On whose initiative did perestroika begin in the USSR? Azerbaijan and Armenia

IN 1985 g. political leadership in the country passed to M.S. Gorbachev.

A new course for the country’s development was developed, called “perestroika.” The nature of the new course was determined by the desire to reform Soviet society, which by the 80s. entered into a protracted social economic crisis. The New Course envisioned a combination of socialism and democracy.

Designed in The 1987 reform project envisaged:

1) expand the economic independence of enterprises;

2) revive the private sector of the economy;

3) abandon the foreign trade monopoly;

4) reduce the number of administrative authorities;

5) in agriculture recognize the equality of five forms of ownership: collective farms, state farms, agricultural complexes, rental cooperatives and private farms.

There are three stages of restructuring:

1) 1985–1986;

2) 1987–1988;

3) 1989–1991

First stage. Acceleration period 1985 –1986 years:

1) the new course began in April ( 1985 d.) Plenum of the CPSU Central Committee. They talked about the urgency of profound changes in all areas of society; the lever of change should have been the acceleration of social economic development countries;

2) the success of the acceleration course was associated with:

– with more active use of scientific and technological revolution achievements;

– decentralization of management national economy;

– introduction of self-financing;

– strengthening discipline in production;

3) on the basis of the reformed economy it was planned to solve important social problems– housing (to 2000 g.) and food.

Second stage. Glasnost and perestroika 1987 –1988 years:

1) changes in social political sphere began with the implementation of the policy of openness. Censorship was lifted and the publication of new newspapers and magazines was allowed;

2) in an atmosphere of more real freedom, numerous public associations in support of perestroika;

3) the role of journalism and media has increased mass media. The process of restoring the historical memory of the people and revealing the “blank spots” of history has begun. Criticism of V.I. is no longer taboo. Lenin.

Difficulties and contradictions of perestroika:

1) economic reform did not lead to positive changes. Problems worsened everyday life. The need for a transition to full-fledged market relations became obvious;

2) despite multi-million dollar injections into the economy, it was not possible to reach the forefront, and hopes for the law on cooperation did not come true. But legalization occurred " shadow economy»;

3) the inconsistency of the ongoing transformations within the command-administrative system was especially clearly manifested in the political sphere. The issue of eliminating the monopoly of the CPSU and intensifying the activities of the Soviets became relevant;

4) in 1989 a democratic opposition (Interregional Deputy Group) is beginning to take shape in the country, which advocated the need not for reforms, but for changes in the entire social system that existed in the USSR;

5) although at the III Congress of Soviets of People's Deputies of the USSR the monopoly of the CPSU was abolished, the presidency was introduced in the country (M.S. Gorbachev became the president of the USSR), this institution turned out to be very weak and could not resist the collapse of the state, which begins after the dismantling of its foundation - party power.

Perestroika had an ambiguous impact on social processes within the USSR. Contrary to party conclusions that the USSR national question resolved completely and finally, in the USSR the process of aggravation of interethnic relations began to rapidly develop, developing in some regions into ethnic wars. These processes were based on both political and economic reasons. A sharp decline in the economy, the weakening role of the CPSU, the transfer of local power into the hands of local national elites, interfaith and ethnocultural contradictions - all this contributed to the aggravation of interethnic conflicts on the territory of the USSR.

The culmination of interethnic conflicts was the “parade of sovereignties.” It was initiated by the Baltic republics. On June 12, 1990, the RSFSR joined it. Declaration of sovereignty called into question the continued existence of the USSR. In the summer and autumn 1990 began to proclaim themselves sovereign republics, territories and regions of Russia. A “parade of sovereignties” unfolded. March 1991 on the territory of the USSR was held referendum, which showed that the majority of the population wants to live in a single state. However, local and regional democrats ignored the opinion of the people. The collapse of a single economic complex and the desire to break a single state space forced the leadership of the Union to look for ways to reform and develop a new union treaty.

This work began in May 1991 in Novo-Ogarevo. The signing of the agreement was scheduled for August 20, 1991. It was planned to create a Union of sovereign states, which would include nine former republics of the USSR. Changes were also planned in the structure of government and administration, the adoption of a new Constitution, and changes in the electoral system. However, opponents of signing such an agreement - representatives of the old party apparatus - decided to prevent its signing. In August 1991 they attempted a coup. These events went down in the history of our country under the name “August Putsch.” Supporters of maintaining the previous system (Vice President G.N. Yanaev, Kryuchkov (Chairman of the KGB), V. Pavlov (Chairman of the Cabinet of Ministers), D. Yazov (Minister of Defense), B. Pugo (Minister of Internal Affairs)) tried to stage a coup, brought troops into Moscow on August 19, 1991 and declared a state of emergency (AUGUST COUT - an attempt at an anti-constitutional coup. It was aimed at restoring the power of the party-state nomenklatura) the putschists declared that Gorbachev could not fulfill his duties for health reasons, and Gorbachev was blocked at his dacha in the Crimea . Resistance was provided by the leadership of the Russian Federation, headed by the President of the RSFSR Yeltsin. The putschists were arrested. 3 people died in clashes with troops. The putsch ended in failure. Result: the fall of the communist regime and the acceleration of the collapse of the USSR.

