How Nicolaus Copernicus died. Nicolaus Copernicus: brief biography and discoveries

(1473 —1543 )

Nicolaus Copernicus was born on February 19, 1473 in the Polish city of Toruń into the family of a merchant who came from Germany. He was the fourth child in the family. Elementary education He received it, most likely, at a school located near his home at the Church of St. John the Great. Until the age of ten, he grew up in an atmosphere of prosperity and contentment. Carefree childhood ended suddenly and quite early. Nicholas was barely ten years old when the “pestilence” - a plague epidemic, a frequent guest and a formidable scourge of humanity at that time, visited Toruń, and one of its first victims was Nicolaus Copernicus the father. Concerns about education and future fate Lukasz Wachenrode, the mother's brother, took over the nephew.

In the second half of October 1491, Nicolaus Copernicus, together with his brother Andrzej, arrived in Krakow and enrolled in the Faculty of Arts at the local university. After its completion in 1496, Copernicus went on a long journey to Italy.

In the fall, Nikolai, together with his brother Andrzej, found himself in Bologna, which was then part of the Papal States and famous for its university. At that time, the law faculty with the departments of civil and canonical, i.e., church law, was especially popular here, and Nikolai enrolled in this faculty. It was in Bologna Copernicus developed an interest in astronomy, which determined his scientific interests. On the evening of March 9, 1497, together with the astronomer Domenico Maria Novara, Nicholas made his first scientific observation. After him, it became clear that the distance to the Moon when it is in quadrature is approximately the same as during a new or full moon. The discrepancy between Ptolemy's theory and the discovered facts amused me to think...

In the first months of 1498, Nicolaus Copernicus was confirmed in absentia as a canon of the Frombork Chapter, a year later Andrzej Copernicus also became a canon of the same chapter. However, the very fact of receiving these positions did not reduce the financial difficulties of the brothers; life in Bologna, which attracted many wealthy foreigners, was no different cheapness, and in October 1499 the Copernicians found themselves completely without a livelihood. Canon Bernard Skulteti, who later met them several times in their life, came to their rescue from Poland.

Then Nicholas returns to Poland for a short time, but just a year later he goes back to Italy, where he studies medicine at the University of Padua and receives a doctorate in theology from the University of Ferrara. Copernicus returned to his homeland at the end of 1503 in full educated person He settled first in the city of Lidzbark, and then took up the position of canon in Frombork, a fishing town at the mouth of the Vistula. The astronomical observations begun by Copernicus in Italy were continued, albeit on a limited scale, in Lidzbark. But with particular intensity he developed them in Frombork, despite to the inconvenience due to the high latitude of this place, which made it difficult to observe the planets, and due to frequent fogs from the Vistula Bay, significant cloudiness and cloudy skies over this northern area.

The invention of the telescope was still far away, and Tycho Brahe’s best instruments for pre-telescopic astronomy did not exist, with the help of which the accuracy of astronomical observations was brought to within one or two minutes. The most famous instrument used by Copernicus was the triquetrum, a parallactic instrument. The second instrument used by Copernicus to determine the angle of inclination of the ecliptic, “horoscopes”, sundials, a type of quadrant.

Despite the obvious difficulties, in the “Small Commentary”, written around 1516, Copernicus had already given a preliminary statement of his teaching, or rather, his hypotheses at that time. He did not consider it necessary to provide mathematical proofs in it, since they were intended for a more extensive work on November 3 In 1516, Nicholas Copernicus was elected to the post of manager of the chapter's estates in the Olsztyn and Pieniżny districts. In the fall of 1519, Copernicus's powers in Olsztyn expired, and he returned to Frombork, but this time he was really unable to devote himself to astronomical observations to test his hypotheses. There was a war going on. with the crusaders.

At the height of the war, at the beginning of November 1520, Copernicus was again elected administrator of the chapter's estates in Olsztyn and Pienieżno. By that time, Copernicus turned out to be the eldest not only in Olsztyn, but in the whole of Warmia - the bishop and almost all members of the chapter, having left Warmia, were holed up in safe places Having taken command of the small garrison of Olsztyn, Copernicus took measures to strengthen the defense of the castle-fortress, taking care of installing guns, creating a supply of ammunition, provisions and water. Copernicus, unexpectedly showing determination and remarkable military talent, managed to defend himself from the enemy.

Personal courage and determination did not go unnoticed - soon after the truce in April 1521, Copernicus was appointed Commissioner of Warmia. In February 1523, before the election of a new bishop, Copernicus was elected general administrator of Warmia - this is the highest position he had to hold. In the autumn of the same year, after choosing a bishop, he is appointed chancellor of the chapter. Only after 1530 did Copernicus's administrative activities narrow somewhat.

