Educational literature for students of medical institutes: human physiology, edited by member. Human physiology - Babsky E.B., Kositsky G.I.

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human physiology- — EN human physiology A branch of biological sciences that studies the functions of organs and tissues in human beings. (Source: OMD / WOR)… … Technical Translator's Guide Great Medical Encyclopedia

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- (from the Greek phýsis - nature and... Logia) animals and humans, the science of the life activity of organisms, their individual systems, organs and tissues and regulation physiological functions. F. also studies the patterns of interaction of living organisms with ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia, 1977 - The film tells about V.I. Lenin, certain periods of his life.

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Moscow “Medicine” 1985
For medical students

Human

Edited by

member-corr. USSR Academy of Medical Sciences G. I. KOSITS KO G"O

third edition,

revised and expanded

Approved by the Main Directorate of Educational Institutions of the Ministry of Health of the USSR as a textbook for students of medical institutes

>BK 28.903 F50

/DK 612(075.8) ■

[E, B. BABSCII], V. D. GLEBOVSKY, A. B. KOGAN, G. F. KOROTKO,

G. I. KOSITSKY, V; M, POKROVSKY, Y. V. NATOCHIN, V. P. SKIPETROV, B. I. KHODOROV, A. I. SHAPOVALOV, I. ​​A. SHEVELEV

Reviewer Y..D.Boyenko, prof., head Department of Normal Physiology, Voronezh Medical Institute named after. N. N. Burdenko

UK1 5L4

1.1 "hi" Willi I

1 yudn u « i --c ; ■ ■■ ^ ■ *

Human physiology/Ed. G.I. Kositsky. - F50 3rd ed., revised. and additional - M.: "Medicine", 1985. 544 e., ill.

In lane: 2 r. 20 k. 150,000 copies.

The third edition of the textbook (the second was published in 1972) was written in accordance with the achievements of modern science. New facts and concepts are presented, new chapters are included: “Features of higher nervous activity of man”, “Elements of labor physiology”, mechanisms of training and adaptation”, sections covering issues of biophysics and physiological cybernetics have been expanded. Nine chapters of the textbook have been redrawn, the rest largely reworked: .

The textbook corresponds to the program approved by the USSR Ministry of Health and is intended for students of medical institutes.

f ^^00-241 BBK 28.903

039(01)-85

(6) Publishing house "Medicine", 1985

PREFACE

12 years have passed since the previous edition of the textbook “Human Physiology” The responsible editor and one of the authors of the book, Academician of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR E.B. Babsky, according to whose manuals many generations of students studied physiology, have passed away. -

The team of authors of this publication includes well-known specialists in the relevant sections of physiology: corresponding member of the USSR Academy of Sciences, prof. A.I. Shapovalov" and Prof. Yu, V. Natochin (heads of laboratories of the I.M. Sechenov Institute of Evolutionary Physiology and Biochemistry of the USSR Academy of Sciences), Prof. V.D. Glebovsky (head of the Department of Physiology of the Leningrad Pediatric Medical Institute) ; prof. , A.B. Kogan (Head of the Department of Human and Animal Physiology and Director of the Institute of Neurocybernetics of Rostov State University), Prof. G. F. Korotks (Head of the Department of Physiology, Andijan Medical Institute), pr^f. V.M. Pokrovsky (Head of the Department of Physiology, Kuban Medical Institute), prof. B.I. Khodorov (head of the laboratory of the A.V. Vishnevsky Institute of Surgery of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences), prof. I. A. Shevelev (head of the laboratory of the Institute of Higher Nervous Activity and Neurophysiology of the USSR Academy of Sciences). - I

Over the past time it has appeared a large number of new facts, views, theories, discoveries and directions of our science. In this regard, 9 chapters in this edition had to be written anew, and the remaining 10 chapters had to be revised and supplemented. At the same time, to the extent possible, the authors tried to preserve the text of these chapters.

The new sequence of presentation of the material, as well as its combination into four main sections, is dictated by the desire to give the presentation logical harmony, consistency and, as far as possible, to avoid duplication of material. ■ -

The content of the textbook corresponds to the physiology program approved in 1981. Critical comments about the project and the program itself, expressed in the resolution of the Bureau, Department of Physiology of the USSR Academy of Sciences (1980) and at the All-Union Meeting of Heads of Physiology Departments of Medical Universities (Suzdal, 1982), were also taken into account. In accordance with the program, chapters were introduced into the textbook that were missing in the previous edition: “Features of higher nervous activity of man” and “Elements of labor physiology, mechanisms of training and adaptation,” and sections covering issues of particular biophysics and physiological cybernetics were expanded. The authors took into account that in 1983 a textbook of biophysics for students of medical institutes was published (edited by Prof. Yu A. Vladimirov) and that the elements of biophysics and cybernetics are presented in the textbook of Prof. A.N. Remizov “Medical and biological physics”.

