Viking Winter Ale. Viking drink

We know few recipes from the Viking Age, but we do know about the ingredients that the Vikings had at their disposal thanks to archaeological excavations. Among which there are “leftovers” of food in pans. Research into Viking Age kitchen scraps and rubbish dumps provides even more concrete clues. Analysis of pollen from bogs and lake beds gives us an idea of ​​what types of plants were grown in Viking-era Scandinavia. Something is mentioned in the works of this era - in the Eddas and sagas, although this information is scanty and occurs only in passing. Unfortunately, the Vikings did not write cookbooks, and the earliest book from this era dates back to 1300.

Everyday Viking food often consisted of porridges, soups and stews. The meat was used mainly for celebrations. The Vikings had milk, honey and eggs in their diet. They drank sour milk and made cheese, brewed beer and mead. The beer was light, almost without alcohol, and was drunk every day. Honey is a honey wine that was quite intoxicating and intended for special occasions.

Vikings usually ate two meals a day. The first, dagmál or "day meal" was served in the morning, about two hours after the start of the work day (around 7-8 o'clock or so), while the second meal, náttmál or "evening meal" was served after work (at around 19-20 hours or so). The timing of food service varied depending on the time of year and the amount of daylight.

Protein sources

Of course, the Vikings kept farms that supplied them with meat. It was mainly lamb, beef, pork and goat. Horse meat was also consumed, but as a result of the Christianization of Scandinavia, the consumption of horse meat became identified as a distinct pagan practice.

Pigs are the most common Viking animal because... they were easy to feed (they ate scraps, forest gifts).

Viking Age people also kept chicken, geese and ducks for both eggs and meat.

Preserving meat was very important, and the Vikings used a variety of preservation methods, including drying, smoking, salting, fermenting, and even freezing (in northern Scandinavia). Drying was perhaps the most common method, as properly dried meat could be stored for years.

The Vikings hunted wild animals such as hares, moose, deer, bears and squirrels (due to the value of their fur).

Absolute love for fish

According to scientists, food from the sea, rivers and lakes accounted for up to 25% of the Scandinavians' calories. Fish, especially herring, was often on the Viking menu. As a rule, it was perch, bream, pike, salmon, haddock... They ate a lot of fish different preparations, boiled, baked and dried. Dry and cold winters made it possible to store fish for a very long time.

Viking diet

People of that time also ate whales and seals. There is much evidence of controversy over whales and bones in those days. Whaling existed in the Faroe Islands and Iceland. The fat of seals was also strategically important, so hunting them was common.

Many of the ingredients were the same as today, but they may have had a different status. For example, horse meat was considered a delicacy and was consumed only on special occasions. Among the poor population, the prevailing dishes were porridge made from barley, oats and other grains. It was often sweetened with berries or apples. The Vikings didn't have sugar.

And believe it or not, the Vikings made sandwiches made from thick slices of bread spread with butter and topped with wild boar, deer, elk or bear meat. Honey was often used as a sweetener for dishes: in soups, if there was any, garlic was used.

English sources refer to the Vikings as great gluttons.

Feasts were held during the spring and winter holidays, on the days of sacrifices, after returning from sea voyages and when a child was born or a wedding was celebrated.

Sometimes a feast was held in the area "by pooling", that is, the owners of the estates "shared" food and drinks and gathered at the appointed time to drink and have fun.

“Men have fun,” says one saga, “when they feast on large company.” In addition, the owners of the estates and noble people gave feasts when the king traveled around the country.

In Viking times, general meetings, or feasts, were simply called "beer", after the main drink consumed at them.

But when we find in the new Christian laws a record that, under threat of a heavy fine, the owners of every large estate are obliged to gather guests for a feast at least three times a year, it becomes clear to us that this law does not set as its goal the preservation of pagan customs.

It is quite obvious that people needed feasts for communication, often religious communication. Beer (or honey) was a natural part of religion in the Viking Age. Honey was not even a “decoration” of rituals or a means of quenching thirst, but an object of real cult.

photo:vikingvalley.no

In all religions, sacrifices of food and drink are an integral part of the cult ritual. And it is quite natural that in “primitive” religions more attention was paid to sacrifices than in later times.

The best dishes that were in the house were served on the table: meat, fish, good strong beer 37.

On a long table, near which there were benches, dishes of food were placed; on the other, smaller one, they placed horns and goblets of honey and beer. Everything was swept and cleaned; the hall is festively decorated.

The owner himself sat on a “high” place near the southern wall of the house; Opposite him is the most distinguished guest. Guests sat according to their dignity and importance: the closer to the host, the more honorable. The places near the southern wall were more honorable than those near the northern one. Women sat in a separate room or away from the “men’s” table. The most noble one was located in the middle; others on its sides and also in dignity: the more important the husband was in society, the more the best place was given to the wife. The seating order was strictly observed, and even loud arguments arose between the guests over their places at the table, ending in mortal hostility.

However, it happened that women and men sat in pairs and even drank from the same cup. This was a custom among “peaceful” northerners, but the Vikings never ate with women.

In the estates of kings and jarls, as well as rich people, warriors and workers were divided into so-called “table teams”, when a certain group of people sat at a certain table.

At weddings, a place of honor at the head of the table was occupied by the bride, another, also honorable, by the father-in-law, and a third by the groom, each surrounded by close relatives.

They were supposed to receive and treat guests special people. Servants walked around the table with bowls filled with water and towels in their hands so that guests could wash their hands and wash themselves at any time: in those days there were no forks and people ate with their hands. The goblets (horns) were usually poured and offered by women, reminiscent of the Valkyries treating the fallen warriors in Valhalla.

Usually each person was given his portion, but often the dish was served to everyone. The same thing happened with drinks.

photo:vikingvalley.no

Sometimes honey was brought to the chambers in large vats, from where those feasting themselves could scoop it up.

There were many customs. First of all, there was drinking alone. In this case, the guest drank from a cup or horn intended only for him. Two people could drink from the cup - two men or a man and a woman. This was called drinking together. There was also a circular one, when the bowl went around the entire table in a circle. The Vikings always sat at a separate table and only drank together from one cup. The violator of the rules of conduct at the feast drank the cup of punishment or the horn of the latecomer.

As a joke, the hosts did not hesitate to arrange it so that the guests were late, and then, for the amusement of those gathered, they had to drink the “horn of the latecomer.”

The warriors of Harald Fairhair, who loved to have fun, once bribed the bell-ringer, and he rang for the service earlier than usual. As a result, many were late for church, and in the evening they were presented with the “horns of latecomers.”

They drank at all large “gatherings” and feasts. Playing a wedding, holding a wake in the Old Norse language was called “drinking a wedding”, “drinking a wake”.

At such gatherings of Germans, unprecedented quantities of beer were consumed. Tacitus writes that among the Germanic peoples it is not considered shameful to drink day and night. Quite often, feasts ended in squabbles, and weapons were used. Even such serious matters as buying and selling an estate, betrothal and discussion of a dowry, choosing a king and paying vira were always discussed at the banquet table. Drinks loosened people's tongues, in the figurative expression of Tacitus, and that is why at feasts the truth was spoken to the face - regardless of the social status of the speaker.

By the way, it was Tacitus who wrote that the Germans lose their minds when they drink, and gain it when they sober up. For an exemplary Roman, such “abuse” of beer should have looked very repulsive. And therefore he was not at all surprised that at the end of the feast, the one who was better at wielding weapons won the argument. But the Germans always had little beer.

The insatiable thirst of the Vikings is well known to other historians. In the autumn, the Normans invariably rushed to the countries where grapes grew, and they always guessed that the time of their attack would fall on the harvest festival, accompanied by a copious libation. The winegrowers already knew about this and sought to hide the wine away from the insatiable Vikings.

When the Normans captured the lands along the banks of the Seine in 865, they specially sent a squad of 200 soldiers to Paris to buy wine. But they couldn’t find anything there either.

In 869, the Duke of Brittany concluded a peace treaty with the Vikings on the Loire. According to this treaty, he was granted the right to harvest grapes in his lands in Anjou, but at the same time his subjects had to pay tribute to the Scandinavians in kind - wine, so that the Normans would leave their lands alone.

