Major organizations of the UN system. Activities of international organizations outside the UN system

United Nations- is the largest - universal in the range of problems considered and worldwide in territorial coverage.

The name was proposed during World War II by US President Franklin D. Roosevelt. Created by 50 countries on October 24, 1945, The UN united 191 countries by 2005.

In accordance with the UN Charter, its main goals are:

maintaining international peace and security;
development of friendly relations between nations based on respect for the principle of equality and self-determination of peoples;
implementation of cooperation in resolving international problems of an economic, social, cultural and humanitarian nature and respect for human rights;
coordination of actions of nations in achieving common goals.

The basic principles of the UN: sovereign equality of all members, conscientious fulfillment of accepted obligations, peaceful resolution of international disputes, refraining from the threat of force. The UN Charter does not provide the right to intervene in matters within the internal competence of an individual state.

The UN system has a complex organizational structure:

The main bodies of the UN (the UN itself).
UN programs and bodies.
Specialized institutions and others independent organizations within the UN system.
Other organizations, committees and related bodies.
Organizations that are not part of the UN system, but are associated with it through cooperation agreements.

UN bodies

Established by the Charter six main organs of the United Nations: General Assembly, Security Council, Economic and Social Council, Trusteeship Council, International Court of Justice, Secretariat.

General Assembly(GA) is the main deliberative body of the UN. She consists of representatives of all member countries having one vote each. Decisions on issues of peace and security, admission of new members, and budget issues are made by a two-thirds vote. For other issues, a simple majority vote is sufficient. Sessions of the General Assembly usually take place in September each year. Each time a new chairman, 21 vice-chairmen, and chairmen of the six main committees of the Assembly are elected. The first committee deals with issues of disarmament and international security, the second with economics and finance, the third with social and humanitarian issues, the fourth with special political issues and decolonization, the fifth with administrative and budgetary issues, and the sixth with legal issues. The post of Chairman of the Assembly is occupied in turn by representatives of African, Asian, Eastern European, Latin American (including the Caribbean), and Western European states. The decisions of the GA are not legally binding. They express world public opinion on a particular issue.

Security Council(Security Council) is responsible for maintaining international peace. It investigates and recommends dispute resolution methods, including calling for UN members to the use of economic sanctions to prevent aggression; takes military action against the aggressor; plans arms regulation; recommends the admission of new members; provides guardianship in strategic areas. The Council consists of five permanent members - China, France, the Russian Federation (successor to the USSR), Great Britain and the United States of America - and ten members elected by the General Assembly for two-year terms. A decision on procedural issues is considered adopted if at least 9 out of 15 votes (two thirds) vote for it. When voting on issues of substance, it is necessary that out of 9 votes, all five permanent members of the Security Council vote in favor - the rule of “unanimity of the great powers”.

If a permanent member does not agree with the decision, he can veto (ban). If a permanent member does not want to block a decision, she can abstain from voting.

Economic and Social Council coordinates related issues and specialized agencies and institutions, known as the “family” of UN agencies. These bodies are connected with the UN by special agreements and submit reports to the Economic and Social Council and (or) the General Assembly.

The ECOSOC subsidiary mechanism includes:

nine functional commissions (Commission for Social Development, etc.);
five regional commissions (Economic Commission for Africa, etc.);
four standing committees: Committee for Program and Coordination, Commission for settlements, Committee on Non-Governmental Organizations, Committee on Negotiations with Intergovernmental Organizations;
a number of expert bodies;
executive committees and councils of various UN bodies: UN Development Program, World Food Program, etc.

Guardianship Council monitors the trust territories and promotes the development of their self-government. The Council consists of five permanent members of the Security Council. In 1994, the Security Council terminated the Trusteeship Agreement as all 11 original trust territories gained political independence or joined neighboring states.