December 8 1991 g., the leaders of three sovereign states gathered in Belovezhskaya Pushcha - Russia (B.N. Yeltsin), Belarus (S.S. Shushkevich) and Ukraine (L.M. Kravchuk) - signed the Belovezhskaya Agreement, according to which the USSR, as a subject of international rights, ceased to exist. The creation of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) was also announced. On December 25, Gorbachev resigned his presidential powers. The USSR ceased to exist. The collapse of the USSR and the conclusion of the Belovezhskaya Accords did not receive unanimous approval in Russia. With the collapse of the USSR and the formation of the USSR, perestroika collapsed.

With the collapse of the USSR (December 1991) status Russian Federation as an independent sovereign state became a legal and factual reality. The period of formation of Russian statehood ended on December 12, 1993, when the Constitution of the Russian Federation was adopted in a national referendum and the Soviet political system was finally dismantled.

In March 1985, M. S. Gorbachev was elected General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee. In April 1985, the new leadership proclaimed a course to accelerate socio-economic development. The words “We are waiting for changes...” sounded louder and louder in society. The need for changes was also noted by the new general secretary. No one since the time of Khrushchev communicated with the people like this: Gorbachev traveled around the country, easily went out to people, communicated with them in an informal setting.

With the arrival of a new leader, inspired by plans for a breakthrough in the economy and restructuring the entire life of society, people's hopes and enthusiasm were revived.

In the course of implementing the course of accelerated socio-economic development, the “tops” came to the conclusion that all sectors of the economy must be transferred to new methods of management. Gradually, in 1986-1989, laws on state enterprises and individual labor activity and cooperatives, as well as a labor dispute law that provided for the right of workers to strike. During the economic transformations, state acceptance of products, self-financing and self-financing, and elections of enterprise directors were introduced.

However, all these measures not only did not contribute to improving the economic situation in the country, but, on the contrary, worsened it through half-hearted and ill-conceived reforms, significant budget expenditures, and an increase in the money supply in the hands of the population. Production ties between enterprises regarding state supplies of products were disrupted.

The shortage of consumer goods has increased. At the turn of the 80s and 90s, store shelves became increasingly empty. Local authorities have begun to introduce coupons for some products. The country needed deep reforms and first a change in the economic model.

Glasnost policy. Liberalization of social and cultural life

If in economics “perestroika” began with setting the tasks of “accelerating” socio-economic development, then in spiritual and political life its leitmotif became “glasnost”. Gorbachev openly stated that “without glasnost there is no and cannot be democracy.” This meant that no events of the past or present should be hidden from the people. In the speeches of party ideologists and in journalism, the idea of a transition from “barracks socialism” to socialism “with a human face” was propagated.

The attitude of the authorities towards dissidents has changed. Academician A.D. Sakharov, who was there in exile due to protests against the war in Afghanistan, returned to Moscow from Gorky (as Nizhny Novgorod was called). Other dissidents were also released from places of imprisonment and exile, and camps for political prisoners were closed. During the process of rehabilitation of the victims of Stalin's repressions, N.I. Bukharin, A.I. Rykov, G.E. Zinoviev, L.B. Kamenev and other political figures “returned” to our history.

The policy of glasnost has acquired a special scope and sound since 1987. The country publishes many literary works by A. Rybakov, V. Dudintsev, D. Granin, Yu. Trifonov, the legacy of writers of the 30-50s. The works of Russian philosophers - N. Berdyaev, V. Solovyov, V. Rozanov and others - have returned to the domestic reader. The repertoire of theaters and filmmakers has expanded. The processes of glasnost were clearly manifested in newspaper and magazine publications and television programs. The weekly Moscow News (editor E.V. Yakovlev) and the magazine Ogonyok (V.A. Korotich) were extremely popular.

The emancipation of society, liberation from party tutelage, critical assessments of the Soviet state system, which were expressed under conditions of glasnost, put the issue of political transformation on the agenda. Important events inside political life became the approval by the participants of the XIX All-Union Party Conference (June 1988) of the main provisions of the reform of the political system, the adoption by the Verkhovna Rada of amendments to the constitution, as well as the law on the election of people's deputies. These decisions opened the way to a system of electing deputies on an alternative basis.

The Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR became the highest body of legislative power; it nominated members of the Supreme Council from its midst. The elections to the Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR took place in the spring of 1989, and it began its work at the end of May. As part of the congress, a legal opposition was formed: an Interregional Deputy Group was created. It was headed by the world-famous scientist, leader of the human rights movement, Academician A.D. Sakharov, former first secretary of the Moscow City Party Committee and candidate member of the Politburo of the CPSU Central Committee B.N. Yeltsin, and scientist-economist G.Kh. Popov. Glasnost and pluralism of opinions caused the widespread creation of various groups and associations, including national ones.

Changes in foreign policy

“Perestroika” was closely connected with a radical change in the course of Soviet foreign policy: abandonment of confrontation with the West, cessation of interference in local conflicts and a revision of relations with socialist countries.

The new course was dominated not by the “class approach”, but by universal human values. Gorbachev believed that international relations should be built on the basis of maintaining a balance of national interests, the freedom of countries to choose development paths, and the general responsibility of states for decisions global problems modernity. He came up with the idea of creating a pan-European home. M.S. Gorbachev regularly met with US presidents: R. Reagan (1985-1988) and G. Bush (since 1989). At these meetings, Soviet-American relations were “unfrozen” and disarmament issues were discussed.