Wine appears several times in Norwegian written documents. In the imagination of the inhabitants of the medieval North, a certain Grape Country even arose, where wild grapes grew. The country was called that way - the Country of Grapes, or the Country of Wine. The promising name lured more than a dozen adventurers to this mysterious land, but they were all bitterly disappointed.

Thorhall, who went on one of these journeys to Vinland, even composed the following verse:

Hövding promised me
A sea of ​​wine in that country
But that land was inhospitable,
And on its banks arose
Thor warriors are evil.
And I'm ashamed to admit -
Not a drop of wine
It didn't hit my throat.

The rulers of other lands often sent wine as gifts to the northern kings. They knew that such an offering would be gladly accepted.

There are conflicting opinions about the “drunkenness” of the northerners during the sagas.

photo:vikingvalley.no

For example, Adam of Bremen wrote that the Norwegians “know moderation in food and drink.” And the Danish pilgrims, who visited some Norwegian cities in 1191, claimed that “in the city of Tunsberg there are unusually hospitable and kind inhabitants... who spare nothing for their guests, but their excessive commitment to drinking interferes with conversation and often a pleasant evening ends in bloodshed...”. The Danes spoke about life in the city itself as follows: “... on the streets you can never be sure of your own safety, because at any moment even the most respectable townspeople, under the influence of beer, are ready to grab a weapon and shed the blood of their fellow citizens... Uncontrollable drunkenness leads to , that even hosts and guests, acquaintances and strangers, engage in battles that often end in murder, and often the victims are innocent people...” These very gloomy descriptions of cities were made, no doubt, during the times of street battles in Bergen between teams. ships and Bergens.

In ancient times, people were well aware of how dangerous the abuse of beer and honey was. Suffice it to recall the stanzas from “The Speeches of the High,” one of the songs of the “Elder Edda”:

Best stock on the road for the wanderer -
A reserve of meaning and intelligence.
And the one who makes everyone worse is the one who, before leaving
Having drunk some beer, he sets off on his way.
Benefits for mortals from foamy beer
Less than many people think.
The more you drink, the less you can
Own your own spirit.
The bird of oblivion soars over the feasts:
It steals the mind of the drinker.
The feathers of that bird overshadowed me,
When I was sitting at Gannlod's.
Was intoxicated, was hazy with hops
I am in the house of the wise Fyalar.
The happiest of all are those who have a clear mind
38 will come home from the feast.

One in “Speeches of the High One” acts as a wise adviser: drink honey, but know when to stop, be careful, but don’t be a coward, be wise, but don’t be clever.

Caring father in the “Royal Mirror” he gives approximately the same advice to his son: “Avoid immoderate drunkenness, fights... games and visiting whores... Wherever you are, do not get drunk, because it may happen that at this moment you will be called upon to testify in court. And “At this time you may find yourself involved in dirty deeds, but you will not be able to get out of this situation, because your mind will be clouded.”

The speech of King Sverrir (d. 1202) to the residents of Bergen with a call to limit drunkenness is also very well known, especially regarding foreign drinks.

Although in fairness, we note that such excess drinking and excess in food were typical not only of the North in those days.

Written sources say the same about the state of affairs in England and France: numerous evidence has reached us of the abuse of beer and wine in society and fiery speeches of kings calling for an end to drunkenness and gluttony.

King Sverrir's speech cannot in any way be taken as an indication that there was more drinking in Norway or that the king was more "conscious" than in other countries. This was the speech of the king by God's grace, and not just by birthright, the ruler of the new - Christian - time, who sought to restore order in a country fragmented and torn apart by pretenders to the throne. This was the speech of a politician who thought more about the future of the entire country than about his own greatness or glory. This was the speech of a politician who cared less about his own life than about fate and the question of the existence of the state.

But this was not his opponent - Magnus Erlingson, the main life principle which was expressed by the motto “Become a king at any cost.” He wanted to be a king according to the old laws, he wanted to control the destinies of other people at his own discretion, he wanted to sit at the head of the table and receive all the blessings of life at his first request.

King Sverrir argued that of the seven deadly sins, the most terrible was intemperance in eating and drinking. Therefore, one should not allow oneself too much at feasts, because “drunkenness causes quarrels and discord with friends, clouds the mind and spoils health, and - which is no less important for a Christian - a person will easily commit a mortal sin when he is unable to control his actions... ".

At the suggestion of Bishop Einstein and with the consent of the jarls and leaders, a law was passed according to which “one had to appear at the Thing in a sober state and fast during the Thing. Whoever breaks this law and pays more attention to food and drink than to what is happening at the Thing, the matter will not be sorted out this year... In addition, it is prohibited to bring beer to the Thing, both for one’s own needs and for sale.” If beer is nevertheless brought to the meeting, then it should not be poured out, but should be divided among all those gathered.

In the 13th century, the king also decided to limit the consumption of beer, especially at weddings and funerals. “Those commemorations,” the law says, “that are organized throughout the country, are performed more for the delight of the living than for the remembrance of the souls of the departed”...

But such laws had almost no influence on citizens, because throughout Norway, at weddings and funerals there were sufferers whose thirst was not at all easy to quench, and beer at such meetings continued to flow like a river. They continued to drink in taverns, at the royal court, in cities and farmsteads. The churchmen also drank. When envoys from the bishop came to the monasteries, their reports regularly contained entries about the abuses and exorbitant appetite of the abbot and the brethren...

The sagas repeatedly emphasize that one of the great arts in Viking times was the ability to drink.

photo: wyrdvikingdesign

The famous Old Norse "Egil's Saga" says that Egil was first in everything - including at the feast. It is reported about the blind King Rörek that he could drink anyone at a feast and got everyone drunk who sat next to him, but, it is then added, he himself usually drank little. In the “Saga of Olaf the Quiet” from the “Earthly Circle,” King Olaf is called “a tall and stately man. Everyone says that there was no more handsome or prominent husband than him. He had beautiful and golden hair like silk, bursting with health body, very beautiful eyes and proportionate addition. He was usually a man of few words and did not like to talk at gatherings, but he was not averse to feasting and was talkative and friendly over beer." 39

One of the signs of the king’s insanity in the Old Norse “Saga of Sigurd” is considered to be his behavior while drinking beer: “It is said that King Sigurd was taciturn when he drank beer, and a serious illness attacked him. He did not listen to what people told him... And there was no solution to the matters with which they approached him when he was holding a horn of beer in his hands." When he visited his estates, he went to bed early, while his son Magnus continued to sit for a long time at the banquet table.

Earl Erling from Sverrir's Saga was more interested in the contents of the beer horn than in the affairs of his own squad. His son also loved beer and mead, but King Sverrir himself was a non-drinker.

About Magnus's warriors who came out against him in the battle of Iluvellir, King Sverrir said in a speech to his army: “You must test your swords by tearing open the honey-filled bellies of the people from Vik. We have a very good army, and we have something to fight for. And their superiority will not be useful to them. Most of their people are better suited to be groomsmen at a wedding than to be warriors, and are more accustomed to drunkenness than to war." 40

Inga, the son of Bard, was known as a “calm and balanced person; he was not arrogant and friendly, especially with his people. He... did not like large gatherings and therefore did not drink beer and mead, which was not to the liking of many of his warriors, who wanted to attend feasts , where loud words were spoken and beer flowed."

Earl Knut, who died in 1261, shortly after the wedding of Magnus son Hakon, appears to be a completely different person: “He was majestic and pleasant to look at, kind and generous, tall, but he loved to drink too much, and it was beer that caused his illness.” Jarl Knut - only person, about whom the sagas say that he died due to excessive drinking.

In Viking times, the most common thing was to sit at the banquet table all night long.

Only in the 13th century, after the Christianization of Norway, excessive love for beer and honey began to be condemned. Laws introduce penalties for drunkards, but feasts are still held throughout the country.

The ancient Scandinavians also had a saying: “If beer comes in, reason goes out,” and one saga says: “Often a drunk man says a lot of crazy things that he can’t do when he sobers up.”