International Court, located in The Hague (Netherlands), resolves legal disputes between states that are parties to its Statute, which automatically includes all members of the UN. Private individuals cannot appeal to the International Court of Justice. According to the Statute (statute of rights and duties), the Court uses international conventions; international custom as evidence of general practice; general principles rights recognized by nations; court decisions of the most qualified specialists from different countries. The court consists of 15 judges elected by the General Assembly and the Security Council, who vote independently. They are elected on the basis of qualifications, not citizenship. There cannot be two citizens from the same country on the Court.

UN Secretariat has the most diverse functions. This is a permanent body that carries out all document flow, including translations from one language to another, organization of international conferences, communication with the press, etc. The Secretariat staff consists of about 9,000 people from around the world. The UN Secretary-General, the chief administrative officer, is appointed by the General Assembly on the recommendation of the Security Council for a five-year term and may be re-elected for a further term. Kofi Annan (Ghana) took office on January 1, 1997. On January 1, 2007, a new Secretary General, Ban Ki-Moon (former head of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of South Korea), took office. He spoke out in favor of reforming the UN for the sake of the future of this organization. The authority of the Secretary-General is very essential for the implementation of preventive diplomacy in order to prevent the emergence of international conflicts. All Secretariat personnel have the status of international civil servants and take an oath undertaking not to carry out instructions emanating from any state or organization other than the UN.

UN budget

The regular budget of the UN, excluding specialized agencies and UN programs, is approved by the GA for a two-year period. The main source of funds is contributions from member states, which are calculated based on the country's solvency, in particular according to criteria such as share in and per country. The scale of assessment of contributions established by the Assembly is subject to change from 25% of the budget to 0.001%. Share contributions to the budget are: USA - 25%, Japan - 18%, Germany - 9.6%, France - 6.5%, Italy - 5.4%, UK - 5.1%, RF - 2.9% , Spain - 2.6%, Ukraine - 1.7%, China - 0.9%. States that are not members of the UN, but participate in a number of its activities, can participate in UN expenses in the following ratio: Switzerland - 1.2%, Vatican - 0.001%. The revenue side of the budget fluctuates on average around $2.5 billion. Of the 13 expenditure items, more than 50% of expenditures are for General Policy Implementation, Direction and Coordination; general support and support service; regional cooperation for development.

UN programs

However, the UN “family” or the UN system of agencies is broader. It covers 15 institutions and several programs and bodies. These are the United Nations Development Program (UNDP), the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP), as well as such a specialized organization as the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD). These bodies are connected with the UN by special agreements and submit reports to the Economic and Social Council and (or) the General Assembly. They have their own budgets and governing bodies.

UNCTAD

UN Conference on Trade and Development(UNCTAD). It was established in 1964 as the main GA body on these issues, primarily to accelerate trade and economic development, which, having gained political independence, have significant problems in establishing themselves in world markets. UNCTAD has 188 member states. The Russian Federation and other countries are members of this organization. The annual operating budget, financed from the UN regular budget, is approximately $50 million. The headquarters is located in Geneva (Switzerland).

Organizational structure of UNCTAD

UNCTAD Conference- the highest governing body. Conference sessions are held every four years at the ministerial level to determine the main directions of work.

Trade and Development Council— an executive body that ensures continuity of work between sessions. Working groups on medium-term planning and financing of programs. Joint Consultative Group on the Activities of the UNCTAD-WTO International Trade Centre.

Standing committees and temporary working groups. Four standing committees were created: on commodities; on poverty reduction; on economic cooperation between developed countries; Development Committee, as well as the Select Committee on Preferences and the Intergovernmental Panel on Restrictive Business Practices.

Secretariat is part of the UN Secretariat. It includes policy coordination and external relations services, nine departments(commodities, services development and trade efficiency, economic cooperation between developing countries and special programs, global interdependence, and science and technology, the least developed countries, services in the field of management and operational support of programs) and joint units working with regional commissions. The Secretariat serves two subsidiary bodies of ECOSOC— Commission on International Investment and Transnational Corporations and Commission on Science and Technology for Development.