In 1987, a treaty on the elimination of missiles was signed medium range And cruise missiles, then the missile defense agreement. In 1990, a treaty on the reduction of strategic arms was signed. M. S. Gorbachev managed to establish trusting relationships with the leaders of leading European countries: Great Britain (M. Thatcher), Germany (H. Kohl), France (F. Mitterrand).

In 1990, the participants in the Security Conference in Europe signed an agreement on the reduction of conventional weapons in Europe. The USSR began to withdraw its troops from countries Eastern Europe, Afghanistan, Mongolia.

In 1990-1991, military and political structures were dissolved Warsaw Pact. This military bloc ceased to exist. The result of the policy of “new thinking” was a fundamental change in the international situation - cold war ended.

Strengthening national movements and intensifying political struggle in the USSR

In the USSR, as in any other multinational state, national contradictions could not but exist, which always manifest themselves most clearly in conditions of economic and political crises and radical changes. Soviet power during the construction of socialism did not take into account the historical characteristics of peoples. The government, announcing the formation of a new community " Soviet people", proceeded to the actual destruction of the traditional economy and life of many peoples of the country. There was an attack on Islam, Buddhism, shamanism, etc.

Among the Baltic peoples, Western Ukraine, Moldova, which became part of the USSR on the eve of the Great Patriotic War and suffered “purges” from hostile elements, enough strong manifestations nationalism, anti-Soviet and anti-socialist sentiments are widespread. Chechens, Ingush, Karachais, Balkars, Kalmyks, Germans, Crimean Tatars, Meskhetian Turks, etc. The country also retained outdated historical conflicts between Armenia and Azerbaijan, Armenia and Georgia, Georgia and Abkhazia, etc. Glasnost and “perestroika” contributed to the creation of mass national and nationalist social movements. The most significant of them were the “popular fronts” of Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, the Armenian Committee “Karabakh”, “Rukh” in Ukraine, Russian society"Memory". The broad masses of the population were attracted to the opposition movement from below.

The population of Russia also awakened. In the 1990 election campaign, when people's deputies at all levels were elected, the confrontation between the party apparatus and opposition forces was clearly defined. The latter received an organizational center in the form of the Democratic Russia electoral bloc (later it turned into social movement). February 1990 became a month of mass rallies, whose participants demanded the elimination of the CPSU monopoly on power.

The elections of people's deputies of the RSFSR, Ukraine and Belarus became the first truly democratic elections. About a third of the seats in Russia's highest legislative body were given to democratically oriented deputies. The elections demonstrated a crisis in the power of the party elite. Under pressure public opinion Article 6 of the USSR Constitution, which proclaimed the leading role of the CPSU in Soviet society, was repealed, and the formation of a multi-party system began in the country. Supporters of reforms B. N. Yeltsin and G. X. Popov took high positions: the first was elected chairman of the Supreme Council of the RSFSR, the second - mayor of Moscow.

The most important factor in the crisis of the “tops” was the strengthening of national movements that led the fight against the allied (in the terminology of representatives of the imperial) Center and the authorities of the CPSU. Back in 1988 tragic events unfolded in Nagorno-Karabakh and, as they said then, around it. The first demonstrations under nationalist slogans, pogroms (of Armenians in Azerbaijani Sumgait in February 1988; Meskhetian Turks in Uzbek Fergana in June 1989) and armed clashes (Nagorno-Karabakh, Abkhazia) on ethnic grounds took place since the civil war. The Supreme Council of Estonia proclaimed the supremacy of republican laws over all-Union laws (November 1988). By the end of 1989, conflicts on ethnic grounds intensified in Azerbaijan and Armenia. The Verkhovna Rada of Azerbaijan declared the sovereignty of its republic, and the Armenian Social Movement was created in Armenia and advocated independence and separation from the USSR. At the end of 1989, the Lithuanian Communist Party declared its independence under the CPSU.

In 1990, national movements developed in an upward direction. In January, in connection with the Armenian pogroms, troops were sent to Baku. The military operation, which was accompanied by massive casualties, only temporarily removed the issue of Azerbaijan’s independence from the agenda. At the same time, the Lithuanian parliament voted for the independence of the republic, and troops entered Vilnius. Following Lithuania, similar decisions were made by the parliaments of Estonia and Latvia; in the summer, declarations of sovereignty were adopted by the Supreme Council of Russia (June 12) and the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine (July 16), after which the “parade of sovereignties” swept other republics. In February-March 1991, referendums on independence were held in Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, and Georgia.

In the fall of 1990, M. S. Gorbachev, elected President of the USSR at the Congress of People's Deputies, was forced to reorganize the bodies state power. The executive bodies now reported directly to the president. A new advisory body was established - the Federation Council, whose members were the heads of the union republics. The development and approval of the draft of a new Union Treaty between the republics of the USSR began, and the Transfer was underway.

In March 1991, the first referendum in the history of the country was held - citizens Soviet Union it was necessary to express their opinion on the issue of preserving the Soviet Union as a renewed federation of equal and sovereign republics. It is significant that 6 (Armenia, Georgia, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia and Moldova) out of 15 union republics did not take part in the referendum. 76% of those who took part in the vote were in favor of preserving the Union. At the same time, an All-Russian referendum was held - the majority of its participants voted for the introduction of the post of president of the republic.