Due to the limited volume of the textbook, it was necessary, unfortunately, to omit the chapter “History of Physiology”, as well as excursions into history in individual chapters. Chapter 1 gives only outlines of the formation and development of the main stages of our science and shows its importance for medicine.

Our colleagues provided great assistance in creating the textbook. At the All-Union Meeting in Suzdal (1982), the structure was discussed and approved, and valuable suggestions were made regarding the content of the textbook. Prof. V.P. Skipetrov revised the structure and edited the text of the 9th chapter and, in addition, wrote its sections relating to blood coagulation. Prof. V. S. Gurfinkel and R. S. Person wrote the subsection of the 6th chapter “Regulation of movements”. Assoc. N. M. Malyshenko presented some new materials for Chapter 8. Prof. I.D.Boenko and his staff expressed many useful comments and suggestions as reviewers.

Employees of the Department of Physiology II MOLGMI named after N. I. Pirogova prof. L. A. M. iyutina, associate professors I. A. Murashova, S. A. Sevastopolskaya, T. E. Kuznetsova, candidate of medical sciences / V. I. Mongush and L. M. Popova took part in discussion of the manuscript of some chapters, (we would like to express our deep gratitude to all these comrades.

The authors are fully aware that in such a difficult task as creating a modern textbook, shortcomings are inevitable and therefore will be grateful to everyone who makes critical comments and suggestions about the textbook. "

Corresponding member of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences, prof. G. I. KOSITSKY

Chapter 1 (- v

PHYSIOLOGY AND ITS IMPORTANCE

Physiology(from rpew. physis - nature and logos - teaching) - the science of the life activity of the whole organism and its individual parts: cells, tissues, organs, functional systems. Physiology seeks to reveal the mechanisms of the functions of a living organism, their relationship with each other, regulation and adaptation to the external environment, origin and formation in the process of evolution and individual development of the individual

Physiological patterns are based on data on the macro- and microscopic structure of organs and tissues, as well as on the biochemical and biophysical processes occurring in cells, organs and tissues. Physiology synthesizes specific information obtained by anatomy, histology, cytology, molecular biology, biochemistry, biophysics and other sciences, combining them into unified system knowledge about the body. Thus, physiology is a science that carries out systems approach, that is, the study of the body and all its elements as systems. With a systematic approach, we orient the researcher, first of all, to reveal the integrity of the object and its supporting mechanisms, i.e., to identify diverse types of connections complex object and reduce them into unified theoretical picture.

An object studying physiology - a living organism, the functioning of which as a whole is not the result of a simple mechanical interaction of its constituent parts. The integrity of the organism does not arise as a result of the influence of some supramaterial essence, which unquestioningly subjugates all the material structures of the organism. Similar interpretations of the Integrity of the organism existed and still exist in the form of a limited mechanistic ( metaphysical) or no less limited idealistic ( vitalistic) approach to the study of life phenomena. The errors inherent in both approaches can only be overcome by studying these problems with dialectical-materialist positions. Therefore, the patterns of activity of the organism as a whole can only be understood on the basis of consistently scientific worldview. For its part, the study of physiological laws provides rich factual material illustrating a number of provisions of dialectical materialism. The connection between physiology and philosophy is thus two-way.

Physiology and medicine /

Revealing the basic mechanisms that ensure the existence of a whole organism and its interaction with environment Physiology makes it possible to find out and study the causes, conditions and nature of disorders and the activity of these mechanisms during illness. It helps to determine the ways and means of influencing the body, with the help of which its functions can be normalized, i.e. restore health. Therefore physiology is theoretical basis medicine, physiology and medicine are inseparable." The doctor assesses the severity of the disease by the degree of functional disorders, i.e. by the magnitude of deviations from the norm of a number of physiological functions. Currently, such deviations are measured and assessed quantitatively. Functional (physiological) studies are the basis of clinical diagnosis, as well as a method for assessing the effectiveness of treatment and prognosis of diseases. By examining the patient, establishing the degree of impairment of physiological functions, the doctor sets himself the task of returning e+functions to normal.

However, the importance of physiology for medicine is not limited to this. The study of the functions of various organs and systems has made it possible simulate these functions are performed with the help of devices, devices and devices created by human hands. In this way the artificial kidney (hemodialysis machine). Based on the study of the physiology of heart rhythm, a device was created for Electr about stimulation heart, ensuring normal cardiac activity and the possibility of returning to work for patients with severe heart damage. Manufactured artificial heart and devices artificial blood circulation(heart-lung machines) ^allowing the patient’s heart to be turned off during a complex heart operation. There are devices for defib-1lations, which restore normal cardiac activity in case of fatal disorders of the contractile function of the heart muscle.