Nevertheless, it was in the twenties that a significant part of the astronomical results of Copernicus accounted for. It was possible to carry out many observations. So, around 1523, observing the planets at the moment of opposition, that is, when the planet is opposite the Sun
point in the celestial sphere, Copernicus made important discovery he refuted the opinion that the position of planetary orbits in space remains stationary. The line of apses - a straight line connecting the points of the orbit at which the planet is closest to the Sun and most distant from it - changes its position compared to what was observed 1300 years earlier and recorded in " Almagest" by Ptolemy. But most importantly, by the beginning of the thirties, work on creating new theory and its design in his work “On Appeals celestial spheres"was basically completed. By that time, the system of the world structure proposed by the ancient Greek scientist Claudius Ptolemy had existed for almost one and a half millennia. It consisted in the fact that the Earth rests motionless in the center of the Universe, and the Sun and other planets revolve around it. Ptolemy’s theory did not allow to explain many phenomena, well known to astronomers, in particular the loop-like movement of planets across the visible sky. But its provisions were considered unshakable, since they were in good agreement with the teaching catholic church Long before Copernicus, the ancient Greek scientist Aristarchus argued that the Earth moves around the Sun. But he could not yet experimentally confirm his teaching.

Observing the movement of celestial bodies, Copernicus came to the conclusion that Ptolemy’s theory was incorrect. After thirty years of hard work, long observations and complex mathematical calculations, he convincingly proved that the Earth is only one of the planets and that all planets revolve around the Sun. It is true that Copernicus is still believed that the stars are motionless and are located on the surface of a huge sphere, at a great distance from the Earth. This was due to the fact that at that time there were no such powerful telescopes with which one could observe the sky and stars. Having discovered that the Earth and the planets are satellites of the Sun, Copernicus was able to explain the apparent movement of the Sun across the sky, the strange entanglement in the movement of some planets, as well as the apparent rotation of the sky. Copernicus believed that we perceive the movement of celestial bodies in the same way as the movement of various objects on Earth when we ourselves are in motion. When we are sailing in a boat on the surface of a river, it seems that the boat and we are motionless in it, and the banks are floating in the opposite direction. In the same way, to an observer on Earth, it seems that the Earth is motionless, and the Sun is moving around it. In fact, it is the Earth that moves around the Sun and makes a full revolution in its orbit during the year.

In the twenties, Copernicus gained fame as a skilled physician. He expanded the knowledge he acquired in Padua throughout his life, regularly getting acquainted with new products medical literature The fame of an outstanding physician was well-deserved - Copernicus managed to save many patients from serious and intractable ailments. And among his patients were all the contemporary bishops of Warmia, high-ranking officials of Royal and Ducal Prussia, Tiedemann Giese, Alexander Skulteti, many canons of the Warmia Chapter. He often provided assistance and ordinary people. There is no doubt that the recommendations of his predecessors
Copernicus used it creatively, carefully monitoring the condition of patients and trying to understand the mechanism of action of the drugs he prescribed.

After 1531, his activity in the affairs of the chapter and its social activity, although back in 1541 he served as chairman of the chapter’s construction fund. Affected long years life. 60 years is an age that in the 16th century was considered quite advanced. But scientific activity Copernicus did not stop. He did not stop practicing medicine, and his fame as a skilled physician steadily increased. In mid-July 1528, being present as a representative of the Frombork Chapter at the sejmik in Torun, Copernicus met the then famous medalist and metal carver Matz Schilling, who had recently moved to Toruń from Krakow. There is an assumption that Copernicus knew Schilling from Krakow, more Moreover, on his mother’s side he was distantly related to him.

In Schilling's house, Copernicus met his daughter, young and beautiful Anna, and soon, compiling one of his astronomical tables, in the title of the column allocated to the planet Venus, Copernicus outlines the sign of this planet with an outline of ivy leaves - the Shilling family mark, which was placed on all coins and medals minted by Anna’s father... Being a canon, Copernicus had to observe celibacy - a vow of celibacy. But over the years, Copernicus felt more and more lonely, more and more clearly felt the need for a close and devoted being, and then he met Anna...

Years passed. They seemed to have become accustomed to Anna's presence in Copernicus's house. However, a denunciation followed to the newly elected bishop. During his illness, Dantiscus calls Doctor Nicholas and in a conversation with him, as if by chance, remarks that it would not be appropriate for Copernicus to have such a young and such a distant relative with him - he should find someone less young and more closely related.

And Copernicus is forced to “take action.” Anna will soon move into her own home. And then she had to leave Frombork. This has undoubtedly clouded last years life of Nicolaus Copernicus In May 1542, Copernicus’s book “On the sides and angles of triangles, both plane and spherical,” with detailed tables of sines and cosines, was published in Wittenberg.