Under the auspices of UNCTAD, a number of international commodity agreements have been concluded, study groups on commodities have been created with the participation of producing and consuming countries, a Common Fund for Commodities has been established, and dozens of conventions and agreements have been signed.

From 14 to 18 July 2004, the XIth session of the UNCTAD Conference was held in Sao Paulo (Brazil) - “Increasing coherence between national strategies and global economic processes for the benefit of developing countries in particular.” showed their desire to fully participate in international trade, rely on own strength, including through the expansion of trade along the South-South line. Consolidation on the issue of agricultural subsidies used by developed countries allowed the Group of 77 to express their joint position at the 6th WTO Conference. UNCTAD uses a group principle of work: member states are divided into groups according to socio-economic and geographical principles. Developing countries are united in the Group of 77. As a result of the XI session, a document was adopted - the “Consensus of Sao Paulo”, aimed at promoting the adaptation of national development strategies to the conditions of globalization and strengthening the potential of developing countries. The 3rd round of trade negotiations was announced under the auspices of UNCTAD under the Global System of Trade Preferences (GSTP), which has been in place since 1971. This system provides for the reduction or elimination of customs duties by all industrialized countries (IDCs) on trade with developing countries by on a non-reciprocal basis, i.e. without the requirement of reciprocal trade and political concessions. In practice, many industrialized countries have achieved various exemptions from their preference schemes. However, the Global System of Trade Preferences promotes the expansion of exports of processed products from economically weak countries.

Independent UN agencies

Independent specialized agencies operating within the UN system include International Labor Organization(ILO), Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), (IMF), World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO), etc.

The growing gap between poor and rich countries, the increasing danger of global conflicts (the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001 in the United States) stimulate the search for solutions to the problems of regulation and financing of development around the world. In this context two forums were held under the auspices of the UN in 2002: World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg (South Africa) - from August 26 to September 4 and International conference on financing for development in Monterrey (Mexico) - from March 18 to 22. As a result of the meetings, the Johannesburg Declaration and the Monterrey Consensus were adopted, respectively. At a meeting in South Africa special emphasis was placed on collective responsibility for socio-economic development, ecology at all levels from local to global. The need for cooperation in areas such as water supply and sanitation, energy, health, agriculture and biodiversity was noted. There's a problem in Mexico sustainable development world was considered from the point of view of its financing. It is recognized that there are severe shortages of resources needed to achieve the goals of overcoming poverty and inequality set out in the UN Millennium Declaration. Methods for solving the problem corresponding to the liberal idea of development are proposed:

Mobilization of national financial resources of developing countries through improved efficiency and consistency and fight against corruption at all levels.

Mobilization of international resources, including (FDI) and other private resources.

- the most important and often the only external source of development financing. It is recognized that there are serious trade imbalances caused by export subsidies from industrialized countries and the abuse of anti-dumping, technical, sanitary and phytosanitary measures. Developing countries (DCs) and countries with economies in transition (ETCs) are concerned about tariff spikes and tariff escalation by industrialized countries (IDCs). It is recognized that it is necessary to include effective and functional provisions for Special and Differential Treatment for developing countries in trade agreements.

Increased international financial and technical cooperation for development means an increase in official development assistance (ODA). The Conference called on the DSP to make concrete efforts to achieve the target of 0.7% of ODA for developing countries and 0.15-0.2% of their GNP from developed countries for the needs of least developed countries.

It is an element of resource mobilization for public and private investment. It is recognized that debtors and creditors must share responsibility for preventing and resolving situations involving unsustainable levels of debt.

Improvement global economic governance systems involves expanding the circle of participants in the decision-making process on development issues and eliminating organizational gaps. It is necessary to strengthen the involvement of developing countries and countries with economies in transition in the decision-making process in the Bank for International Settlements, the Basel Committee and the Financial Stability Forum

Critics of the Monterrey Consensus point out that, as in the case of the Washington Consensus, developed countries proceed from a liberal model of development and emphasize the need to find resources for development within developing countries and with the help of the private sector. Developed countries themselves do not make any clear commitments regarding the redistribution of resources. Accordingly, it is almost impossible to bridge the gap between poverty and wealth.