Research in the field of respiratory physiology made it possible to construct a controlled artificial respiration(“iron lungs”) Devices have been created with the help of which it is possible to long time turn off the patient's breathing. In conditions of terations, or: maintain the life of the body for years in case of respiratory 2ntra lesions. Knowledge of the physiological laws of gas exchange and gas transport helped to create installations for hyperbaric oxygenation. It is used for fatal lesions of the system: the blood, as well as the respiratory and cardiovascular systems, and based on the laws of brain physiology, methods for a number of complex neurosurgical operations have been developed. Thus, electrodes are implanted into the cochlea of ​​a deaf person, according to which electrical impulses are received from artificial sound receivers, which to some extent restores hearing":

These are just a few examples of the use of the laws of physiology in the clinic, but the significance of our science goes far beyond the boundaries of just medical medicine.

The role of physiology is ensuring human life and activity in various conditions

The study of physiology is necessary for scientific substantiation and creation of conditions for a healthy lifestyle that prevents diseases. Physiological patterns are the basis scientific organization labor V modern production. Physiojugia made it possible to develop a scientific basis for various individual training modes and sports loads that underlie modern sports achievements - 1st. And not only sports. If you need to send a person into space or drain him from the depths of the ocean, undertake an expedition to the northern and South Pole, reach the peaks of the Himalayas, master the tundra, taiga, desert, place a person in conditions of extremely high or low temperatures, move it to different time zones or climatic conditions, then physiology helps to justify and ensure everything necessary for human life and work in such extreme conditions..

Physiology and technology

Knowledge of the laws of physiology was required not only for scientific organization, but also for increasing labor productivity. Over billions of years of evolution, nature is known to have achieved the highest perfection in the design and control of the functions of living organisms. The use in technology of principles, methods and methods operating in the body opens up new prospects for technical progress. Therefore, at the intersection of physiology and technical sciences, new science -bionics.

The successes of physiology contributed to the creation of a number of other fields of science.

DEVELOPMENT OF PHYSIOLOGICAL RESEARCH METHODS

Physiology was born as a science experimental. All it obtains data through direct study of the vital processes of animal and human organisms. The founder of experimental physiology was the famous English physician William Harvey. v" ■

- “Three hundred years ago, amid the deep darkness and now difficult to imagine confusion that reigned in ideas about the activities of animal and human organisms, but illuminated by the inviolable authority of the scientific classical. heritage; physician William Harvey spied on one of the most important functions of the body - blood circulation and thereby laid the foundation for a new department of precise human knowledge - animal physiology,” wrote I.P. Pavlov. However, for two centuries after the discovery of blood circulation by Harvey, the development of physiology occurred slowly. It is possible to list relatively few fundamental works of the 17th-18th centuries. This is the opening of capillaries(Malpighi), formulation of the principle .reflex activity nervous system(Descartes), measurement of quantity blood pressure(Hels), wording of the law conservation of matter(M.V. Lomonosov), discovery of oxygen (Priestley) and commonality of combustion and gas exchange processes(Lavoisier), opening " animal electricity", i.e. e . the ability of living tissues to generate electrical potentials (Galvani), and some other works:

Observation as a method of physiological research. The comparatively slow development of experimental physiology over the two centuries after Harvey's work is explained by the low level of production and development of natural science, as well as the difficulties of studying physiological phenomena through their usual observation. This methodological technique was and remains the cause of numerous errors, since the experimenter must conduct an experiment, see and remember a lot of things.

Hj E. VVEDENSKY (1852-1922)

to: ludwig

: your complex processes and phenomena, which is a difficult task. The difficulties created by the method of simple observation of physiological phenomena are eloquently evidenced by the words of Harvey: “The speed of cardiac motion does not make it possible to distinguish how systole and diastole occur, and therefore it is impossible to know at what moment / in which part expansion and contraction occur. Indeed, I could not distinguish systole from diastole, since in many animals the heart appears and disappears in the blink of an eye, with the speed of lightning, so it seemed to me that once there was systole and here there was diastole, and another time it was the other way around. There is difference and confusion in everything.”

Indeed, physiological processes are dynamic phenomena. They are constantly developing and changing. Therefore, it is possible to directly observe only 1-2 or, at best, 2-3 processes. However, in order to analyze them, it is necessary to establish the relationship of these phenomena with other processes that, with this method of research, remain unnoticed. In this regard, simple observation of physiological processes as a research method is a source of subjective errors. Usually observation allows us to establish only the qualitative side of phenomena and makes it impossible to study them quantitatively.

An important milestone in the development of experimental physiology was the invention of the kymograph and the introduction of the graphic recording method blood pressure German scientist Karl Ludwig in 1843

Graphic registration of physiological processes. The graphic registration method marked new stage in physiology. It made it possible to obtain an objective record of the process being studied, which minimized the possibility of subjective errors. In this case, the experiment and analysis of the phenomenon under study could be carried out in two stages: During the experiment itself, the experimenter's task was to obtain high-quality recordings - curves. The analysis of the data obtained could be carried out later, when the experimenter’s attention was no longer distracted by the experiment. The graphic recording method made it possible to record simultaneously (synchronously) not one, but several (theoretically unlimited number) physiological processes. "..