Treating guests with care was a requirement of ancient hospitality. Food and drink at the table were always dedicated to some god before the meal - for example, Odin, Thor or Frey, and after the adoption of Christianity - to Jesus Christ, the Virgin Mary or St. Olaf. This is also confirmed by the fact that during the times of the sagas, large feasts were dedicated specifically to religious festivals.

But, no matter how much beer was consumed in Viking-era Norway, it is completely false to say that in those days the foamy drink in the estates was a common and familiar drink for every day.

The sagas tell us almost nothing about “simple” life. They are primarily about noble and well-born people, about feasts and celebrations, about especially important events and battles. Saga narrators consider it their duty to emphasize the extraordinary scale of the feast or the importance of what is happening.

The events of each day were known to everyone, and there was no point in mentioning them. And if you carefully read the sagas, you can easily come to the conclusion that ordinary people there was no habit of drinking in everyday life strong alcohol. And in rich estates they didn’t drink beer every day either. One of the songs in the Elder Edda (not included in the main body), the Song of Riga, says the following:

Then Rig walked along the wide road.
Arrived at the mansions with doors at noon
Unlocked; the ring was in the door.
He entered the house; the floor was covered with straw.
Mother and Father were sitting there nearby,
They looked affectionately into each other's eyes.
The husband forked a strong bowstring for himself,
He sharpened the arrows and decorated the bow with carvings.
The mother smiled, admiring herself,
I straightened my dress, straightened the sleeves,
A belt, a bandage, with a monastery around the neck,
In long clothes with blue patterns.
(The eyebrows are shiny, the breasts are lighter,
The neck is whiter than cold snow.)
The wanderer taught the owners wisdom,
Rig sat in the middle of the house,
The spouses sat to the left and right.
Mother took out the tablecloth with stains,
She covered the table with a thin cloth.
After the pancakes she brought flat ones -
White, wheat, I put them on the table.
Full dishes were still served,
Silver plated, - the table is all crowded -
Meat and lard and fried poultry;
The cups of silver wine were all burning.
Drank; chatted; the hour has come late 41 .

These were the rules of decency, and these were the dishes that were served on the table: the rich treated the guest to poultry, lard and wine, but in poor houses they had to be content with meat and beer.

During the time of Harald Fairhair, it became a custom to serve honey, and even the king himself, in one of the vises, complains about the excessive addiction of his warriors to this drink. The saga says that when the people were called to the feast and the honey was brewed, the king said to himself:

Warriors crowded here,
Old men are gray,
Honey hunters
Where are so many of you going? 42

Even at the court of Sigurd the Pig it was not the custom to serve intoxicating drinks every day. When Olav Haraldsson returned home with his squad from a Viking campaign, King Sigurd fed them “every other day with fish and milk, and every other day with meat and beer.”

And when the English told their bishop William that in Norway no one could get any other drink than beer mixed with water, they were closer to the truth than the skald who wrote a verse about “a cup full of wine” and “streams of foamy beer that kindly "It tickles my throat."

There is no doubt that beer played a more important role in the Middle Ages than it does today, but it is unlikely that its importance was as great as we sometimes imagine.

Orderic Vitalis wrote that the inhabitants of Norway “are abundantly provided with fish, wild fowl and the meat of all kinds of wild animals.” He does not mention any excessive commitment to drinking and eating. On the contrary, he said, Norwegians “are full of respect for the holy Christian faith and are attentive to their Christian responsibilities.”

Quirini writes that on the island of Røst the inhabitants eat mainly fish, which is cooked with butter and various spices and is very tasty. Sometimes they eat beef and drink milk. They use a lot sour milk, which the Italians, however, did not like at all. They drink beer occasionally. Among the dishes served to the guests at the farewell dinner, beer is not mentioned, but it is said that upon their arrival on the island, beer was offered to the Italians by a priest, a “German monk.”

During a trip through Norway, Quirini and his companions had to visit many estates, “better and worse,” and there they were given bread, milk, butter, cheese and huge amounts of sour milk. Occasionally they had the opportunity to live in better conditions - migliore allogiamento - where they were served in abundance beer, meat and other things that they wanted.

German Boeheim in his travel notes 1450 says approximately the same thing about living conditions.

From written evidence from later times we learn a lot of interesting things about the use of beer - it is unlikely that these customs could have changed much since the times of the Vikings.

In those days, beer was brewed primarily for some important and festive events: Christmas, weddings and births of children, funerals, midsummer festival. In such cases, a lot of beer was brewed, and guests and hosts drank without any measure.

Brewing beer - like others important events human life - took place according to certain canons, was a kind of ritual, the main purpose of which was to keep evil spirits away from the precious drink. There are other reasons for, from our point of view, the “abuse” of beer that was observed in the Middle Ages. And this is not only and not so much different levels of life, and not even ritual significance foamy drink. Beer was necessary integral part Viking food.

It is easy to notice that historical sources constantly mention the combinations “fish and milk”, “meat and beer”. And sometimes we come across "bird and wine". Meat was rarely served freshly prepared and was most often eaten salted or dried. This combination of salted meat and beer is still found on the menus of Scandinavian restaurants and cafes.

People with good incomes could afford to constantly drink beer with salty food. The rest had to be content with milk and drink beer only on holidays.

Therefore, it is unlikely that, based on modern ideas about food and drink, we will be able to correctly assess the situation with beer consumption in the Viking Age. The addiction to this drink in such ancient times is explained big amount consumed salt – primarily in meat and flatbred 43 .

In addition, beer “satisfied” certain social needs of society - it was served as a special welcome drink to guests both at feasts and at religious meetings.

It must be noted that ordinary beer brewed at home was not a particularly tasty drink. A completely different matter is honey beer, or mead, which was brewed in the royal estate.

But wine was considered the most valuable and most delicious. It was served only on exceptionally solemn occasions.

We also find confirmation of this gradation “beer – honey – wine” in the legend of Saint Olaf. One day the king did big way on horseback and was very thirsty. He ordered water to be given to him, and asked the bishop to bless it. The bishop consecrated. Then the king took the horn with the drink, looked into it and said: “I don’t want to drink beer during fasting.” Another liquid was poured into the horn, and the bishop consecrated it again. The king took the horn and said: “I want to drink honey even less during fasting.” The horn was refilled and the bishop reconsecrated it. Then the king exclaimed: “And it would be a very great sin to drink wine.” To which the bishop replied: “He, the One who has the right to permit, allows you to drink this drink.” Only then was the king able to quench his thirst.

Sure, it's just a legend, but historical sources They say the same thing about drinking beer, honey and wine.

But this is what the incorrect distribution of honey and beer between guests and warriors can lead to, as described in the “Saga of Sverrir”:

“King Magnus was going to spend Christmas in Bjergyn. The warriors were supposed to feast in the large warrior’s chamber, and the guests - in Sunneva’s chamber. The guests were unhappy that the warriors were drinking mead, and they were drinking beer.

On the fifth day of Christmas, when the guests had drunk too much, they took up arms, went to the king’s chamber and wanted to break down the door. Realizing what was happening, the king rushed to the door to stop them. But Bard Shield, his slave, ran out into the hallway ahead of him and was immediately killed. After this, the king returned back, and the warriors slammed the door. But the guests broke into it. Then those who were on guard that day rushed to the door, since they were the only ones who had weapons. Some took stove stones and threw them into the hallway. When the townspeople and workers of King Magnus and the Lendrmanns realized what was happening, they grabbed their weapons and went to the military chamber. Here the guests retreated. But many were wounded." 44

Wine entered the Scandinavian countries thanks to Christianization. Wine in the North during the Viking Age was not particularly popular.

Nevertheless, the Normans were familiar with many types of wine - Spanish, French and Italian. The latter were so good that “the manufacturers do not sell them to other lands, and to taste them one must go to that blessed country,” as Olaus Magnus writes.

Most of the Normans knew that wine excites and at the same time deprives the hand of firmness, and therefore they tried to be careful with it.

A huge number of guests were invited to the feast. The more people came, the more fame and honor the owner received. There are indications in the sagas that up to a thousand (or even more) guests sometimes gathered for feasts. For such magnificent celebrations, special rooms were built - halls. One saga says that in Iceland, 1,200 guests came to the wake gathered by the sons of Hjalti. Since this happened in Iceland, in order to build a hall to receive so many guests, timber was brought from Norway by ship.