But the scientist did not live to see the time when the book “On the Rotations of the Celestial Spheres” spread throughout the world. He was dying when friends brought him the first copy of his book, printed in one of the Nuremberg printing houses. Copernicus died on May 24, 1543.

Church leaders did not immediately understand the blow to religion that Copernicus’ book dealt. For some time his work was freely distributed among scientists. Only when Copernicus had followers, his teaching was declared heresy, and the book was included in the “Index” of prohibited books. Only in 1835 did the Pope exclude the book of Copernicus from it and thereby, as it were, acknowledge the existence of his teaching in the eyes of the church.

One of the greatest scientists in the history of astronomy, Nicolaus Copernicus was born in 1473 in the Polish city of Torun, on the Vistula. Copernicus's father, a merchant from the city of Krakow, at that time the capital of Poland, died when his son was 10 years old. The boy was taken in by his maternal uncle Luka Watzelrode, later Bishop of Warmia (Warmia is a small ecclesiastical region in northern Poland near Baltic Sea). Young Copernicus was raised by his uncle, and then at the University of Krakow - at that time one of the largest in Europe - he studied theology, law and medicine. Natural sciences and mathematics were also taught here. Here the young Copernicus became acquainted with astronomy, which, of course, was studied by Ptolemy.

Ptolemy, a scientist who lived in the second century AD, in his work outlined the ideas of the ancients about the universe. Ancient astronomers observed the sky for centuries. They knew the constellations and noticed that among the fixed stars there were wandering luminaries - planets. Under Copernicus, five planets were known: Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn. In addition, the Moon and the Sun were also included among them.

To an observer on earth, the planets appear to move in very difficult ways: they either approach the Sun, then move away from it and at the same time describe loops. This strange movement did not fit with the religious idea that celestial bodies, due to their perfect nature created by God, must necessarily move in perfect circles. Ptolemy used a mathematical rule that allows any complex periodic motion to be represented as a sum of simpler movements, and explained the wandering of the planets as a result of their rotation in circles around certain points, which, in turn, revolve in other circles around the Earth - motionless, located in the center of the Universe .

The followers of Ptolemy, clarifying the movement of the planets, added more and more circles. The system has become unusually cumbersome and inconvenient. But this system was supported by the church with all its authority, and it lasted for about 1500 years.

After graduating from the University of Krakow, Copernicus went to Italy in 1496 to improve himself and spent about 8 years there, in Bologna and Padua, studying mathematics, medicine and other sciences. It was a wonderful time in human history, which we call the Renaissance or the era geographical discoveries. Having just discovered America, the Portuguese Vasco de Gama found a sea route to: During the lifetime of Copernicus, he made the first trip around the world and proved that the Earth is a ball. Copernicus' contemporaries were the great and versatile scientist and artist Leonardo da Vinci, the painter and sculptor Michelangelo, the painters Raphael and Titian, the poet Ariosto, and the satirist Rabelais.

Copernicus was a prominent representative of his era. He himself was an extremely versatile person. His library contained books on poetry, philosophy, history, geography, philology, medicine, natural sciences: mathematics, physics, astronomy, mechanics, which, by the way, then included all engineering sciences. Returning from Italy, Copernicus energetically applied his versatile knowledge in practice. He received the position of life physician under his uncle, the Bishop of Warmia, in addition, he managed the estates and lands of the Warmia diocese, and after the death of his uncle, he was appointed a canon (essentially a ruler) in the small town of Frauenburg (Frombork). This town was located on the very shore of Lake Frisch Hough, separated from the Baltic Sea by a narrow sandy spit. Just during the life of Copernicus, in the autumn storm of 1510, this spit was broken through and the lake turned into a bay.

While he was a canon, Copernicus continued to practice medicine, painting, was in charge of matters of justice, during the war between the Polish king Sigismund and Master Albrecht, he defended Frombork from knightly detachments, and then took part in peace negotiations. Copernicus built engineering structures, including a water pipeline (in Frombork) with a tower where the water rose 25 meters. In this tower there was a memorial plaque with Latin verses, which when translated read like this:

Here the conquered waters are forced to flow onto the mountain,
To quench the thirst of the inhabitants with an abundant spring.
What nature denied people, the art of Copernicus overcame.
This creation, among others, is a witness to his glorious life.

But Copernicus was most interested in astronomy. It is known that he was approached with the question of how to more accurately determine the movement of the Sun and Moon. The priests needed these definitions in order to designate the Easter holiday. Copernicus refused to give advice, since he did not have sufficiently accurate information about the periods of movement of these luminaries. The desire to obtain such information prompted him to study Ptolemy’s system, and then, while he was still a physician, the thought flashed through his mind that perhaps Ptolemy was wrong, and the Earth does not rest in the center of the Universe, but moves around the Sun. Copernicus devoted the last 20 years of his life to the development of this thought.