Quite soon after the invention of blood pressure recording, methods for recording heart and muscle contractions were proposed (Engelman), and a method was introduced; stuffy transmission (Marey's capsule), which made it possible to record sometimes at a considerable distance from the object a number of physiological processes in the body: respiratory movements of the chest and abdominal cavity, peristalsis and changes in the tone of the stomach and intestines, etc. A method was proposed for recording vascular tone (Mosso plethysmography), changes in the volume of various internal organs - oncometry, etc.

Research of bioelectric phenomena. An extremely important direction in the development of physiology was marked by the discovery of “animal electricity”. The classic “second experiment” of Luigi Galvani showed that living tissues are a source of electrical potentials that can act on the nerves and muscles of another organism and cause muscle contraction. Since then, for almost a century, the only indicator of potentials generated by living tissues [bioelectric potentials), was a frog neuromuscular preparation. He helped to discover the potentials generated by the Heart during its activity (the experience of K. Elliker and Müller), as well as the need for continuous generation of electrical potentials for constant contraction of the Muscles (the experience of “secondary reran muscle”. Mateuchi). It became clear that bioelectric potentials are not random (side) phenomena in the activity of living tissues, but signals with the help of which commands are transmitted in the body to the nervous system! and from it: to muscles and other organs and thus living tissues I interact" with each other using "electric language". „

It was possible to understand this “language” much later, after the invention of physical devices that captured bioelectric potentials. One of the first such devices! there was a simple telephone. The remarkable Russian physiologist N.E. Vvedensky, using the telephone, discovered a number of the most important physiological properties of nerves and muscles. Using a telephone, we were able to listen to bioelectric potentials, i.e. explore their path\observations. A significant step forward was the invention of a technique for objective graphic recording of bioelectric phenomena. Dutch physiologist Einthoweg invented - a device that made it possible to register, on photo paper, the electrical potentials arising during the activity of the heart - an electrocardiogram (ECG). In our country, the pioneer of this method was the largest physiologist, student of I.M. Sechenov and I.P. Pavlov, A.F. Samoilov, who worked for some time in the Einthoven laboratory in Leiden, ""

Very soon the author received a response from Einthoven, who wrote: “I exactly fulfilled your request and read the letter to the galvanometer. Undoubtedly/ he listened and accepted with pleasure and joy everything that you wrote. He had no idea that he had done so much for humanity. But at the point where Zy says that he can’t read, he suddenly became furious... so much so that my family and I even got excited. He shouted: What, I can’t read? This is a terrible lie. Am I not reading all the secrets of the heart? "

Indeed, electrocardiography from physiological laboratories very soon moved into the clinic as a very advanced method for studying the condition of the heart, and many millions of patients today owe their lives to this method.

Subsequently, the use of electronic amplifiers made it possible to create compact electrocardiographs, and telemetry methods make it possible to record the ECG of astronauts in orbit, of athletes on the track and of patients in remote areas, from where the ECG is transmitted via telephone wires to large cardiology institutions for comprehensive analysis.

"Objective graphic registration of bioelectric potentials served as the basis for the most important section of our science - electrophysiology. A major step forward was the proposal of the English physiologist Adrian to use electronic amplifiers to record biocentric phenomena. The Soviet scientist V.V. Pravdicheminsky was the first to register the biocurrents of the brain - he received electro-chephalogram(EEG). This method was later improved by the German scientist Ber-IpoM. Currently, electroencephalography is widely used in the clinic, as well as graphic recording of electrical muscle potentials ( electromyography

ia), nerves and other excitable tissues and organs. This made it possible to conduct a fine-grained assessment of the functional state of these organs and systems. For physiology itself, smear methods were also of great importance; they made it possible to decipher the functional and structural mechanisms of the activity of the nervous system and other tissue organs, the mechanisms of regulation of physiological processes. An important milestone in the development of electrophysiology was the invention e. the thinnest electrodes, the diameter of the tip of which is equal to fractions of a micron. These electrodes, using appropriate micromanipulator devices, can be introduced directly into the cell and bioelectric potentials can be recorded intracellularly. Microelectrodes made it possible to decipher the mechanisms of generation of biopotentials, i.e. processes occurring in cell membranes. Membranes are the most important formations, since through them the processes of interaction of cells in the body and individual elements of the cell with each other are carried out. The science of the functions of biological membranes - membranepology - has become an important branch of physiology.

METHODS OF PHYSIOLOGICAL RESEARCH
Physiology is a science that studies the mechanisms of functioning of the body in its relationship with the environment (this is the science of the life activity of the organism), physiology is an experimental science and the main methods of physiological science are experimental methods. However, physiology as a science originated within medical science even before our era in Ancient Greece in the school of Hippocrates, when the main method of research was the observation method. Physiology emerged as an independent science in the 15th century thanks to the research of Harvey and a number of other natural scientists, and, starting from the late 15th and early 16th centuries, the main method in the field of physiology was the experimental method. I.N. Sechenov and I.P. Pavlov made a significant contribution to the development of methodology in the field of physiology, in particular in the development of a chronic experiment.