The feasts usually lasted for many days. When saying goodbye, the owners gave gifts to the guests - as it was believed, in recompense for the trouble on the road and as a keepsake.

The “Saga of the Sturlungs” talks about the “order of holding” such feasts.

"Two Icelanders - Thorgils Bodvardson and Berg - were invited to Brynulf from Kvale in Sogn for Christmas and went there with Eirik and Geirmund. They were expected good welcome and a rich meal. A man named Bjorn brewed beer at Brynulf's. And Thorgils told him that Bjorn was sorry for the beer. Bjorn himself drank a lot of beer that evening, and so they had a fight. Berg drank little because he was sick and did not want to drink more than he himself wanted. Thorgils always drank a lot and lost his head when he was drunk.

On New Year's Day everyone drank especially heavily. And at the end of the feast, the guests were offered wine. The horn went around in a circle. And everyone could drink as much as they wanted. And then they began to drink a full horn each. And soon they all got drunk.

Then Geirmund said that they must have added something else to the drink, because the guests lost their heads too quickly. Then Bjorn brought a cup of beer, but Geirmund hit it and poured its contents onto the crook. Bjorn cursed the guest and broke his nose until it bled.

At this time Thorgils jumped to his feet, grabbed a heavy horn set in silver, and hit Bjorn on the back between the shoulder blades with it, so that he fell to the floor. Brynulf did not like this, and he also grabbed his weapon. Both his men and Eirik jumped up.

Eirik said: “We shouldn’t start this quarrel, but it’s better to disperse peacefully.”

To which Brunulf replied: “I am not used to people being beaten in my house.”

Then Arne, a warrior, remarked: “You have in Sogn bad habit drink without measure until you lose all your mind... And it will be better if we don’t talk about this matter now, but go to bed, and in the morning we’ll agree on everything.”

Everyone liked this proposal. And the people went to bed.

The next morning everyone sobered up and went to church service, and then sat down at the table again. Arne began to talk about the matter, and it was decided that it was worth forgiving each other, because it was no one’s fault in that quarrel. The owner was very happy with this decision, and the others were happy too. After this feud there was no more, and all the guests had a good time during Christmas."

From this description of the Christmas festivities we can learn a lot useful information.

People drank beer from bone horns, which were regularly filled by minions. Expensive horns, bowls and other precious utensils set in silver and gold were available in huge quantities in every rich estate.

A wealthy man, Bjarne Audunson, owned a stemmed cup that was given to him by a bishop, as well as a silver-mounted cup with a gilded stem, and another gilded cup.

In Viking times, horns and bowls, like many other favorite objects - swords, spears, shields, had their own proper names, derived from the name of the owner or denoting properties that they themselves possessed.

Horns were often decorated with runic inscriptions. The runes had protective powers and were supposed to protect against damage and poison. Such magical signs were called “beer runes.” This is how it is said in the Speeches of Sigrdriva:

Learn the runes of beer so that you won’t be afraid of deception!
Apply them to the horn, draw them on your hand, and the Naud rune on your nail.
Sanctify the horn, beware of deceit, throw the bow into the moisture;
Then I know for sure that they won’t give you a magic potion 45.

The guests at the table drank from the horns as much as they wanted. However, it often happened that two guests - or several couples - would drink the same amount of beer to see who could outdrink who.

It was also customary for all guests to drain the cups to the bottom, which often resulted in disputes and even deaths.

One of the warriors of Harald Fairhair, Thorir the Englishman, a former merchant, when he became old, came to the king and told him that he could no longer keep up with the young warriors in draining the horns and bowls, and asked to let him go home, for his strength had waned. To which the king replied that Thorir could remain in the squad and not drink more than he himself wanted. This was a great honor for the old man.

The "Gulating Law" states that a person is in his strength and can be considered healthy as long as he can drink beer at feasts, stay in the saddle and speak intelligently. If he cannot do the above, then the heirs have the right to demand that his property be transferred to their custody.

There should always be fun at feasts and at the table.

“Courage is better than despair, joy is better than sorrow,” says the “Speeches of Fafnir” in the Elder Edda. “Why are the guests so modest and silent?” asked the Norwegian king Einstein in “The Saga of Sigurd the Crusader,” when one day everyone was sitting at the table in silence because the beer was not good. “At a feast,” he continued, “it’s customary to be cheerful; “Let’s have some fun and have some fun.” It’s best,” he said to his brother, King Sigurd, “to start with us, brothers.”

The sagas rarely describe holidays and feasts without these words: “There was no shortage of fun, amusements, or other pleasure.”

At feasts, judging by Old Scandinavian literary sources, they listened to the playing of the harp.

In epic songs and myths there is mention of dancing at feasts. The epic hero Gunnar was especially famous for his harp playing.

There are also references to songs in sagas. Thus, it is said that Sigurd Haraldsson, during a trip with his squad to Viken, drove up to a courtyard and heard a pleasant voice a girl who ground grain in a mill and sang. He was so fascinated by the song he heard that he decided to stop, got off his horse and entered the mill to look at the singer.

They probably danced while singing.

So, there are descriptions of several dances. One of them was an exchange of pairs. During this dance, men and women were divided into two groups, each of which took turns singing its verse, but the chorus was sung by both groups of dancers.

There is also a description in Old Norse literary sources of a dance known as ring breaking. The dancers stood in a circle, which was “led” by one person - the “ring breaker”. At his sign, the dancers formed a “stream” of couples and walked under the raised hands of the last couple, and then returned to the end of the “queue.”

Undoubtedly, there were special ritual dances during pagan holidays.

The sword dance that Olaus Magnus talks about probably goes back to ancient times. During this dance, the dancers first raised their swords in their sheaths and turned around three times. Then they drew their swords, also raised them up, turned them towards each other with ease and grace, and in this “battle” they formed a hexagonal figure called a rose - and suddenly they separated again and then waved their swords, forming a quadrangular rose above everyone’s head. The movements became faster and faster, to the accompaniment of music and songs, blades crossed with blades, until a common high jump back completed the dance.

Olaus Magnus adds: “Without being an eyewitness, it is impossible to imagine the beauty and majesty of this dance, when you see a whole army of armed people cheerfully going into battle, at the direction of one. This dance was performed during fasting; for eight whole days before they did nothing else , as soon as they memorized it; even the clergy took part in the dance, because the movements of the dancers were very decent."

The game of chess and dice, like checkers, was also known in ancient times.

But the most favorite entertainment of the ancient Scandinavians at feasts was listening to stories about exploits and glorious deeds, sagas and songs about wonderful events and great people.

It was also customary to make vows at feasts. The guest, raising the cup, promised to perform some feat.

At the funeral feast for Harald Bluetooth, which was celebrated by his son, King Svein Forkbeard, the Jomsvikings, whose fathers had also died, were also invited. Svein stood up from his seat, raised his cup in honor of his father and made a vow that within three years he would march on England and kill King Adalrad (Ethelred) or drive him out of the country. This cup was to be drunk by everyone present at the feast. When several more healthy cups had been drunk, the large cup was raised by Earl Sigvaldi, the leader of the Jomsvikings, who vowed that within three years he would go to Norway and kill Earl Hakon or drive him out of the country. Thorkel the Tall, brother of Earl Sigvaldi, vowed to follow the earl on a campaign and bravely help him. Behind Thorkell, Bui the Thick, his brother, Sigurd, the sons of Wezethe, chief of Bornholm, also made their vows. Many other Vikings did the same. Throughout the North, such vows were always made in winter, before the spring campaign.

For the feast held on Yule (midwinter festival), the largest boar was slaughtered, which was sacrificed to Frey and Freya, who send abundance. And the night before they brought him into the room: the men put their hands on his stubble and, over the cup of remembrance, promised to commit some brave act...

Who doesn’t know them - stern northern warriors. However, as always happens in such cases, much of what we know is just myths and fiction that have nothing to do with reality.

Let's look at some of them...

One nation

The Vikings were not representatives of one people, they were a motley group of warriors, travelers and traders under the leadership of a leader. In Viking times Scandinavia was not divided into large states(Denmark, Norway, Sweden), and consisted of many areas under the leadership of such groups. In general, the Old Norse word “Viking” is not tied to any particular area, and means a person participating in a campaign to the sea.