On June 12, 1991, exactly a year after the Declaration of State Sovereignty of the RSFSR was adopted, popular elections of the first president in Russian history took place. He became B.N. Yeltsin; more than 57% of voters supported his candidacy. After these elections, Moscow turned into the capital of two presidents: the all-Union and the Russian. It was difficult to reconcile the positions of the two leaders, and personal relations were not characterized by mutual affection.

August 1991 coup

By the summer of 1991, a political explosion was brewing in the country. In such a situation, the leaders of nine republics, after heated discussions, agreed to sign a new union treaty on August 20, which, in essence, meant a transition to a truly federal state, eliminating a number of government agencies, formed in the USSR, and replacing them with new ones.

Representatives of the party and state leadership, who believed that only decisive actions would help preserve the political positions of the CPSU and stop the collapse of the Soviet Union, resorted to force. They took advantage of the absence of the USSR President in Moscow, who was on vacation in the Crimea, and on the night of August 18-19 they formed the State Committee for state of emergency(GKChP). It consisted of 8 people, including Vice President G. I. Yanaev, Prime Minister V. S. Pavlov, and security ministers. The State Emergency Committee declared a state of emergency in certain areas of the country; declared power structures operating contrary to the 1977 Constitution disbanded; suspended the activities of opposition parties and movements; banned rallies, meetings and demonstrations; established tight control over the media; sent troops to Moscow. In fact, the conspirators were supported by the Chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR A.I. Lukyanov, who, however, was not a member of the State Emergency Committee.

The resistance to the Emergency Committee was led by B. N. Yeltsin and the Russian leadership. In their appeal “To the Citizens of Russia,” they called on the population not to obey the illegal decisions of the State Emergency Committee, qualifying the actions of its members as an anti-constitutional coup. B.N. Yeltsin and the Russian leadership were supported by more than 70% of Muscovites, individual regions of the country and military units. Tens of thousands of residents of the capital and a significant number of visiting citizens took up defensive positions around the White House, expressing support for Yeltsin and readiness to defend the seat of Russian state power with arms in hand.

After a three-day standoff, the State Emergency Committee, fearing the outbreak of a civil war, began withdrawing troops from Moscow. On August 21, members of the State Emergency Committee were arrested.

The Russian leadership took advantage of the August putsch to defeat the CPSU, which was the core of the totalitarian system. Yeltsin issued a decree suspending the activities of the CPSU in Russia. The party's property was nationalized, and CPSU funds were seized. The liberals who came to power in the center seized control of the army, the KGB, the Ministry of Internal Affairs, and the media from the leadership of the CPSU. President M. Gorbachev, in fact, began to play a decorative role. Most of the republics refused to sign after the coup attempt union treaty. The question of the continued existence of the USSR was on the agenda.

Collapse of the USSR

The last months of 1991 became the time of the final collapse of the USSR. The Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR was dissolved, the Supreme Soviet of the USSR was radically reformed, most of the Union ministries were liquidated, and instead of the Cabinet of Ministers, a weak-willed inter-republican economic committee was created. The highest body that directed the domestic and foreign policy of the state was the State Council of the USSR, which included the President of the USSR and the heads of the union republics. The first decision of the State Council was to recognize the independence of Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia.

On December 1, a referendum was held in Ukraine, and the majority that took part in it (more than 80%) spoke in favor of the independence of the republic. Under these conditions, the Ukrainian leadership decided not to sign a new Union Treaty.

On December 7-8, 1991, the Presidents of Russia and Ukraine B. N. Yeltsin and L. M. Kravchuk, as well as the Chairman of the Supreme Council of Belarus S. S. Shushkevich, having met in Belovezhskaya Pushcha, not far from the border of Brest, announced the end of the existence of the USSR and formations within the three republics of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). Subsequently, the CIS included all former Soviet Union republics, with the exception of the Baltic ones.

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Goals:

Find out the historical background and inevitability of radical reform of Soviet political and economic system and consider alternative paths its development.
Continue developing the skills to conduct dialogue, collaborate in groups, and simulate situations.

Lesson type: lesson on learning a new topic (the topic is studied in a 2-hour lesson)

Lesson progress

Organizational moment.

Studying a new topic.

Prerequisites for perestroika in the USSR, its tasks.
Reform political system. Changes in culture and public consciousness.
Social and economic reforms. Acceleration strategy.
Foreign policy of the USSR during the years of perestroika.

Topic vocabulary:

Publicity – availability of information for public review and discussion.

1. Prerequisites for perestroika in the USSR, its tasks.

At the March (1985) Plenum of the CPSU Central Committee, M.S. Gorbachev was elected General Secretary. He proposed a course for modernizing the Soviet system, which was called “perestroika.”

Perestroika is a set of reforms carried out in all spheres of life by the Communist Party and the Soviet government since 1985 with the aim of eliminating stagnation.

Task: while listening to a story, name reasons reforms in all spheres of society.

By the mid-80s. In the socio-economic system of the USSR, “stagnation” gradually turned into a crisis situation. The Soviet economy lost its dynamism. There was a drop in growth rates in industry. Crisis phenomena were observed in the consumer market and finance (including due to the fall in world oil prices).