Literature:

1. 
   Human physiology. Kositsky
2. 
   Korbkov. Normal physiology.
3. 
   Zimkin. Human physiology.
4. 
   Human Physiology, ed. Pokrovsky V.N., 1998
5. 
   Physiology of GNI. Kogan.
6. 
   Physiology of humans and animals. Kogan. 2 t.
7. 
   Ed. Tkachenko P.I. Human physiology. 3 t.
8. 
   Ed. Nozdrocheva. Physiology. General course. 2 t.
9. 
   Ed. Kuraeva. 3 volumes. Translated textbook? human physiology.

Observation method- the most ancient, originated in Dr. Greece, was well developed in Egypt, on dr. East, in Tibet, in China. The essence of this method is long-term observation of changes in the functions and conditions of the body, recording these observations and, if possible, comparing visual observations with changes in the body after autopsy. In Egypt, during mummification, corpses were opened, the priest's observations of the patient: changes skin, depth and frequency of breathing, the nature and intensity of discharge from the nose, oral cavity, as well as the volume and color of urine, its transparency, the amount and nature of excreted feces, its color, pulse rate and other indicators that were compared with changes in the internal organs were recorded on papyrus. Thus, already by changing the feces, urine, sputum, etc. secreted by the body. it was possible to judge the dysfunction of a particular organ, for example, if the stool is white, it is possible to assume a dysfunction of the liver; if the stool is black or dark, then it is possible to assume gastric or intestinal bleeding. Additional criteria included changes in skin color and turgor, swelling of the skin, its character, color of the sclera, sweating, trembling, etc.

Hippocrates included the nature of behavior among the observable signs. Thanks to his careful observations, he formulated a doctrine of temperament, according to which all humanity is divided into 4 types according to behavioral characteristics: choleric, sanguine, phlegmatic, melancholic, but Hippocrates made a mistake in the physiological basis of the types. They based each type on the ratio of the main body fluids: sangvi - blood, phlegm - tissue fluid, cholea - bile, melancholea - black bile. The scientific theoretical basis for temperaments was given by Pavlov as a result of long-term experimental studies and it turned out that the basis of temperament is not the ratio of fluids, but the ratio of nervous processes of excitation and inhibition, the degree of their severity and the predominance of one process over another, as well as the rate of replacement of one process by others.

The observation method is widely used in physiology (especially in psychophysiology) and currently the observation method is combined with the method of chronic experiment.

Experimental method. A physiological experiment, in contrast to simple observation, is a targeted intervention in the current functioning of the body, designed to clarify the nature and properties of its functions, their relationships with other functions and with environmental factors. Also, the intervention often requires surgical preparation of the animal, which can have: 1) acute (vivisection, from the word vivo - living, sekcia - sec, i.e. slashing of the living), 2) chronic (experimental-surgical) forms.

In this regard, the experiment is divided into 2 types: acute (vivisection) and chronic. A physiological experiment allows you to answer the questions: what happens in the body and how it happens.

Vivisection is a form of experimentation performed on an immobilized animal. Vivisection was first used in the Middle Ages, but began to be widely introduced into physiological science during the Renaissance (XV-XVII centuries). Anesthesia was unknown at that time and the animal was rigidly fixed by 4 limbs, while it experienced torture and uttered heartbreaking screams. The experiments were carried out in special rooms, which people dubbed “devilish”. This was the reason for the emergence of philosophical groups and movements. Animalism (trends promoting humane treatment of animals and advocating for an end to cruelty to animals; animalism is currently being promoted), vitalism (advocated that experiments were not carried out on non-anesthetized animals and volunteers), mechanism (identified processes occurring correctly in animals with processes in inanimate nature, a prominent representative of mechanism was the French physicist, mechanic and physiologist Rene Descartes), anthropocentrism.

Beginning in the 19th century, anesthesia began to be used in acute experiments. This led to a disruption of regulatory processes on the part of the higher processes of the central nervous system, as a result of which the integrity of the body’s response and its connection with external environment. This use of anesthesia and surgical persecution during vivisection introduces uncontrolled parameters into an acute experiment that are difficult to take into account and predict. An acute experiment, like any experimental method, has its advantages: 1) vivisection is one of the analytical methods, makes it possible to simulate different situations, 2) vivisection makes it possible to obtain results in a relatively short time; and disadvantages: 1) in an acute experiment, consciousness is switched off when anesthesia is used and, accordingly, the integrity of the body’s response is disrupted, 2) the body’s connection with the environment is disrupted when anesthesia is used, 3) in the absence of anesthesia, there is a release of stress hormones and endogenous (produced) hormones that are inadequate to the normal physiological state. inside the body) morphine-like substances endorphins, which have an analgesic effect.