Wild and dirty

Many feature films and cartoons show the Vikings as dirty and wild men and women, but in reality they cared about their appearance. Combs, tweezers, and razors are the most common finds during excavations of Viking settlements. Remains of soap that the Vikings made themselves have also been found. In England, the Vikings, on the contrary, were considered clean because they washed once a week (on Saturday). In Scandinavian languages, the word Saturday still means “bath day,” although the descendants of the Vikings themselves do not think about it at all.

Big blondes

Vikings in films are also shown as massive, with long blond hair. It is interesting that an analysis of historical records and excavation data showed that the average height of blonds was about 170 centimeters, which is quite small even by ancient standards. The situation with blond hair is more interesting - it was considered ideal by the Vikings, but not everyone had blond hair. To correct this misunderstanding, a special whitening soap was used. The Vikings were also hospitable people, and many foreigners joined the Viking tribes, so among them were Italians, Spaniards, Portuguese, French and even Russians. It is clear that they all had different weight and height characteristics and hair color.

Vikings drank from skulls

The source of this legend is the work of a certain Ole Vorm “Reuner seu Danica literatura antiquissima” of 1636, where he wrote that Danish warriors drink from “curved skulls”. Upon further translation into Latin, only the word “skulls” remained from the phrase. In addition, during excavations, not a single cup made from a skull has yet been found.

Crude weapons

Another feature of movie Vikings is the use of crude, inept weapons like clubs and axes, or the absence of them at all. In fact, the Vikings were good gunsmiths, and using compound forging technology (the same used in the manufacture of Damascus blades) they were able to make very strong and sharp weapons. According to Viking folklore, to test the sharpness of a sword, a sword would be dipped into a running stream and a hair would run through it. If the hair was cut, the sword was considered sharp enough.

Scandinavia is my homeland

The Vikings originated in Scandinavia, but eventually spread throughout the world, reaching North Africa, Russia and even North America. There are several theories explaining the reasons for the expansion, the most logical of which is related to the depletion of land resources and the increase in the population of Scandinavia, which made it necessary to look for new places to live. Another reason was the depletion of revenue from trade between Western Europe and Asia after the fall of the Roman Empire in the 1st century, after which the Vikings needed to look for new “fishing” places.

Hated by everyone

As a consequence of previous misconceptions, the opinion arose that the Vikings were unwanted guests everywhere, outcasts, and were supposedly hated by everyone. In reality, they were not only hated (like any other nation), but also respected. French King Charles III, known as Charles the Simple, gave the Vikings land in what is now Normandy, and married his daughter to one of the Viking leaders, Rollo. These "domesticated" Vikings later repeatedly defended the territory of France from the encroachments of other Vikings. In Constantinople, the Vikings were respected for their strength and courage, so that a special Varangian guard consisting of Swedish Vikings was assigned to the Byzantine emperors.

Bloodthirsty and cruel

The Viking attacks were bloodthirsty and brutal, to say the least. At that time, there were no other ways of waging war - everyone was bloodthirsty and cruel - the French, the British, and other peoples. For example, a contemporary of the Vikings, King Charles the Great practically exterminated the Avars (an ancient union of tribes living on the Volga and on the shores of the Caspian Sea), and at Verdun he ordered the beheading of almost 5 thousand inhabitants of Saxony. The Vikings cannot be called the most bloodthirsty; they had another “trick” - the complete destruction of everything associated with religions alien to them (monasteries, temples), including the ministers of these religions. This frightened others so much that the residents of the villages, barely seeing the masts of Viking ships on the horizon, fled without a fight.

Complete robbery

A very small part of the Vikings were warriors, the rest were engaged in agriculture, crafts and animal husbandry. For sea expeditions, robbery was one of the “bonuses” that no one refused, not just the Vikings. Most of the Vikings lived peacefully in the lands where Iceland and Greenland are now located and were considered sophisticated traders who dealt with representatives of different nationalities and countries of the world.

Horned Helmets

This is probably the biggest misconception. So far, no evidence has been found, archaeological or written, that the Vikings wore helmets with horns. All the helmets found do not have horns and their design does not provide for such excesses. Most likely, this misconception was supported by ancient Christians, who considered the Vikings to be accomplices of the devil, so they were supposed to wear horns on their helmets for intimidation. The Norse god Thor had wings on his helmet, which, with a certain amount of imagination, could be mistaken for horns.

And remember, I already told you who they are, but for example, do you know -

The Scandinavians, like other peoples of antiquity, quite often spent their “free” time in feasts and celebrations.

Feasts were held during the spring and winter holidays, on the days of sacrifices, after returning from sea voyages and when a child was born or a wedding was celebrated.

Sometimes a feast was held in the area “by pooling”, that is, the owners of the estates “shared” food and drinks and gathered at the appointed time to drink and have fun. “Men have fun,” says one saga, “when they feast on large company.” In addition, the owners of the estates and noble people gave feasts when the king traveled around the country.

In Viking times, general meetings, or feasts, were simply called "beer", after the main drink consumed at them.

But when we find in the new Christian laws a record that, under threat of a heavy fine, the owners of every large estate are obliged to gather guests for a feast at least three times a year, it becomes clear to us that this law does not set as its goal the preservation of pagan customs.

It is quite obvious that people needed feasts for communication, often religious communication. Beer (or honey) was a natural part of religion in the Viking Age. Honey was not even a “decoration” of rituals or a means of quenching thirst, but an object of real cult.

In all religions, sacrifices of food and drink are an integral part of the cult ritual. And it is quite natural that in “primitive” religions more attention was paid to sacrifices than in later times.
The best dishes that were in the house were served on the table: meat, fish, good strong beer.

On a long table, near which there were benches, dishes of food were placed; on the other, smaller one, they placed horns and goblets of honey and beer. Everything was swept and cleaned; the hall is festively decorated.

The owner himself sat on a “high” place near the southern wall of the house; Opposite him is the most distinguished guest. Guests sat according to their dignity and importance: the closer to the host, the more honorable. The places near the southern wall were more honorable than those near the northern one. Women sat in a separate room or away from the “men’s” table. The most noble one was located in the middle; others are on either side of her and also in dignity: the more important the husband was in society, the better place was given to the wife. The seating order was strictly observed, and even loud arguments arose between the guests over their places at the table, ending in mortal hostility.

However, it happened that women and men sat in pairs and even drank from the same cup. This was a custom among “peaceful” northerners, but the Vikings never ate with women.

In the estates of kings and jarls, as well as rich people, warriors and workers were divided into so-called “table teams”, when a certain group of people sat at a certain table.

At weddings, a place of honor at the head of the table was occupied by the bride, another, also honorable, by the father-in-law, and a third by the groom, each surrounded by close relatives.
Special people had to receive and treat guests. Servants walked around the table with bowls filled with water and towels in their hands so that guests could wash their hands and wash themselves at any time: in those days there were no forks and people ate with their hands. The goblets (horns) were usually poured and offered by women, reminiscent of the Valkyries treating the fallen warriors in Valhalla.

Usually each person was given his portion, but often the dish was served to everyone. The same thing happened with drinks.

Sometimes honey was brought to the chambers in large vats, from where those feasting themselves could scoop it up.

There were many customs. First of all, there was drinking alone. In this case, the guest drank from a cup or horn intended only for him. Two people could drink from the cup - two men or a man and a woman. This was called drinking together. There was also a circular one, when the bowl went around the entire table in a circle. The Vikings always sat at a separate table and only drank together from one cup. The violator of the rules of conduct at the feast drank the cup of punishment or the horn of the latecomer.

As a joke, the hosts did not hesitate to arrange it so that the guests were late, and then, for the amusement of those gathered, they had to drink the “horn of the latecomer.”