In the dedication of his book to Pope Paul III, he writes that he was convinced of the disagreement of mathematicians who work according to Ptolemy, but do not obtain accuracy, and turned to ancient philosophers, where he found mention of the possible movement of the Earth “around fire” and its rotation, like a wheel . Indeed, some ancient Greek scientists can find statements about the rotation of the Earth. One of them, Aristarchus of Samos, was accused of blasphemy for this teaching. Ptolemy knew about these teachings and tried to refute them.

One should not think that Copernicus only repeated the teachings of Aristarchus, Heraclitus, Philolaus and other ancient philosophers who expressed the idea of the rotation of the Earth. The ancient Greek philosophers only made an assumption, without supporting it with any evidence and without drawing any conclusions from it. Ptolemy, in his objections to the theory of the rotation of the Earth, said that the Earth was great, and if it rotated, it would have to fly into pieces. In addition, clouds, birds and everything in the air would lag behind the Earth. Even the stones should not fall vertically, but slightly deviating to the side.

Enormous strength of spirit, extraordinary clarity of mind and courage were needed by the modest canon Copernicus in order to oppose the usual idea, confirmed by our feelings, the considerations of the respected philosophers of antiquity - Aristotle and Ptolemy, who were indisputable authorities in medieval times. In his book, Copernicus examines all the arguments against the movement of the Earth and says that feelings should not be trusted. When you are sailing on a ship, it seems that the shore is moving away, floating away, but in fact, the ship is moving. He writes that the Earth can rotate without falling into pieces, for it is even more absurd to assume that the whole firmament with the fixed stars, which is much larger Globe, - the speed of its rotation would truly be absurdly high. He further says that the Earth, during its rotation, carries away air, and stones, birds and clouds in the air participate in the rotation of the Earth.

There was another objection that Copernicus found difficult to cope with. His opponents said: if the Earth revolved around the Sun, it would seem to us that the stars in the sky describe ellipses, due to the so-called parallaxes, and these ellipses should be smaller the further the stars are. Copernicus responded that the stars were apparently too far away, and therefore we could not distinguish their parallaxes. According to Copernicus' calculations, the stars must be at least a thousand times farther from us than the Sun.

Parallaxes were sought by astronomers for three hundred years after Copernicus, and only in 1837 the famous Russian astronomer Struve managed to discover the parallax of the star Vega. Thus, irrefutable proof of the correctness of Copernicus' theory was given. It turned out that the stars are much further from us than Copernicus assumed. The nearest one is 270 thousand times farther than the Sun. In the time of Copernicus there were no telescopes; the luminaries were observed with the naked eye. The lack of accurate observations prevented Copernicus from confirming his theory. It remained only a plausible hypothesis. But with this hypothesis a revolution in natural science began.

The merits of Copernicus are immense. Having placed the Sun in the center, and around it the planets - Mercury, Venus, the Earth with the Moon, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn, Copernicus with the greatest simplicity explained the movement of the heavenly bodies, the seasons, determined relative distance between the planets (with an error of no more than four percent!), brought the Earth down from the pedestal of the center of the Universe to the position of an ordinary planet and thereby shook the idea of its exceptional significance. Copernicus hesitated for a long time to publish his work, although his friends persuaded him to do so.

Perhaps it spoke of the caution of a scientist who wanted to clarify his calculations and observations, or perhaps simply the instinct of self-preservation - the Inquisition was not asleep. Copernicus released first summary of his work, then a more detailed presentation was published by Copernicus’s student, the German professor Rheticus. Only after this did Copernicus decide to publish his work in full. He saw the book on his deathbed. It was called in Latin: “Nicolai Copernici Torinernsis de revolutionibus orbium caelestium, libri VI,” that is, Nicolaus Copernicus of Torun, on the revolution of the celestial spheres, six books.”
The publication of the book was supervised by the theologian Osiander. Well aware at that time of the scandalous significance of the book, he provided it with a preface, where he carefully wrote that “The Teaching should not be taken as truth,” but only “considered a hypothesis intended to calculate the motion of the planets, which new system invents a lot, and not in order to convince anyone. If anyone accepts it as truth... then through this teaching he will become more stupid than before.”

In the first decades, Copernicus's book was met with indifference. The church perceived it as a computing tool, and the book itself was written in Latin, accessible only to a limited circle of specialists. But the church became worried when Copernicus had propagandists and interpreters - Giordano Bruno, and then, who supported Copernicus’s ideas with observation using a telescope. Galileo observed spots on the Sun, mountains on the Moon and four moons of Jupiter - a visual model solar system. Now everyone could see how the small planets revolve around the big one. The teachings of Copernicus began to penetrate the masses, and the church became alarmed. The followers of Copernicus were punished by the Inquisition. Copernicus's book was included in the list of prohibited books subject to destruction. Only 200 years later, when the theory of the Earth's motion became generally accepted, Copernicus's book was crossed out from this list.