All this contributed to the development of a chronic experiment - long-term observation after acute intervention and restoration of relationships with the environment. Advantages of a chronic experiment: the body is as close as possible to the conditions of intensive existence. Some physiologists consider the disadvantages of a chronic experiment to be that the results are obtained over a relatively long period of time.

The chronic experiment was first developed by Russian physiologist I.P. Pavlov, and, since the end of the 18th century, has been widely used in physiological research. In a chronic experiment, a series of methodological techniques and approaches.

The method developed by Pavlov is a method of applying fistulas to hollow organs and organs that have excretory ducts. The founder of the fistula method was Basov, however, when applying a fistula using his method, the contents of the stomach entered the test tube along with digestive juices, which made it difficult to study the composition of gastric juice, the stages of digestion, the speed of the digestion process and the quality of the separated gastric juice for different food compositions.

Fistulas can be placed on the stomach, ducts of the salivary glands, intestines, esophagus, etc. The difference between Pavlov’s fistula and Basov’s is that Pavlov placed the fistula on a “small ventricle”, artificially made surgically and preserving digestive and humoral regulation. This allowed Pavlov to identify not only the qualitative and quantitative composition of gastric juice for food taken, but also the mechanisms of nervous and humoral regulation of digestion in the stomach. In addition, this allowed Pavlov to identify 3 stages of digestion:

1. 
   conditioned reflex - with it, appetizing or “incendiary” gastric juice is released;
2. 
   unconditioned reflex phase - gastric juice is released onto the incoming food, regardless of its qualitative composition, because in the stomach there are not only chemoreceptors, but also non-chemoreceptors that respond to the volume of food,
3. 
   intestinal phase - after food enters the intestines, digestion intensifies.

For his work in the field of digestion, Pavlov was awarded the Nobel Prize.
Heterogeneous neurovascular or neuromuscular anasthenoses. This is a change in the effector organ in the genetically determined nervous regulation of functions. Carrying out such anasthenoses makes it possible to identify the absence or presence of plasticity of neurons or nerve centers in the regulation of functions, i.e. can the sciatic nerve with the remainder of the spine control the respiratory muscles.

In neurovascular anasthenoses, the effector organs are blood vessels and the chemo- and baroreceptors located in them, respectively. Anasthenoses can be performed not only on one animal, but also on different animals. For example, if you perform neurovascular anastenosis in two dogs on the carotid zone (branching of the arch of the carotid artery), then you can identify the role of different parts of the central nervous system in the regulation of respiration, hematopoiesis, and vascular tone. In this case, the mode of inhaled air is changed in the bottom dog, and the regulation is seen in the other.
Transplantation of various organs. Replantation and removal of organs or various parts of the brain (extirpation). As a result of the removal of an organ, hypofunction of one or another gland is created; as a result of replanting, a situation of hyperfunction or excess of hormones of one or another gland is created.

Extirpation of various parts of the brain and cerebral cortex reveals the functions of these parts. For example, when the cerebellum was removed, its role in the regulation of movement, in maintaining posture, and statokinetic reflexes was revealed.

Removing different areas of the cerebral cortex allowed Brodman to map the brain. He divided the cortex into 52 fields according to functional areas.

Method of transection of the brain spinal cord. Allows us to identify the functional significance of each department of the central nervous system in the regulation of somatic and visceral functions of the body, as well as in the regulation of behavior.

Implantation of electrons into various parts of the brain. Allows you to identify the activity and functional significance of a particular nervous structure in the regulation of body functions (motor functions, visceral functions and mental). Electrodes implanted into the brain are made of inert materials (that is, they must be intoxicating): platinum, silver, palladium. Electrodes make it possible not only to identify the function of a particular area, but also, on the contrary, to register in which part of the brain the appearance of a potential (VT) in response to certain functional functions. Microelectrode technology gives a person the opportunity to study the physiological foundations of the psyche and behavior.

Implantation of cannulas (micro). Perfusion is the passage of solutions of various chemical compositions through our component or the presence of metabolites in it (glucose, PVA, lactic acid) or the content of biologically active substances (hormones, neurohormones, endorphins, enkephamines, etc.). The cannula allows you to inject solutions with different contents into one or another area of ​​the brain and observe changes in the functional activity of the motor system, internal organs or behavior, psychological activity.

Microelectrode technology and conulation are used not only on animals, but also on humans during brain surgery. In most cases, this is done for diagnostic purposes.

Introduction of labeled atoms and subsequent observation on a positron emission tomograph (PET). Most often, auro-glucose labeled with gold (gold + glucose) is administered. According to Greene’s figurative expression, the universal energy donor in all living systems is ATP, and during the synthesis and resynthesis of ATP, the main energy substrate is glucose (ATP resynthesis can also occur from creatine phosphate). Therefore, the amount of glucose consumed is used to judge the functional activity of a particular part of the brain, its synthetic activity.

Glucose is consumed by cells, but gold is not utilized and accumulates in this area. The synthetic and functional activity is judged by the different active gold and its quantity.