In 1965-1985. The formation of the main institutions of the Soviet bureaucratic system was completed. There was a degradation of the ruling elite - the nomenklatura, which was mired in corruption and protectionism. Society was faced with the phenomenon of gerontocracy, when aging, sick leaders came to power.

A crisis has also emerged in the social sphere. In the beginning In the 1980s, real per capita incomes fell and life expectancy decreased. The persistent egalitarian and scarce system of distribution at the bottom of the social pyramid came into conflict with the protected system of privileges of the nomenklatura.

Problems have emerged in interethnic relations. The Union republics demanded real rights and the opportunity to independently solve economic and social problems, blaming Russian population in a crisis situation,

The ongoing Cold War and the established bipolar system led by the USA and the USSR resulted in an exhausting arms race. The aggravation of the international situation was facilitated by the deadlock Afghan war. All this happened against the backdrop of the growing economic and technological lag of the USSR from developed countries.

So, reasons for perestroika:

A sharp drop in the rate of economic development of the USSR.
The crisis of the planned economy.
Increase in bureaucratic management apparatus.
Social inequality.
Crisis of interethnic relations.
Loss of international authority of the USSR.

Assignment: based on the reasons, formulate the tasks of restructuring.

Perestroika tasks:

In the economic field, change the economic model, create a market economy, and eliminate the gap with advanced countries.
In the social sphere - to achieve a high standard of living for the entire population.
In the domestic political sphere - change the political regime, create a democratic, civil society, rule of law, change the concept of relations between the republics within the Union.
In the field of foreign policy - to create a new doctrine of state security, to develop new approaches to international relations.

Conclusion: in the early 80s. a crisis of the system was ripe in the country, all layers of society were interested in transformations.

2. Reform of the political system
.

Directions for implementation of restructuring

Glasnost is the availability of information for public review and discussion (the term first appeared in February 1986 at the XXVII Congress of the CPSU).

Stages of restructuring:

April 1985 - January 1987
Beginning 1987 – spring 1989
Spring 1989 – August 1991

The first stage of perestroika – personnel revolution (1985-86), when the composition of party and state leaders was rejuvenated and they supported perestroika.

The following appeared on the political arena: Yeltsin, Ryzhkov, Ligachev, Shevardnadze. In connection with the emergence of a multi-party system - Zyuganov (leader of the Communist Party of the Russian Federation), Zhirinovsky (leader of the LDPR), Novodvorskaya (leader of the Democratic Union), Gaidar (leader of Democratic Russia).

Second stage – reform of the political system. Decisions were made on:

Democratization of the process of elections to representative bodies of power.

The course towards the creation of a socialist rule of law state.

Separation of powers. The establishment of a two-tier system of legislative power - the Congress of People's Deputies and the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, elected from the deputies of the congress.

Law on Amendments to the Electoral System (1988) Direct representation of public organizations in the highest legislative bodies. Of the 2,250 deputies, 750 were elected from the CPSU, Komsomol, trade unions, etc.

The beginning of the formation of a multi-party system.

Elimination of the CPSU's monopoly on power by repealing Article 6 of the Constitution.

Introduction of the post of President of the USSR (March 1990, III Congress of People's Deputies).

In May-June 1989, the First Congress of People's Deputies took place, at which Gorbachev was elected Chairman of the Supreme Council, and B.N. Yeltsin became Chairman of the Supreme Council of the RSFSR.

The Third Congress of People's Deputies in March 1990 elected M.S. Gorbachev as President of the USSR.

By the beginning of 1991, Gorbachev's centrist policies increasingly coincided with the position of the conservatives.

Achievements of the Glasnost Policy

Costs of publicity

Recognition of the crisis of the system;

Striving for complete awareness of the people;

Easing censorship

Publication of works by “third wave” emigrants (Brodsky, Galich, Solzhenitsyn, Voinovich)

Rehabilitation of the repressed 20-50s.

Adoption of the Declaration on the illegality of Stalin's policy of forced relocation of peoples (November 1989)

Filling in the blank spots of history.

Semi-freedom of speech, i.e. permission to say only what management required;

Defense of Stalinism (a letter from N. Andreeva “I cannot give up principles” was published, 1988 in defense of Stalin).

Glasnost contributed to the clash of ideological, social, national and other currents, which led to the aggravation of interethnic contradictions and the collapse of the USSR.

The rise of the yellow press.

3. Economic reforms. Acceleration strategy.

The USSR lagged behind the leading world powers in terms of economic development, and the economy plunged into a state of crisis. All over the world there was a structural restructuring of the economy, i.e. The transition to an information society was taking place, and our country's economy was experiencing stagnation.

Assignment: Independent group work of students with the textbook text, highlighting 3 stages of economic reform. Make notes in chart form.

Stage 1 of reforms

The result: acceleration has reached a dead end.