The development of science has fully confirmed the ideas of Copernicus. Astronomy broadly expanded the boundaries of the world known to Copernicus. Nowadays, astronomers are revealing the nature of stars, studying the structure star systems- galaxies and vast intergalactic spaces, solve complex issues of the origin of stars and planetary systems. But all modern astronomy is a continuation and development of the ideas of the great Polish scientist, revolutionary in science, Nicolaus Copernicus.

The teachings of Copernicus revolutionized the consciousness of people of the Middle Ages and became the beginning of the formation of a modern worldview. The religious picture of the world that dominated the Middle Ages began to give way to a scientific one. The works of Copernicus gave impetus to the development of astronomy, mathematics, and physics.

Origin

Copernicus's nationality is not precisely determined: some consider him German by his mother's origin, others consider him a Pole by his place of birth. During the life of the scientist, this issue was not fundamental. In writing he used German and the universal language of science of that time was Latin.

Childhood

The small homeland of Copernicus is the small town of Torne, which changed its territorial affiliation, becoming either Prussian or Polish. There were four children in the family; the elder brother became Nikolai’s ally and supported him until the end of his life. The Copernican family was wealthy, the children did not need anything. Another plague epidemic brought misfortune: the head of the family died. A few years later, the mother died. The mother's brother, Uncle Lucas, who later became a bishop, saved the orphans from poverty.

Study and career

Uncle tried to give better education to his nephews. The Copernicus brothers studied at best universities Europe. The path to obtaining an education was long; obtaining a diploma and scientific title at the age of 35–40 was considered the norm. The initial stage in Copernicus's studies was the Jagiellonian University in Krakow, where the future scientist studied art from 1491. After 1496, the brothers studied law at the University of Bologna. During this period, Nikolai became interested in astronomy thanks to his communication with Domenico Maria Novara, who taught this subject.

The result of the first observations was doubt in the dogmas of the generally accepted theory of Ptolemy. During this period of his life, Copernicus became interested in painting; his works have survived to this day, the most famous being a self-portrait, preserved as a copy. From 1502, Copernicus and his brother studied medicine and theology at the University of Padua, graduating four years later. Thanks to such a deep education, Nicolaus Copernicus became a comprehensively educated person with encyclopedic knowledge, and the path to science was open.

Under the influence of his uncle, Nikolai chooses a career as a clergyman, combining it with scientific research. First he became a canon, then he became the bishop's adviser and chancellor. His fate became a reflection of the Middle Ages. So, being the chancellor in the city of Olsztyn, he was appointed responsible for the defense of the city from the Teutons and coped with this task brilliantly. Nicolaus Copernicus practiced medicine a lot. During plague epidemics, he did not turn away from danger, but boldly performed his duty.

Love

Copernicus, as a clergyman, could not start a family. There is information that already in mature age he fell in love with his friend's daughter Anna. The girl lived in his house for some time as a relative and au pair, but they still had to separate.

Scientific achievements

1. Heliocentric system
For more than forty years, Copernicus worked on his main discovery, which immortalized his name in the history of mankind. Using primitive instruments, many of which he made himself, and complex mathematical calculations, Copernicus refuted the teachings of Ptolemy. He proved that the Earth is one of the planets that revolve around the sun. His theory is still far from the modern understanding of the picture of the world, but it was a decisive step forward. The main work, “On the Rotation of the Celestial Spheres,” was published at the end of the scientist’s life. According to legend, Copernicus saw the first copy of his book before his death. However, real evidence refutes this fact - for several months before his death, the scientist was in a severe coma.

The main provisions of his theory:

The Earth, like the other planets, moves around the sun.
The earth rotates around itself, which explains the cycle of day and night.
Planets move in circular orbits.
The Earth is the center of gravity of the Moon.
The sun is motionless.
The distance between the Earth and the Sun is much less than the distance from the Earth to distant stars.

2. Discoveries in economics. Copernicus proposed a reform of the monetary system and studied the mechanisms of price formation.

3. Discoveries in mechanics. Created unique car, which supplied the entire city with water.

Death

In 1743, after a stroke, Copernicus died surrounded by loved ones. Nowadays, streets, a university, an airport, a crater, and a planet are named after him. Many monuments have been erected. His profile is immortalized on the Polish banknote. On the main square of the Polish city of Torun there is a monument on which is written: “He who stopped the Sun - who moved the Earth.”

The fate of Nicolaus Copernicus is unique for that time, full of dangers. He boldly faced danger and honestly fulfilled his duty. His achievements were important stage development of all humanity.