The warriors of Harald Fairhair, who loved to have fun, once bribed the bell-ringer, and he rang for the service earlier than usual. As a result, many were late for church, and in the evening they were presented with “horns of latecomers.”
They drank at all large “gatherings” and feasts. Playing a wedding, holding a wake in the Old Norse language was called “drinking a wedding”, “drinking a wake”.
At such gatherings of Germans, unprecedented quantities of beer were consumed. Tacitus writes that among the Germanic peoples it is not considered shameful to drink day and night. Quite often, feasts ended in squabbles, and weapons were used. Even such serious matters as buying and selling an estate, betrothal and discussion of a dowry, choosing a king and paying vira were always discussed at the banquet table. Drinks loosened people's tongues, in the figurative expression of Tacitus, and that is why at feasts the truth was spoken to the face - regardless of the social status of the speaker.

By the way, it was Tacitus who wrote that the Germans lose their minds when they drink, and gain it when they sober up. For an exemplary Roman, such “abuse” of beer should have looked very repulsive. And therefore he was not at all surprised that at the end of the feast, the one who was better at wielding weapons won the argument. But the Germans always had little beer.

The insatiable thirst of the Vikings is well known to other historians. In the autumn, the Normans invariably rushed to the countries where grapes grew, and they always guessed that the time of their attack would fall on the harvest festival, accompanied by a copious libation. The winegrowers already knew about this and sought to hide the wine away from the insatiable Vikings.

When the Normans captured the lands along the banks of the Seine in 865, they specially sent a squad of 200 soldiers to Paris to buy wine. But they couldn’t find anything there either.
In 869, the Duke of Brittany concluded a peace treaty with the Vikings on the Loire. According to this treaty, he was granted the right to harvest grapes in his lands in Anjou, but at the same time his subjects had to pay tribute to the Scandinavians in kind - wine, so that the Normans would leave their lands alone.

Wine appears several times in Norwegian written documents. In the imagination of the inhabitants of the medieval North, a certain Grape Country even arose, where wild grapes grew. The country was called that way - the Country of Grapes, or the Country of Wine. The promising name lured more than a dozen adventurers to this mysterious land, but they were all bitterly disappointed.
Thorhall, who went on one of these journeys to Vinland, even composed the following verse:

Hövding promised me
A sea of ​​wine in that country
But that land was inhospitable,
And on its banks arose
Thor warriors are evil.
And I'm ashamed to admit -
Not a drop of wine
It didn't hit my throat.

The rulers of other lands often sent wine as gifts to the northern kings. They knew that such an offering would be gladly accepted.

There are conflicting opinions about the “drunkenness” of the northerners during the sagas. For example, Adam of Bremen wrote that the Norwegians “know moderation in food and drink.” And the Danish pilgrims, who visited some Norwegian cities in 1191, argued that “in the city of Tunsberg there are unusually hospitable and kind inhabitants... who spare nothing for their guests, but their excessive commitment to drinking interferes with conversation and often a pleasant evening ends in bloodshed...”. The Danes spoke about life in the city itself as follows: “...on the streets you can never be sure of your own safety, because at any moment even the most respectable townspeople, under the influence of beer, are ready to grab a weapon and shed the blood of their fellow citizens... Uncontrollable drunkenness leads to that even hosts and guests, acquaintances and strangers engage in battle, often ending in death. Moreover, their victims often turn out to be innocent people...” These very gloomy descriptions of cities were made, no doubt, during the times of street battles in Bergen between ship crews and Bergens.
In ancient times, people were well aware of how dangerous the abuse of beer and honey was. Suffice it to recall the stanzas from “The Speeches of the High,” one of the songs of the “Elder Edda”:

The best supply for the journey for a wanderer is
A reserve of meaning and intelligence.
And the one who makes everyone worse is the one who, before leaving
Having drunk some beer, he sets off on his way.
Benefits for mortals from foamy beer
Less than many people think.
The more you drink, the less you can
Own your own spirit.
The bird of oblivion soars over the feasts:
It steals the mind of the drinker.
The feathers of that bird overshadowed me,
When I was sitting at Gannlod's.
Was intoxicated, was hazy with hops
I am in the house of the wise Fyilar.
The happiest of all are those who have a clear mind
He will come home from the feast. [

One in “Speeches of the High One” acts as a wise adviser: drink honey, but know when to stop, be careful, but don’t be a coward, be wise, but don’t be clever.

A caring father in the “Royal Mirror” gives approximately the same advice to his son: “Avoid immoderate drunkenness, fights... games and visiting whores... Wherever you are, do not get drunk, because it may happen that at this moment you will be called upon to testify in court . And at this time you may find yourself involved in dirty deeds, but you will not be able to get out of this situation, because your mind will be clouded.”
The speech of King Sverrir (d. 1202) to the residents of Bergen with a call to limit drunkenness is also very well known, especially regarding foreign drinks.

Although in fairness, we note that such excess drinking and excess in food were typical not only of the North in those days. Written sources say the same about the state of affairs in England and France: numerous evidence has reached us of the abuse of beer and wine in society and fiery speeches of kings calling for an end to drunkenness and gluttony.

King Sverrir's speech cannot in any way be taken as an indication that there was more drinking in Norway or that the king was more "conscious" than in other countries. This was the speech of the king by God's grace, and not just by birthright, the ruler of the new - Christian - time, who sought to restore order in a country fragmented and torn apart by pretenders to the throne. This was the speech of a politician who thought more about the future of the entire country than about his own greatness or glory. This was the speech of a politician who cared less about his own life than about fate and the question of the existence of the state.

But this was not the case with his opponent, Magnus Erlingson, whose main life principle was expressed by the motto “Become a king at any cost.” He wanted to be a king according to the old laws, he wanted to control the destinies of other people at his own discretion, he wanted to sit at the head of the table and receive all the blessings of life at his first request.
King Sverrir argued that of the seven deadly sins, the most terrible was intemperance in eating and drinking. Therefore, one should not allow oneself too much at feasts, because “drunkenness causes quarrels and discord with friends, clouds the mind and spoils health, and - which is no less important for a Christian - a person will easily commit a mortal sin when he is unable to control his actions... "

At the suggestion of Bishop Einstein and with the consent of the jarls and leaders, a law was passed according to which “one had to appear at the Thing in a sober state and fast during the entire Thing. Whoever breaks this law and pays more attention to food and drink than what is happening at the Thing will not be dealt with this year... In addition, it is forbidden to bring beer to the Thing, both for one’s own needs and for sale.” If beer is nevertheless brought to the meeting, then it should not be poured out, but should be divided among all those gathered.

In the 13th century, the king also decided to limit the consumption of beer, especially at weddings and funerals. “Those commemorations,” the law says, “that are organized throughout the country, are performed more for the delight of the living than for the remembrance of the souls of the departed”...
But such laws had almost no influence on citizens, because throughout Norway, at weddings and funerals there were sufferers whose thirst was not at all easy to quench, and beer at such meetings continued to flow like a river. They continued to drink in taverns, at the royal court, in cities and farmsteads. The churchmen also drank. When envoys from the bishop came to the monasteries, their reports regularly contained entries about the abuses and exorbitant appetite of the abbot and the brethren...

The sagas repeatedly emphasize that one of the great arts in Viking times was the ability to drink. The famous Old Icelandic "Egil's Saga" says that Egil was first in everything - including at the feast. It is reported about the blind King Rörek that he could drink anyone at a feast and got everyone drunk who sat next to him, but, it is then added, he himself usually drank little. In the “Saga of Olav the Quiet” from the “Earthly Circle,” King Olav is called “a tall and stately man. Everyone says that there was no more handsome or prominent husband than him. He had beautiful hair as golden as silk, a healthy body, very beautiful eyes and a proportionate build. He was usually a man of few words and did not like to talk at gatherings, but he was not averse to feasting and was talkative and friendly over beer.”

One of the signs of the king’s insanity in the Old Icelandic “Sigurd’s Saga” is considered to be his behavior while drinking beer: “It is said that King Sigurd was taciturn when he drank beer, and a serious illness attacked him. He didn’t listen to what people told him... And there was no solution to the matters with which they approached him when he was holding a horn of beer in his hands.” When he visited his estates, he went to bed early, while his son Magnus continued to sit for a long time at the banquet table.

Earl Erling from Sverrir's Saga was more interested in the contents of the beer horn than in the affairs of his own squad. His son also loved beer and mead, but King Sverrir himself was a non-drinker.