April (1985) Plenum of the CPSU Central Committee

Course to accelerate social and economic country development

Levers:

Scientific and technological progress

Technical re-equipment of mechanical engineering

Activation “ human factor”

The introduction of state acceptance, which led to an increase in the management apparatus and an increase in material costs;

Intensive use of old equipment has led to an increase in accident rates (the largest disaster is an accident at Chernobyl nuclear power plant in April 1986)

Stage 2 of reforms

1987 – 1989

Goal: transition from administrative methods to economic ones while maintaining

centralized management (i.e. introducing elements market economy)

June (1987) Plenum of the CPSU Central Committee

The main directions for restructuring economic management were approved

Granting a law on independence to enterprises and transferring them to self-supporting
Reduction of planned indicators

Enterprise Law (1987)

The beginning of the development of laws in the sphere of private initiative

creation of cooperative activities”

Laws of 1988

“About cooperation”
“On individual labor

legalization of the shadow economy;
production reduction;
rationed distribution of food and essential goods;
mass strikes

Options for transition to a market economy

Stage 3 of reforms

Result:

Discussion of programs in the Supreme Council - autumn 1990
We synthesized both programs and issued a declaration of intent.
It provided for the transition to a market in the USSR by 1997.
Refusal of the Union Republics to accept it for execution.

Conversation on questions:

What does the term “acceleration” mean? What are the acceleration levers? Results?
What elements of a market economy were introduced?
What program for overcoming the crisis was proposed by Yavlinsky, Shatalin, Ryzhkov?
How did the collapse of economic reforms affect the fate of the Soviet state?

4. Foreign policy of the USSR during the years of perestroika.

Teacher's word. The change in foreign policy strategy was prepared by the arrival of new leadership at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in 1985, headed by E.A. Shevardnadze.

Gorbachev M.S. put forward a new philosophical and political concept, called “new political thinking”. Its main provisions included:

Refusal of the idea of splitting the world into two opposing systems, i.e. abandonment of the Cold War policy;

Refusal to use force as a means of resolving international problems;

Recognition of the world as whole and indivisible;

The priority of universal human values, recognition of generally accepted moral norms.

New political thinking is a set of ideas and approaches that express the interests of people, regardless of their nationality and state affiliation, and ensure the survival of humanity in the nuclear-space age.

The main priorities in the foreign policy activities of the USSR after 1985.

Reducing tensions between East and West through disarmament negotiations with the United States;
Resolution of regional conflicts;
Recognition of the existing world order and expansion of economic ties with all countries.

Directions of USSR foreign policy

Normalization of East-West relations

Unblocking regional conflicts

Installation of economical and political contacts

- meetings of US-USSR leaders:

1985 – Geneva

1986 – Reykjavik

1987 – Washington

1988 – Moscow;

Intermediate-Range Missile Treaty;

Treaty on the Limitation of Strategic Offensive Arms (START-1) -1991.

- withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan (February

Normalization of relations with China by Israel;

The USSR's refusal to intervene in regional conflicts in Ethiopia, Angola, Nicaragua;

Withdrawal of the SA from Mongolia, Vietnam, Kampuchea.

- “Velvet revolutions” in socialist countries, non-intervention of the USSR;

Dissolution of the CMEA, OVD

RESULTS

End of the Cold War (1988)
Collapse of the bipolar system of international relations
USA is the only superpower
Escalation of international military conflicts

Conclusions:

During the period of perestroika, the Soviet political system was completely destroyed.
In the wake of democratization, political pluralism and a multi-party system emerged.
The socio-economic system could not exist outside the administrative-command form, so half-hearted reforms in the economic field failed.
The Cold War ended, but the USSR's international positions weakened.
Perestroika ended with the collapse of the USSR and the collapse of the communist system.

Reflection:

Define the concepts:

Perestroika
“Personnel revolution”
Acceleration strategy
Publicity policy
Regional conflicts
Velvet revolutions

List of used literature

Artemov V.V., Lyubchenkov Yu.N. History for professions and specialties of technical, natural science, socio-economic profiles: a textbook for beginners. and Wednesday prof. education: in 2 Parts, M., 2011, - Part 2, paragraph 97.
Araslanova O.V., Pozdeev A.V. Lesson developments on the history of Russia (XX – beginning of XXI century): 9th grade. – M., 2007, - 320 p.

In March 1985, M.S. became the General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee. Gorbachev, Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the USSR - N.I. Ryzhkov. The transformation of Soviet society began, which was to be carried out within the framework of the socialist system.

In April 1985 at the plenum of the CPSU Central Committee it was proclaimed a course to accelerate the socio-economic development of the country (policy of “acceleration”). Its levers were to be 1) technological re-equipment of production and 2) increasing labor productivity. It was supposed to increase productivity through labor enthusiasm (socialist competitions were revived) and the eradication of alcoholism ( anti-alcohol company - May 1985) and combating unearned income.

“Acceleration” led to some economic recovery, but by 1987 a general decline in production began in agriculture, and then in industry. The situation was complicated by the huge capital investments required to eliminate the consequences of the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant (April 1986) and the ongoing war in Afghanistan.

The country's leadership was forced to make more radical changes. In the summer of 1987, perestroika proper began. The program of economic reforms was developed by L. Abalkin, T. Zaslavskaya, P. Bunich. The NEP became the model for perestroika.

The main content of perestroika:

In the economic sphere:

1. State-owned enterprises are being transferred to self-financing and self-sufficiency.

2. Since defense enterprises were unable to operate in the new conditions, conversion – transfer of production to peaceful lines (demilitarization of the economy).

3. In rural areas, the equality of five forms of management was recognized: state farms, collective farms, agricultural complexes, rental collectives and farms.

4.To control product quality there was state acceptance introduced.