Nikolas Koppernigk, Polish Mikołaj Kopernik, lat. Nicolaus Copernicus; February 19, Torun - May 24, Frombork) - Polish astronomer, mathematician and economist. He is best known as the author of the medieval heliocentric world system, which marked the beginning of the first scientific revolution.

Biography

early years

The question of Copernicus's ethnicity still remains the subject of a (rather unpromising) debate. His mother was German (Barbara Watzelrode), he wrote in Latin and German, not a single document in Polish written by his hand has been found. Copernicus was probably ethnically German, although he himself most likely considered himself a Pole (by territorial and political affiliation); in any case, the list of students at the University of Padua shows that he listed himself among the Poles who studied there.

In the Copernicus family, besides Nicholas, there were three more children: Andrei, later a canon in Warmia, and two sisters: Barbara and Katerina. Barbara entered a monastery, and Katerina married and gave birth to five children, to whom Nicolaus Copernicus was very attached and cared for the rest of his life.

Having lost his father as a 9-year-old child and remaining in the care of his maternal uncle, Canon Luke ( Lucas) Watzelrode (Watzenrode), Copernicus entered the University of Krakow in 1491, where he studied mathematics, medicine and theology with equal zeal, but he was especially attracted to astronomy.

To continue his education, Copernicus went to Italy () and entered the University of Bologna. In addition to theology, law and ancient languages, he also has the opportunity to study astronomy there. It is interesting to note that one of the professors in Bologna was then Scipio del Ferro, with whose discoveries the revival of European mathematics began. Meanwhile, thanks to the efforts of his uncle, in Poland Copernicus was elected in absentia as a canon in the diocese of Warmia.

When necessary, Copernicus devoted his energies and practical work: according to his project, a new coin system was introduced in Poland, and in the city of Frombork he built a hydraulic machine that supplied water to all houses. Personally, as a doctor, he is involved in the fight against the plague epidemic of 1519. During the Polish-Teutonic War (-) organized the successful defense of the bishopric from the Teutons. At the end of the conflict, Copernicus took part in peace negotiations (), which ended with the creation of the first Protestant state on the order lands - the Duchy of Prussia, a vassal of the Polish crown ().

Death

The book of Copernicus remains as an outstanding monument to inquisitive human thought. From this moment dates back to the beginning of the first scientific revolution.

grave

Location of Copernicus's tomb long time remained unknown, but in November 2008 DNA testing confirmed the discovery of his remains.

Scientific activity

Heliocentric system

Celestial spheres in the Copernicus manuscript

Title page "De revolutionibus orbium coelestium"

In the preface to the book, Copernicus writes:

Considering how absurd this teaching must seem, I hesitated for a long time to publish my book and thought whether it would not be better to follow the example of the Pythagoreans and others, who transmitted their teaching only to friends, spreading it only through tradition.

The Nuremberg theologian Osiander, to whom Rheticus entrusted the printing of Copernicus’s book, out of caution, provided it with an anonymous preface, in which he declared new model a conventional mathematical technique invented to reduce calculations. At one time, this preface was attributed to Copernicus himself, although he, in response to Osiander’s request, resolutely refused to make such a reservation. The preface is followed by a letter of praise from Cardinal Schoenberg and a dedication to Pope Paul III.

By structure main work Copernicus almost repeats the Almagest in a somewhat abbreviated form (6 books instead of 13). The first part talks about the spherical shape of the world and the Earth, and instead of the position about the immobility of the Earth, another axiom is placed - the Earth and other planets rotate around an axis and revolve around the Sun. This concept is argued in detail, and the “opinion of the ancients” is convincingly refuted. From a heliocentric position, he easily explains the reciprocal motion of the planets.

The second part provides information on spherical trigonometry and rules for calculating the apparent positions of stars, planets and the Sun in the firmament.

The third talks about the annual movement of the Earth and precession (precedence of the equinoxes), and Copernicus correctly explains it by the displacement of the earth’s axis, which causes the line of intersection of the equator and the ecliptic to move.

In the fourth - about the Moon, in the fifth about planets in general, and in the sixth - about the reasons for changes in the latitudes of the planets. The book also contains a star catalog, an estimate of the sizes of the Sun and Moon, the distances to them and to the planets (close to the true ones), and the theory of eclipses.

Ratings

“In depth of considerations, Copernicus was the greatest astronomer of his time, but he was not a very good practitioner; however, this is not his fault: he had few funds at his disposal and he made all the tools with my own hands» ESBE.
F. Engels ranked Copernicus among the titans “in terms of the power of thought, passion and character, in versatility and learning.”

The complete works of Copernicus were published by Baranowski in Warsaw in 1854 in Latin and Polish.