About the soldiers of Magnus who came out against him in the battle of Iluvellir, King Sverrir said in a speech to his army: “You must test your swords by ripping open the honey-filled bellies of the people from Vik. We have a very good army, and we have something to fight for. And their superiority will not be useful to them. Most of their people are better suited to be groomsmen at a wedding than to be warriors, and are more accustomed to drunkenness than to war.”

Inga, the son of Bard, was known as “a calm and balanced person; he was unarrogant and friendly, especially with his people. He... did not like large gatherings and therefore did not drink beer and mead, which was not to the liking of many of his warriors, who wanted to attend feasts where loud words were spoken and beer flowed.”

Earl Knut, who died in 1261, shortly after the wedding of Magnus son Hakon, appears to be a completely different person: “He was majestic and pleasant to look at, kind and generous, tall, but he loved to drink too much, and it was beer that caused his illness.” Earl Cnut is the only person about whom the sagas say that he died due to excessive drinking.

In Viking times, the most common thing was to sit at the banquet table all night long. Only in the 13th century, after the Christianization of Norway, excessive love for beer and honey began to be condemned. Laws introduce penalties for drunkards, but feasts are still held throughout the country.

The ancient Scandinavians also had a saying: “When beer comes in, sanity goes out,” and one saga says: “Often a drunk man says a lot of crazy things that he can never do when he sobers up.”

Treating guests with care was a requirement of ancient hospitality. Food and drink at the table were always dedicated to some god before the meal - for example, Odin, Thor or Frey, and after the adoption of Christianity - to Jesus Christ, the Virgin Mary or St. Olaf. This is also confirmed by the fact that during the times of the sagas, large feasts were dedicated specifically to religious festivals.

But, no matter how much beer was consumed in Viking-era Norway, it is completely false to say that in those days the foamy drink in the estates was a common and familiar drink for every day.

The sagas tell us almost nothing about “simple” life. They are primarily about noble and well-born people, about feasts and celebrations, about especially important events and battles. Saga narrators consider it their duty to emphasize the extraordinary scale of the feast or the importance of what is happening.

The events of each day were known to everyone, and there was no point in mentioning them. And if you carefully read the sagas, you can easily come to the conclusion that ordinary people did not have the habit of drinking strong drinks in everyday life. And in rich estates they didn’t drink beer every day either. One of the songs in the Elder Edda (not included in the main body), “Song of Riga,” says the following:

Then Rig walked along the wide road.
Arrived at the mansions with doors at noon
Unlocked; the ring was in the door.
He entered the house; the floor was covered with straw.
Mother and Father were sitting there nearby,
They looked affectionately into each other's eyes.
The husband forked a strong bowstring for himself,
He sharpened the arrows and decorated the bow with carvings.
The mother smiled, admiring herself,
I straightened my dress, straightened the sleeves,
A belt, a bandage, - with a monastery around the neck,
In long clothes with blue patterns.
(The eyebrows are shiny, the breasts are lighter,
The neck is whiter than cold snow.)
The wanderer taught the owners wisdom,
Rig sat in the middle of the house,
The spouses sat to the left and right.
Mother took out the tablecloth with stains,
She covered the table with a thin cloth.
After the pancakes she brought flat ones -
White, wheat, I put them on the table.
Full dishes were still served,
Silver plated, - the table is all filled -
Meat and lard and fried poultry;
The cups of silver wine were all burning.
Drank; chatted; the hour has come late.

These were the rules of decency, and these were the dishes that were served on the table: the rich treated the guest to poultry, lard and wine, but in poor houses they had to be content with meat and beer.

During the time of Harald Fairhair, it became a custom to serve honey, and even the king himself, in one of the vises, complains about the excessive addiction of his warriors to this drink. The saga says that when the people were called to the feast and the honey was brewed, the king said to himself:

Warriors are crowded here, Gray-haired old men, Honey hunters, Where are so many of you going?

Even at the court of Sigurd the Pig it was not the custom to serve intoxicating drinks every day. When Olav Haraldsson returned home with his squad from a Viking campaign, King Sigurd fed them “every other day with fish and milk, and every other day with meat and beer.”
And when the English told their bishop William that in Norway no one could get any other drink than beer mixed with water, they were closer to the truth than the skald who wrote a verse about “a cup full of wine” and “streams of foamy beer that kindly "It tickles my throat."

There is no doubt that beer played a more important role in the Middle Ages than it does today, but it is unlikely that its importance was as great as we sometimes imagine.
Orderic Vitalis wrote that the inhabitants of Norway “are abundantly provided with fish, wild fowl and the meat of all kinds of wild animals.” He does not mention any excessive commitment to drinking and eating. On the contrary, he said, Norwegians “are full of respect for the holy Christian faith and are attentive to their Christian duties.”

Quirini writes that on the island of Røst the inhabitants eat mainly fish, which is cooked with butter and various spices and is very tasty. Sometimes they eat beef and drink milk. They drink a lot of sour milk, which the Italians, however, did not like at all. They drink beer occasionally. Among the dishes served to the guests at the farewell dinner, beer is not mentioned, but it is said that upon their arrival on the island, beer was offered to the Italians by a priest, a “German monk.”
During a trip to Norway, Quirini and his companions had to visit many estates, “better and worse,” and there they were given bread, milk, butter, cheese and huge amounts of sour milk. Occasionally they had the opportunity to live in better conditions - migliore allo-giamento - where they were served in abundance beer, meat and other things that they wanted.
The German Boeheim, in his travel notes from 1450, says approximately the same thing about living conditions.

From written evidence of later times we learn a lot of interesting things about the use of beer - it is unlikely that these customs could have changed much since the times of the Vikings.

In those days, beer was brewed primarily for some important and festive events: Christmas, weddings and births of children, funerals, midsummer festival. In such cases, a lot of beer was brewed, and guests and hosts drank without any measure.
Brewing beer - like other important events in human life - took place according to certain canons, was a kind of ritual, the main purpose of which was to keep evil spirits away from the precious drink. There are other reasons for, from our point of view, the “abuse” of beer that was observed in the Middle Ages. And this is not only and not so much different levels of life, and not even the ritual significance of the foamy drink. Beer was an essential part of the Viking diet.

It is easy to notice that historical sources constantly mention the combinations “fish and milk”, “meat and beer”. And sometimes we come across “bird and wine”. Meat was rarely served freshly prepared and was most often eaten salted or dried. This combination of salted meat and beer is still found on the menus of Scandinavian restaurants and cafes.

People with good incomes could afford to constantly drink beer with salty food. The rest had to be content with milk and drink beer only on holidays.
Therefore, it is unlikely that, based on modern ideas about food and drink, we will be able to correctly assess the situation with beer consumption in the Viking Age. The addiction to this drink in such ancient times is explained by the large amount of salt consumed - primarily in meat and flatbred.

In addition, beer “satisfied” certain social needs of society - it was served as a special welcome drink to guests both at feasts and at religious meetings.

It must be noted that ordinary beer brewed at home was not a particularly tasty drink. A completely different matter is honey beer, or mead, which was brewed in the royal estate.

But wine was considered the most valuable and most delicious. It was served only on exceptionally solemn occasions.

We also find confirmation of this gradation “beer - honey - wine” in the legend of Saint Olaf. One day the king traveled a long way on horseback and was very thirsty. He ordered water to be given to him, and asked the bishop to bless it. The bishop consecrated. Then the king took the horn with the drink, looked into it and said: “I don’t want to drink beer during fasting.” Another liquid was poured into the horn, and the bishop consecrated it again. The king took the horn and said: “I want to drink honey even less during fasting.” The horn was refilled and the bishop reconsecrated it. Then the king exclaimed: “And it would be a very great sin to drink wine.” To which the bishop replied: “He, the One who has the right to permit, allows you to drink this drink.” Only then was the king able to quench his thirst.

Undoubtedly, this is just a legend, but historical sources say the same thing about the consumption of beer, honey and wine.

But this is what the incorrect distribution of mead and beer between guests and warriors can lead to, as described in the “Saga of Sverrir”:

“King Magnus was going to spend Christmas in Bjergyn. The warriors were supposed to feast in the large squad chamber, and the guests - in Sunneva's chamber. The guests were unhappy that the warriors were drinking honey, and they were drinking beer.