5. The directive state plan was replaced by state orders.

In the political sphere:

1. Internal party democracy is expanding. Internal party opposition emerges, associated primarily with the failures of economic transformations. At the October (1987) Plenum of the CPSU Central Committee, the first secretary of the Moscow City Party Committee, B.N., criticized the indecisiveness in pursuing the policy of reforms and methods of change. Yeltsin.

2.At the XIX All-Union Conference of the CPSU, a decision was made to ban uncontested elections.

3. The state apparatus is being significantly restructured. In accordance with the decisions of the XIX Conference (June 1988). new supreme body of legislative power - the Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR and the corresponding Republican conventions. Permanent Supreme Soviets of the USSR and republics were formed from among the people's deputies. The Chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR became the General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee M.S. Gorbachev (March 1989), Chairman of the Supreme Council of the RSFSR - B.N. Yeltsin (May 1990).

In March 1990, the post of president was introduced in the USSR. The first president of the USSR was M.S. Gorbachev.

4. Since 1986, the policy of “transparency” and “pluralism” has been pursued", i.e. In the USSR, a kind of freedom of speech is artificially created, which presupposes the possibility of free discussion of a range of issues strictly defined by the party.

5. Things are starting to take shape in the country. multi-party system.

In the spiritual sphere:

1. The state weakens ideological control over the spiritual sphere of society. Free previously prohibited are published literary works , known to readers only from “samizdat” - “The Gulag Archipelago” by A. Solzhenitsyn, “Children of Arbat” by B. Rybakov, etc.

2. Within the framework of “glasnost” and “pluralism”, “round tables” are held on some issues of the history of the USSR. Criticism of Stalin’s “cult of personality” begins, the attitude towards the Civil War is being revised, etc.

3. Cultural ties with the West are expanding.

By 1990, the idea of perestroika had practically exhausted itself. It was not possible to stop the decline in production. Attempts to develop private initiative—the movements of farmers and cooperators—resulted in the flourishing of the “black market” and deepening shortages. “Glasnost” and “pluralism” - the main slogans of perestroika - lead to a decline in the authority of the CPSU and the development of nationalist movements. However, since the spring of 1990, the Gorbachev administration has been moving to the next stage of political and economic transformations. G . Yavlinsky and S. Shatalin prepared the “5oo days” program, providing for relatively radical economic transformations with the aim of gradual transition to the market. This program was rejected by Gorbachev under the influence of the conservative wing of the CPSU.

In June 1990, a resolution was adopted by the Supreme Soviet of the USSR on a gradual transition to a regulated market economy. The gradual demonopolization, decentralization and denationalization of property, the establishment joint stock companies and banks, development of private entrepreneurship. However, these measures could no longer save the socialist system and the USSR.

Already in the mid-80s, the collapse of the state was actually planned. Powerful nationalist movements emerge. In 1986, pogroms of the Russian population took place in Kazakhstan. Interethnic conflicts originated in Fergana (1989), in the Osh region of Kyrgyzstan (1990). Since 1988, the armed Armenian-Azerbaijani conflict began in Nagorno-Karabakh. In 1988-1989 Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, Georgia, Moldova are leaving the control of the center. In 1990 they officially proclaimed their independence.

June 12, 1990 The First Congress of Soviets of the RSFSR adopts the Declaration of State Sovereignty of the Russian Federation.

The President of the USSR enters into direct negotiations with the leadership of the republics on concluding a new Union Treaty. To give legitimacy to this process in March 1991, an all-Union referendum was held on the issue of preserving the USSR. The majority of the population spoke in favor of preserving the USSR, but under new conditions. In April 1991, negotiations between Gorbachev and the leadership of 9 republics began in Novo-Ogarevo (“Novo-Ogarevo process”).

By August 1991, it was possible to prepare a compromise draft of the Union Treaty, according to which the republics received significantly greater independence. The signing of the agreement was scheduled for August 22.

It was the planned signing of the Union Treaty that provoked speech of the State Emergency Committee (August 19–August 21, 1991), which tried to preserve the USSR in its old form. IN State Committee State of Emergency in the Country (GKChP) included Vice-President of the USSR G.I. Yanaev, Prime Minister V.S. Pavlov, Minister of Defense D.T. Yazov, Minister of Internal Affairs B.K. Pugo, KGB Chairman V.A. Kryuchkov.

The State Emergency Committee issued an arrest order B.N. Yeltsin, elected on June 12, 1991, President of the RSFSR. Martial law was introduced. However, the majority of the population and military personnel refused to support the State Emergency Committee. This sealed his defeat. On August 22, the members were arrested, but the signing of the agreement never took place.

As a result of the August putsch, the authority of M.S. was completely undermined. Gorbachev. Real power in the country passed to the leaders of the republics. At the end of August, the activities of the CPSU were suspended.

On December 8, 1991, the leaders of Russia, Ukraine and Belarus (B.N. Yeltsin, L.M. Kravchuk, S.S. Shushkevich) announced the dissolution of the USSR and the creation of the Commonwealth Independent States(CIS) - “Belovezhskaya Accords”. On December 21, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan joined the CIS.

Reforms in the USSR in 1985-1991 and the political course pursued by M.S. Gorbachev and his supporters in the leadership of the CPSU.