In the central square of Polish Torun there is a monument to Copernicus, on which there is an inscription: “He who stopped the Sun - who moved the Earth.”

The minor planet 1322 Coppernicus is named after Copernicus. A clarification is necessary here: double p in the name corresponds to the surname of Copernicus’s father (Koppernigk, Koppernig), as well as the Latin signature of Copernicus himself at the beginning of his life: Coppernicus. In recent years, Copernicus shortened the signature to Copernicus.

Notes

Literature

N. Copernicus on stamps of Poland and Mongolia

Essays

Copernicus Nicholas. On the rotation of the celestial spheres. Per. I. N. Veselovsky. M.: Nauka, 1964.

About him

Ambartsumyan V. A. Copernicus and modern astronomy. Report at the Anniversary meeting of the General Meeting of the USSR Academy of Sciences, dedicated to the 500th anniversary of the birth of N. Copernicus, March 6, 1973. “Bulletin of the USSR Academy of Sciences,” No. 5, 1973, pp. 46-56.
Akhutin A.V. Copernican innovation and the Copernican revolution. In the book: Akhutin A.V. Litigation about existence. M.: RFO, 1997, p. 181-243.
Bely Yu. A. Copernicus, Copernicanism and the development of natural science, IAI, Vol. XII, Page 15. Read
Veselovsky I. N., Bely Yu. A. Copernicus, 1473-1543. M.: Nauka, 1974.
Gerasimenko M. P. Nicolaus Copernicus is an outstanding economist of the era of early capitalism. Kyiv: Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR, 1953.
Grebenikov E. A. Nicolaus Copernicus. M.: Nauka, 1982.
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Nicolaus Copernicus is a very versatile and talented person. He is a famous Polish astronomer, mathematician, as well as economist and canon. But Nikolai’s greatest fame came from what he discovered heliocentric system world, which became the impetus for the first revolution in science.

Biography of Nicolaus Copernicus

Nicholas was born on February 19, in 1473 in a cute town called Torun. In the family of merchants, in addition to Nikolai, there were three more children, one boy and two girls, one named Katarzyna, and the other Barbara. The father of the family was called Nikolai like his son, and the mother like her daughter was Barbara. At the age of ten, Nicholas had to endure the bitterness of loss; in 1483, his father passed away. The Copernicus family is left without the main breadwinner in the house. But he undertakes to take them under his wing brother Barbara Copernicus, that is, Nikolai's uncle, his name was Lucas Wachenrode. As a person, Lucas was very strict and demanding, so the children missed their father all the time. But thanks to the good financial situation of Lucas Wachenrode, the children could receive a decent education. Their uncle was concerned about the future of his nephews, and he tried to give each of them a good push in life. One sister of Nicolaus Copernicus, Katarzyna, happily married a merchant whose name was Gertner, he was from Krakow. And Nicholas’s other sister, Barbara, made the difficult decision to enter a monastery of the Benedictine Order. Two brothers Andrzej and Nikolai studied arithmetic, Latin and music at school in Chelmno, in order to later receive higher education. When Nicholas was eighteen years old, his uncle Lukas Wachenrode became Bishop of Warmia. Financial position Lucas has improved even more and now has a lot of influence.

Education

Lucas Wachenrode's goal was to provide higher education to his beloved nephews. And he achieved it; already in 1491 he sent them to the city of Krakow. Nicolaus Copernicus liked to study, and he studied medicine, theology and mathematics with great desire, but most of all he liked the subject of astronomy. Then, four years later, Lucas tried to send his nephews to the Warmia land, he wanted them to take the post of canons in the Warmia Chapter. But Lucas’s plan cannot be realized. Therefore, he agrees that the two brothers Andrzej and Nikolai go to Bologna. There the brothers began to study further at the University of Bologna. Since Lucas still wanted to place at least one Nicholas in the Warmian Chapter, he advised him to study canon law. Nicholas diligently studied law, ancient languages and also theology. And in his free time, from teaching basic subjects, Nikolai devoted his time to studying astronomy. Largely due to the efforts of Uncle Lucas, in Poland Nicolaus Copernicus was made a canon in absentia in the diocese of Warmia. Then, for an unknown reason, in 1500, Nikolai abandoned his studies, without receiving a diploma or any title, and simply left for Rome. Then he stayed in his homeland for a short time and went to study medicine at the University of Padua. And already in 1503, Nicolaus Copernicus completed his studies and received the long-awaited diploma, and he was also given the degree of Doctor of Canon Law. But even after graduation, Nikolai did not want to return and, having asked permission from his uncle Lucas, continued to study medicine in Padua for three years. Three years later, Nicolaus Copernicus finishes his studies, and he needed to stay in Rome for another year in order to complete his internship in medicine.