Stereotactic methods. These are methods in which surgical operations are performed to implant electrodes in a certain area of ​​the brain in accordance with the stereotactic atlas of the brain, followed by registration of allocated fast and slow biopotentials, with registration of evoked potentials, as well as registration of EEG and myogram.

When setting new goals and objectives, the same animal can be used for a long period of observation, changing the arrangement of microelements, or perfusing various areas of the brain or organs with various solutions containing not only biologically active substances, but also metatolytes, energy substrates (glucose, creotine phosphate, ATP ).

Biochemical methods. This large group techniques with the help of which the level of cations, anions, non-nonionized elements (macro and microelements), energy substances, enzymes, biologically active substances (hormones, etc.) is determined in circulating fluids, tissues, and sometimes organs. These methods are applied either in vivo (in incubators) or in tissues that continue to secrete and synthesize produced substances into the incubation medium.

Biochemical methods make it possible to assess the functional activity of a particular organ or part of it, and sometimes an entire organ system. For example, the level of 11-OCS can be used to judge the functional activity of the zona fasciculata of the adrenal cortex, but the level of 11-OCS can also be used to judge the functional activity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal system. In general, since 11-OX is the end product of the peripheral part of the adrenal cortex.

Methods for studying the physiology of GNI. The mental work of the brain has long remained inaccessible to natural science in general and to physiology in particular. Mainly because she was judged by feelings and impressions, i.e. by using subjective methods. Success in this area of ​​knowledge was determined when mental activity (MAP) began to be judged using the objective method of conditioned reflexes of varying complexity of development. At the beginning of the 20th century, Pavlov developed and proposed a method for developing conditioned reflexes. Based on this technique, additional methods for studying the properties of VNI and the localization of VNI processes in the brain are possible. Of all the techniques, the most commonly used are the following:

Testing the possibility of forming different forms of conditioned reflexes (to the pitch of a sound, to a color, etc.), which allows us to judge the conditions of primary perception. Comparison of these boundaries in animals of different species makes it possible to reveal in what direction the evolution of the sensory systems of the internal nervous system went.

Ontogenetic study of conditioned reflexes. Complex animal behavior different ages when studying it, it allows us to establish what in this behavior is innate and what is acquired. For example, Pavlov took puppies of the same litter and fed some with meat and others with milk. Upon reaching adulthood, they developed conditioned reflexes, and it turned out that in those dogs that received milk from childhood, conditioned reflexes were developed to milk, and in those dogs that were fed meat from childhood, conditioned reflexes were easily developed to meat. Thus, dogs do not have a strict preference for the type of carnivorous food, the main thing is that it is complete.

Phylogenetic study of conditioned reflexes. By comparing the properties of conditioned reflex activity of animals at different levels of development, one can judge in what direction the evolution of GNI is going. For example, it turned out that the rate of formation of conditioned reflexes varies sharply from invertebrates and vertebrates, changes relatively slightly throughout the entire history of the development of vertebrates and abruptly reaches a person’s ability to immediately associate coincident events (imprinting), imprinting is also characteristic of brood birds (ducklings hatched from eggs can follow any object: a chicken, a person, and even a moving toy. The transitions between invertebrate animals - vertebrate animals, vertebrate animals - humans reflect the turning points of evolution associated with the emergence and development of VND (in insects). nervous system non-cellular type, in coelenterates - reticular type, in vertebrates - tubular type, in birds ballistic ganglia appear, some cause a high development of conditioned reflex activity. Humans have a well-developed cortex cerebral hemispheres, which causes the jump.

Ecological study of conditioned reflexes. The action potential that arises in the nerve cells involved in the formation of reflex connections makes it possible to identify the main links of the conditioned reflex.

It is especially important that bioelectronic indicators make it possible to observe the formation of a conditioned reflex in the structures of the brain even before it appears in the motor or autonomic (visceral) reflexes of the body. Direct stimulation of the nervous structures of the brain makes it possible to carry out model experiments on the formation of nerve connections between artificial foci of excitation. It is also possible to directly determine how the excitability of the nervous structures involved in it changes during a conditioned reflex.

Pharmacological action in the formation or modification of conditioned reflexes. By introducing certain substances into the brain, it is possible to determine what effect they have on the speed and strength of the formation of conditioned reflexes, on the ability to remake the conditioned reflex, which makes it possible to judge the functional mobility of the central nervous system, as well as on the functional state of cortical neurons and their performance. For example, it was found that caffeine ensures the formation of conditioned reflexes when the performance of nerve cells is high, and when their performance is low, even a small dose of caffeine makes the excitation unbearable for the nerve cells.

Creation of an experimental pathology of conditioned reflex activity. For example, surgical removal of the temporal lobes of the cerebral cortex leads to mental deafness. The extirpation method reveals the functional significance of areas of the cortex, subcortex and brain stem. In the same way, the localization of the cortical ends of the analyzers is determined.