P.p. was caused by the social crisis brewing in the USSR. The word “perestroika” was initially used in the mid-1980s not as an independent term, but as part of broader, cautious formulations, such as “restructuring the economic mechanism.” It was only in 1986 that the word “perestroika” became synonymous with reforms and political course. This policy was preceded by the “acceleration” course proclaimed by Gorbachev at the April Plenum of the CPSU Central Committee on April 23, 1985. The main "acceleration" activities continued until 1988 and generally continued the policy of authoritarian modernization. The foundations for deeper transformations were outlined by Gorbachev in February 1986 at the 27th Congress of the CPSU. P.p. included the introduction of “cost accounting”, self-government, “glasnost”, “democratization”, a foreign policy known as “new thinking”.

On January 27, 1987, Gorbachev delivered a speech at the plenum of the Central Committee, where he proclaimed the beginning of more decisive changes. The Secretary General sharply criticized the departmental bureaucracy. The power of departments over enterprises was significantly limited. The main reforms of the initial stage of Perestroika were the law on state enterprises of 1987 and the creation of cooperatives. Initially, market reforms revived economic life. The level of profitability, which fell from 12.2% to 11.9% in 1980-1985, rose to 13.5% by 1988 (additions must be taken into account when assessing these data). More expensive, but also better quality goods appeared on the shelves. However, at the end of 1988, the shortage of goods worsened sharply. Costs per ruble of marketable products increased for the first time in 1988-1989. Production in a number of industries began to fall. Different shapes The property that appeared in the USSR was not clearly divided, which allowed the heads of enterprises and cooperatives to begin transferring the resources of state enterprises under the control of the emerging bourgeoisie. State enterprises were financially devastated. The economic crisis was growing. An attempt to carry out reforms only from above, without relying on the population, led to abuses by the ruling bureaucracy.

In the context of the crisis of economic reforms, Gorbachev came to the conclusion that it was necessary political reforms, which were proclaimed on June 28 - July 1, 1988. On December 1, 1988, a constitutional reform was carried out, which introduced a new government body -. By this time, the CPSU acted under pressure from informal groups, and then from opposition parties (see multi-party system in the USSR). The national movements of the Perestroika period developed and intensified interethnic relations. At the congresses of people's deputies, a struggle unfolded between conservatives, supporters of Gorbachev and, uniting supporters of deepening reforms. The crisis of reforms led to the rise of mass civil movements in 1988-1991.

In 1988-1989, Gorbachev and his supporters actually lost leadership in political life, which led to a deep crisis in the PPP. Gorbachev's influence was weakening both in the party, where supporters of an early end to the reforms grew stronger, and in society, where the democratic opposition put forward demands for the most radical and profound changes possible. To protect his power from a sudden attack from conservatives in the party or democrats in parliament, Gorbachev achieved new changes to the constitution. On March 14, 1990, the Third Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR proclaimed him President of the USSR. This led to a new decline in the authority of the party, because Gorbachev was now the leader of the state not as the head of the party, but as the president. Art. was reformulated. 6 of the 1977 Constitution, the CPSU monopoly on power was officially abolished.

At the elections to the Congress of People's Deputies of the RSFSR in February 1990, the majority of opposition organizations united into the bloc (later the movement) “Democratic Russia”. He received about a third of the votes, and with the support of independent deputies, Boris Yeltsin was elected Chairman of the Supreme Council of the RSFSR on May 29, 1990. The Russian leadership pursued an independent course, and two centers of power were formed in the USSR. In many councils, including Moscow and Leningrad, democrats won the majority of seats. During the XXVIII Congress of the CPSU, which took place on July 2-13, 1990, the chairman of the Supreme Council of the RSFSR, the chairmen of the councils of Moscow G. Popov and Leningrad left the CPSU. The communist regime, based on the monopoly on power of the CPSU, ceased to exist. As a result of the 1990 elections, a representative government independent of the CPSU was formed, after which the CPSU itself turned into one of the two largest parties (in Russia the second was the Democratic Russia movement, in the republics - national movements).

In the fall of 1990, the leaders of Russia and the USSR tried to come to an agreement on the basis of the “500 days” program, but were unsuccessful. In February 1991, the confrontation between the Russian and allied leadership resumed. A campaign of civil disobedience unfolded in the country, accompanied by demonstrations and strikes. Only on April 29, 1991, Gorbachev and Yeltsin managed to agree on a compromise. Novo-Ogarevo negotiations began on concluding a union treaty. On March 17, 1991, the majority of the country's residents voted in favor of preserving the renewed USSR in a referendum. The post of president was introduced in Russia, and B. Yeltsin was elected on June 12.

Management of the economy passed to the heads of enterprises, technocrats, who gradually turned into capitalists. Economic restructuring caused painful economic consequences (primarily an increase in product shortages), which contributed to the radicalization of public sentiment, the growing popularity of the ideas of Westernization and the transition to capitalism. Part of the nomenclature that realized the possibility of using Westernizing and anti-communist slogans in order to redistribute property and restore their control over society in new basis, goes into opposition to the CPSU. Another part of the nomenklatura tried to resist the deepening of reforms and transformation of the USSR on the basis of a union treaty. But she was defeated as a result of an attempt to establish power on August 19-21, 1991.

The elimination of the communist regime in the context of the rise of national movements and the intensification of the struggle for power in political elite led to the collapse of the USSR and the breakdown of the P.P. Despite the general failure of the PPP, it laid the foundations of civil society, democracy and a market economy in Russia.