Life path of Nicolaus Copernicus

But when the time came for practice in 1506, Nicholas learned that his uncle Lucas was very ill. After this news, Nikolai immediately leaves Rome for his homeland. After his return, from 1506 to 1512, Nicholas stayed at the bishops' castle in Heilsberg. There he is actively involved in astronomy, and also teaches in the city of Krakow. But besides this, he is also a doctor and a secretary. His uncle Lucas also appoints Nikolai as his confidant. In the winter of 1512, Nicholas again went to Krakow; he invited his uncle Lucas Wachenrode to royal wedding Sigismund the Old himself, and he in turn took his nephew Nicholas with him. After this is over important event At the royal court, Lukas Wachenrode left Petrkov to attend a meeting of the Sejm. And Nicolaus Copernicus, in turn, returned to Varimia. Later, Lucas was supposed to go there, but unforeseen circumstances happened.

When he was traveling from Petrkov to Varimia, he became very ill right on the road. The patient's condition was so critical that they could only bring him to the city of Torun. Having learned about what had happened, Nikolai immediately went to his uncle. No matter how many doctors were brought to Lucas Wachenrode, it was not possible to save him, since it was already too late. When Uncle Lucas died, Nicolaus Copernicus was next to his bed. Having taken the body of his deceased uncle to Frombork, Nikolai buried him there as expected. After the death of Lukas Wachenrode, Fabian Luzyanski becomes the Bishop of Warmia. And Nicolaus Copernicus is simply removed from his position as doctor and canon.

The man makes a firm decision to move to Frombork in order to settle there forever. Copernicus liked this turn in life, because now he had the opportunity and time to practice his favorite astronomy. In this city, Nicolaus Copernicus bought a house for himself in 1510. He divides his house into two zones, a living area and a work area. He was also given a tower in which Nikolai set up a personal observatory. In this place he conducted observation for a long time. It cannot be denied that it was on this tower that Nicolaus Copernicus discovered the heliocentric theory. It is difficult to say exactly when he wrote the book about the rotation of the celestial circles. Nikolai hid the results of his labors from everyone; only those closest to him, as well as relatives, knew about them. Since the great astronomer knew that if the results of the work were published, it would cause a real revolution and completely change the usual perception of the world. Scientists around the world, as well as churches, argued that the Earth was flat and that it was the center of the Universe. And Nicolaus Copernicus made a real scientific revolution, making the discovery that the Earth is round and it revolves around the sun, which in turn is the center of the universe. When this theory reached people, they did not believe and considered all these stories to be nonsense.

Nicolaus Copernicus shared with his close friends a handwritten note describing his theories about celestial motion. A clear statement about the heliocentric system was published by Nicolaus Copernicus' student Rheticus in 1539. But word of the new theory about the Earth had spread by 1520. But Nikolai did not stop developing his theory and continued to carry out new tables and calculations. A little time passed and Nicolaus Copernicus became known as an outstanding astronomer in Europe. In 1514, Pope Leo the Tenth invited Nicholas to participate in the development of calendar reform. But the astronomer answered Leo the Tenth with a refusal. Nikolai often spent his time on practical exercises. In Poland, he creates a project to introduce a new coinage system. And in the city of Frombork, he built a hydraulic machine, which for a long time supplied water to all houses. Nicolaus Copernicus applied his medical knowledge in 1519, when he fought a terrible plague epidemic. From 1519, for two years, when there was a Polish-Teutonic war in the country, Copernicus became the organizer of the strongest defense of the bishopric from the Teutons. In 1525, when the fighting ended, he participated in peace negotiations. These negotiations ended with the creation of the Protestant state of the Duchy of Prussia on the order's land. When Nicolaus Copernicus was fifty-eight years old, in 1531, he slightly pushed his affairs into the background and completely immersed himself in writing his book. But he never left one thing, this medical practice, he did it completely free of charge.

As mentioned earlier, Nicholas had a faithful student Rheticus, who helped in every possible way so that the results of Copernicus’s work were published as soon as possible, but even with his efforts this matter progressed very slowly. The astronomer already began to fear that he would not be able to pass all the obstacles of publication and began to distribute short summaries of his observations, which were called Commentariolus “Small Commentary,” to people who were close to them. Soon, or rather in 1542, a big trouble happened in Nicholas’s life: he became seriously ill, so much so that half of his body became paralyzed. And a year later, Nicolaus Copernicus finally decided to publish the results of his hard and long work. Even then he was very seriously ill. In 1543 he published De Rovolutionibus. On May 24, Nicolaus Copernicus passed away as a result of a stroke; the astronomer was 70 years old at that time. His book forever became a monument to human thoughts. That's when it started scientific revolution in the world. The great astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus was buried near the Frombor Cathedral.