Modeling of processes of conditioned reflex activity. Pavlov also involved mathematicians in order to express with a formula the quantitative dependence of the formation of a conditioned reflex on the frequency of its reinforcement. It turned out that in most healthy animals, including humans, the conditioned reflex was developed in healthy people after 5 reinforcements with an unconditioned stimulus. This is especially important in service dog breeding and in the circus.

Comparison of psychological and physiological manifestations of the conditioned reflex. Support voluntary attention, flight, learning efficiency.

Comparison of psychological and physiological manifestations with bioelements and morphological with biokinetic ones: production of memory proteins (S-100) or areas of biologically active substances in the formation of conditioned reflexes. It has been proven that if vasopression is introduced, conditioned reflexes are developed faster (vasopression is a neuro-hormone produced in the hypothalamus). Morphological changes in the structure of a neuron: a naked neuron at birth and with denurites in an adult.
Laboratory lesson No. 1

Year of issue: 1985

Genre: Physiology

Format: PDF

Quality: Scanned pages

Description: 12 years have passed since the previous edition of the textbook “Human Physiology” The executive editor and one of the authors of the book, Academician of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR E.B., has passed away. Babsky, according to whose manuals many generations of students studied physiology.
The team of authors of this publication includes well-known specialists in the relevant sections of physiology: corresponding member of the USSR Academy of Sciences, prof. A.I. Shapovalov and prof. Yu.V. Natochin (head of laboratories of the I.M. Sechenov Institute of Evolutionary Physiology and Biochemistry of the USSR Academy of Sciences), prof. V.D. Glebovsky (Head of the Department of Physiology, Leningrad Pediatric Medical Institute), prof. A.E. Kogan (Head of the Department of Human and Animal Physiology and Director of the Institute of Neurocybernetics of Rostov State University), prof. G.F. Korotko (Head of the Department of Physiology, Andijan Medical Institute), prf. V.M. Pokrovsky (Head of the Department of Physiology, Kuban Medical Institute), prof. B.I. Khodorov (head of the laboratory of the A.V. Vishnevsky Institute of Surgery of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences), prof. I.A. Shevelev (head of the laboratory of the Institute of Higher Nervous Activity and Neurophysiology of the USSR Academy of Sciences).
Over the past time, a large number of new facts, views, theories, discoveries and directions of our science have appeared. In this regard, 9 chapters in this edition had to be written anew, and the remaining 10 chapters had to be revised and supplemented. At the same time, to the extent possible, the authors tried to preserve the text of these chapters.
The new sequence of presentation of the material, as well as its combination into four main sections, is dictated by the desire to give the presentation logical harmony, consistency and, as far as possible, to avoid duplication of material.
The content of the textbook “Human Physiology” corresponds to the physiology program approved in 1981. Critical comments about the project and the program itself, expressed in the resolution of the Bureau of the Department of Physiology of the USSR Academy of Sciences (1980) and at the All-Union Meeting of Heads of Physiology Departments of Medical Universities (Suzdal, 1982), were also taken into account. In accordance with the program, chapters were introduced into the textbook “Human Physiology” that were missing in the previous edition: “Features of higher nervous activity of man” and “Elements of labor physiology, mechanisms of training and adaptation”, and sections covering issues of particular biophysics and physiological cybernetics were expanded. The authors took into account that in 1983 a textbook of biophysics for students of medical institutes was published (edited by Prof. Yu.A. Vladimirov) and that the elements of biophysics and cybernetics are presented in the textbook of Prof. A.N. Remizov “Medical and biological physics”.
Due to the limited volume of the textbook “Human Physiology,” it was necessary, unfortunately, to omit the chapter “History of Physiology,” as well as excursions into history in individual chapters. Chapter 1 gives only outlines of the formation and development of the main stages of our science and shows its importance for medicine.
Our colleagues provided great assistance in creating the textbook. At the All-Union Meeting in Suzdal (1982), the structure was discussed and approved, and valuable suggestions were made regarding the content of the textbook. Prof. V.P. Skipetrov revised the structure and edited the text of the 9th chapter and, in addition, wrote its sections relating to blood coagulation. Prof. V.S. Gurfikkel and R.S. Person wrote the subsection of chapter 6 “Regulation of movements”. Assoc. N.M. Malyshenko presented some new materials for Chapter 8. Prof. I.D. Boyenko and his staff expressed many useful comments and suggestions as reviewers.
Employees of the Department of Physiology MOLGMI named after N.P. Pirogova Prof. L.A. Miyutina, associate professors I.A. Murashova, S.A. Sevastopolskaya, T.E. Kuznetsova, Ph.D. L.I. Mongush and L.M. Popov took part in the discussion of the manuscript of some chapters (we would like to express our deep gratitude to all these comrades.
The authors are fully aware that in such a difficult task as creating a modern textbook, shortcomings are inevitable and therefore will be grateful to everyone who makes critical comments and suggestions about the textbook.