautious, adapted to human behavior.
ka. Thus, the mass destruction of cats leads to a sharp increase in the number of rats and mice.
In this regard, it is necessary to properly study and adopt the experience of a number of countries, in particular Europe, where methods of mass sterilization of females and castration of males are widely used. Quite effective method is also the elimination of places that can be used by homeless animals to make dens (abandoned buildings, mothballed construction sites, open basements and heating mains).

More on the topic § 2. Mammals in the city:

BEHIND. Zorina ELEMENTARY THINKING OF BIRDS AND MAMMALS: AN EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH
A TREATISE ON ANIMALS, IN WHICH, AFTER CRITICAL REMARKS ON THE VIEWS OF DECARTES AND M. DE BUFFON, AN ATTEMPT IS MADE TO EXPLAIN THE MAIN FACILITIES OF ANIMALS

People have lived in cities for several thousand years. Nowadays, cities are actively expanding and are being replenished with new inhabitants - wild animals that are looking for shelter here.

Animal protection organization

Many states have passed laws protecting urban vegetation. In addition, this period also includes suburban forests and parks - areas where any construction is prohibited, with the exception of hospitals and agricultural buildings. Unfortunately, pressure from construction organizations does not decrease, since the implementation of their plans interests them more than environmental protection. If these areas of land could be kept intact, they would become oases of relaxation and peace, where the various animals found within the city could live.

In the past, very little attention was paid to green spaces when planning cities, although they are essential for animal life in the city. Rivers, abandoned highways and parks could provide ideal habitats for the animals. Suburban parks play a very important role in the life of the city, because, unlike central parks, they connect with corners of nature that are familiar to us - fields, forests - and can accept new residents.

Air and water pollution in the city affects not only animals, but also humans. Limiting the release of harmful substances into the environment would make life easier for all city residents without exception. Please remember that noise, bright lighting, limited space and constant movement transport have an adverse effect on animals.

As it may seem, in cities where there is constant traffic and always noise, there is no place for wild animals. In fact, the warm urban climate attracts many animals, and garbage dumps provide them with a constant source of food. But in order for the city to become a real home for animals, human goodwill and tolerance are needed.

ANIMALS IN THE CITY

Urban sprawl results in the destruction of the environment and natural landscape. The new habitat attracts some animals.

Crows, seagulls, rats, foxes and other animals like to visit city landfills. Here they find not only food waste, but also wild plants. Landfills are visited by animals of certain species, for which this activity has become a daily search for food. In North America, raccoons come to landfills, in England, badgers, and in Australia, opossums. In almost all cities, about 500 rats live per kilometer of sewerage. As they sometimes joke, every passerby in the city is no further than 3 meters from a rat.

LOCATION

At the beginning of the 20th century. About 14% of the planet's total population lived in cities. These days that figure is closer to 50%. Migration of people causes rapid construction of new houses, areas, and institutions. Asphalt roads, train stations, airfields, canals and garbage dumps appear.

And the area of territory suitable for animal life is shrinking. In some cities you can still find relics of the original landscape in the form of parks and gardens. Animals that have adapted to life in new conditions live in them.

If it were not for the constant poisoning of animals by waste from households and industrial enterprises, their number would be much higher. Animals die as a result of direct poisoning by harmful and dangerous substances contained in waste, or become unable to bear offspring. Suburban cemeteries are real natural oases in the urban desert. Trees and grass grow here, and timid animals find the silence they need.

CLIMATE CHANGE

Brick, concrete, asphalt and dirty air intensely reflect the sun's rays, unlike earth and plants, they mainly absorb them. Glass and metal have an even higher reflectivity. IN extreme situations A cloud of smog appears over the city. Huge flocks of birds spend the night in the city, especially often in winter period. Pigeons and house mice breed here throughout the year, and sparrows have long become permanent city residents. Some North American birds now breed exclusively in cities.

Living conditions in the city are quite difficult. The urban climate is warmer than the countryside, so plants here begin to bloom earlier than in rural areas. It rains more often in the city than in the surrounding area, but most of the moisture quickly flows down drains into rivers. In cities, the evaporation process is much more intense, so the pound here is more dry. Moisture-loving ferns and mosses grow in cities only directly near permanent water sources.

POLLUTION

City air, unlike rural air, is saturated with soot and soot. The lungs of the townspeople are covered with a black, painful coating. Dirty air causes clogged stomata on plant leaves and blocks sunlight.

In the city, plants grow slower than in an open field. Lichens on trees feed on moisture acid rain and die from the sulfur dioxide contained in it.

Wastewater from households and industrial enterprises heavily pollutes rivers, in which only duckweed can grow. Along with rain, oil, heavy metals and other harmful substances fall into the ground, which penetrate the bodies of earthworms, and then into the bodies of birds that feed on them.

At the top of the food pyramid, the concentration of harmful substances increases, which leads to the death of birds. Some types of insects have adapted to living in a polluted environment. A classic example is the birch moth, which has evolved into two forms, the light moth and the dark moth. Dark coloration developed in individuals living in industrial areas, since it better camouflaged butterflies on birch trunks dark with soot. This phenomenon is called industrial melanism.

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