On the fifth day of Christmas, when the guests had drunk too much, they took up arms, went to the king’s chamber and wanted to break down the door. Realizing what was happening, the king rushed to the door to stop them. But Bard Shield, his slave, ran out into the hallway ahead of him and was immediately killed. After this, the king returned back, and the warriors slammed the door. But the guests broke into it. Then those who were on guard that day rushed to the door, since they were the only ones who had weapons. Some took stove stones and threw them into the hallway. When the townspeople and workers of King Magnus and the Lendrmanns realized what was happening, they grabbed their weapons and went to the military chamber. Here the guests retreated. But many were injured."

Wine entered the Scandinavian countries thanks to Christianization. Wine in the North during the Viking Age was not particularly popular.

Nevertheless, the Normans were familiar with many types of wine - Spanish, French and Italian. The latter were so good that “the manufacturers do not sell them to other lands, and to taste them one must go to that blessed country,” as Olaus Magnus writes.

Most of the Normans knew that wine excites and at the same time deprives the hand of firmness, and therefore they tried to be careful with it.

A huge number of guests were invited to the feast. The more people came, the more fame and honor the owner received. There are indications in the sagas that up to a thousand (or even more) guests sometimes gathered for feasts. For such magnificent celebrations, special rooms were built - halls. One saga says that in Iceland, 1,200 guests came to the wake gathered by the sons of Hjalti. Since this happened in Iceland, in order to build a hall to receive so many guests, timber was brought from Norway by ship.

The feasts usually lasted for many days. When saying goodbye, the owners gave gifts to the guests - as it was believed, in recompense for the trouble on the road and as a keepsake.
The “Saga of the Sturlungs” talks about the “order of holding” such feasts.
“Two Icelanders - Thorgils Bodvardson and Berg - were invited to Brynulf of Kvale in Sogn for Christmas and went there with Eirik and Geirmund. A good reception and rich food awaited them. A man named Bjorn brewed beer at Brynulf's. And Thorgils told him that Bjorn was sorry for the beer. Bjorn himself drank a lot of beer that evening, and so they had a fight. Berg drank little because he was sick and did not want to drink more than he himself wanted. Thorgils always drank a lot and lost his head when he was drunk.

On New Year's Day everyone drank especially heavily. And at the end of the feast, the guests were offered wine. The horn went around in a circle. And everyone could drink as much as they wanted. And then they began to drink a full horn each. And soon they all got drunk.

Then Geirmund said that they must have added something else to the drink, because the guests lost their heads too quickly. Then Bjorn brought a cup of beer, but Geirmund hit it and poured its contents onto the crook. Bjorn cursed the guest and broke his nose until it bled.

At this time Thorgils jumped to his feet, grabbed a heavy horn set in silver, and hit Bjorn on the back between the shoulder blades with it, so that he fell to the floor. Bru-nulv did not like this, and he also grabbed his weapon. Both his men and Eirik jumped up.
Eirik said: “We shouldn’t start this quarrel, but it’s better to disperse peacefully.”
To which Brunulf replied: “I am not used to people being beaten in my house.”
Then Arne, the warrior, remarked: “You have a bad habit in Sogn of drinking without measure until you lose all your mind... And it will be better if we don’t talk about this matter now, but go to bed, and in the morning we’ll agree on everything.” ".
Everyone liked this proposal. And the people went to bed.

The next morning everyone sobered up and went to church service, and then sat down at the table again. Arne began to talk about the matter, and it was decided that it was worth forgiving each other, because it was no one’s fault in that quarrel. The owner was very happy with this decision, and the others were happy too. After this feud there was no more, and all the guests had a good time during Christmas.”

From this description of the Christmas festivities we can glean a lot of useful information.

People drank beer from bone horns, which were regularly filled by minions. Expensive horns, bowls and other precious utensils set in silver and gold were available in huge quantities in every rich estate.

A wealthy man, Bjarne Audunson, owned a stemmed cup that was given to him by a bishop, as well as a silver-mounted cup with a gilded stem, and another gilded cup.

In Viking times, horns and bowls, like many other favorite objects - swords, spears, shields, had their own names, derived from the name of the owner or denoting properties that they themselves possessed.
Horns were often decorated with runic inscriptions. The runes had protective powers and were supposed to protect against damage and poison. Such magical signs were called “beer runes.” This is how it is said in the Speeches of Sigrdriva:

Learn the runes of beer so that you won’t be afraid of deception!
Apply them to the horn, draw them on your hand, and the Naud rune on your nail.
Sanctify the horn, beware of deceit, throw the bow into the moisture;
Then I know for sure that they won’t give you a magic potion.

The guests at the table drank from the horns as much as they wanted. However, it often happened that two guests - or several couples - would drink the same amount of beer to see who could outdrink who.

It was also customary for all guests to drain the cups to the bottom, which often resulted in disputes and even deaths.

One of the warriors of Harald Fairhair, Thorir the Englishman, a former merchant, when he became old, came to the king and told him that he could no longer keep up with the young warriors in draining the horns and bowls, and asked to let him go home, for his strength had waned. To which the king replied that Thorir could remain in the squad and not drink more than he himself wanted. This was a great honor for the old man.

The "Law of Gulaing" states that a person is in his strength and can be considered healthy as long as he can drink beer at feasts, stay in the saddle and speak intelligently. If he cannot do the above, then the heirs have the right to demand that his property be transferred to their custody.

There should always be fun at feasts and at the table. “Courage is better than despair, joy is better than sorrow,” says the “Speeches of Fafnir” in the Elder Edda. “Why are the guests so modest and silent? - asked the Norwegian king Einstein in the Saga of Sigurd the Crusader, when one day everyone was sitting at the table in silence because the beer was not good. “At a feast,” he continued, “it’s customary to be cheerful; Let's come up with some fun and have fun. It’s most fitting,” he said to his brother, King Sigurd, “to start with us brothers.”

The sagas rarely describe holidays and feasts without the following words: “There was no shortage of fun, amusements, or other pleasure.”

At feasts, judging by Old Scandinavian literary sources, they listened to the playing of the harp. In epic songs and myths there is mention of dancing at feasts. The epic hero Gunnar was especially famous for his harp playing.

There are also references to songs in sagas. Thus, it is said that Sigurd Haraldsson, during a trip with his squad to Viken, drove up to one yard and heard the pleasant voice of a girl who was grinding grain at the mill and singing. He was so fascinated by the song he heard that he decided to stop, got off his horse and entered the mill to look at the singer.

They probably danced while singing. So, there are descriptions of several dances. One of them was an exchange of pairs. During this dance, men and women were divided into two groups, each of which took turns singing its verse, but the chorus was sung by both groups of dancers.

There is also a description in Old Norse literary sources of a dance known as ring breaking. The dancers stood in a circle, which was “led” by one person - the “ring breaker”. At his sign, the dancers formed a “stream” of couples and walked under the raised hands of the last couple, and then returned to the end of the “queue.”

Undoubtedly, there were special ritual dances during pagan holidays.
The sword dance that Olaus Magnus talks about probably goes back to ancient times. During this dance, the dancers first raised their swords in their sheaths and turned around three times. Then they drew their swords, also raised them up, turned them towards each other with ease and grace, and in this “battle” they formed a hexagonal figure called a rose - and suddenly they dispersed again and then waved their swords, forming a quadrangular rose above everyone’s head. The movements became faster and faster, to the accompaniment of music and songs, blades crossed with blades, until a common high jump back completed the dance.

Olaus Magnus adds: “Without being an eyewitness, one cannot imagine the beauty and majesty of this dance, when you see a whole army of armed people cheerfully going into battle, at the direction of one. This dance was performed during Lent; for eight whole days before that they did nothing else but memorize it; even clergy took part in the dance, because the movements of the dancers were very decent.”

The game of chess and dice, like checkers, was also known in ancient times.
But the most favorite entertainment of the ancient Scandinavians at feasts was listening to stories about exploits and glorious deeds, sagas and songs about wonderful events and great people.

It was also customary to make vows at feasts. The guest, raising the cup, promised to perform some feat.