The issue of fair representation in the Security Council and the expansion of its composition, which was brought up for discussion by the UN General Assembly, was not resolved.

The Russian position is to support any expansion option, subject to broad agreement between all interested countries.

Thus, there are several mutually exclusive approaches to reforming the UN Security Council, which implies an indefinite duration of the transformation process.

The UN, as the most universal international organization, includes a number of bodies and international organizations.

Economic issues occupy a prominent place in the activities of the UN General Assembly, the most representative body of this most authoritative international organization. The main UN body coordinating all economic, social and cultural activities is the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC). Its competence also includes humanitarian issues.

The Council consists of 54 members who are elected by the UN General Assembly for a three-year period. A third of the members are elected each year. The Council has established the following standards of representation: Asia - 11, Africa - 14, Eastern Europe - 6, Western Europe - 13, Latin America - 10. Council meetings are held alternately in New York and Geneva. Decisions in ECOSOC are made by a simple majority, each council member has one vote, and no country has a veto. ECOSOC consists of three sessional committees: First (economic), Second (social), Third (programs and cooperation). All Council members serve on each of these committees.

The council has 5 UN regional commissions: Economic Commission for Europe (Geneva, Switzerland), Economic and Social Commission for Asia and Pacific Ocean(Bangkok, Thailand), Economic Commission for Africa (Addis Ababa, Ethiopia), Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (Santiago, Chile), Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia (Beirut, Lebanon). Regional economic organizations studying the economic and social problems of the relevant regions and developing recommendations, and also carry out research, advisory and information-analytical functions.

In 1964 The UN General Assembly established the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD). UNCTAD's headquarters are located in Geneva. The number of members of the organization exceeds 190. This organization is designed to consider the entire range of issues related to international trade and development, including the principles of exchange and trade in raw materials and industrial goods, financing of development projects, issues of external debt, and technology transfer to developing countries. UNCTAD pays considerable attention to the situation of the least developed countries.

The United Nations Development Program (UNDP) operates in 166 countries, established in 1965, with headquarters in New York. The main task of this organization is defined as assisting countries in sharing knowledge and global development experience in order to improve their socio-economic situation. UNDP compiles and publishes the Human Development Report annually. One of the main indicators of these reports is the “human development index”, which summarizes data on three main indicators:

a) life expectancy of a healthy person
b) level of education
c) standard of living

Table 1. UN special agencies Grechnikova I.N. International economic organizations: regulation of world economic relations and business activities - Consultbanker, 2000. - p.50.

Title in Russian	Year of creation or establishment	Location
International Labor Organization, ILO
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, FAO
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, UNESCO
World Health Organization, WHO
World Bank Group International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, IBRD International Development Association, IDA International Finance Corporation, IFC Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency, MIGA International Center for Settlement of Investment Disputes, ICSID		Washington Washington Washington Washington Washington
International Monetary Fund, IMF		Washington
International Civil Aviation Organization, ICAO		Montreal
Universal Postal Union, UPU
International Telecommunication Union, ITU
World Meteorological Organization, WMO
International Maritime Organization, IMO
World Intellectual Property Organization, WIPO
International Fund agricultural development, IFAD
United Nations Industrial Development Organization, UNIDO

As can be seen from the table, some international organizations appeared much earlier than the UN and only later received the status of specialized agencies. For example, the ILO, which became the first specialized agency of the UN, 1946.

The ILO develops international policies and programs in the field of labor relations, adopts international labor standards, promotes their adoption by member countries, and assists in organizing vocational education and training.

The ILO has unique character: in preparing decisions on equal conditions Representatives of governments, workers and entrepreneurs participate. The main body of the ILO, the International Labor Conference, where each country is represented by four delegates, is convened at least once a year. Each delegate votes individually.

UNIDO acquired the status of a specialized agency of the United Nations in 1985. UNIDO's main efforts are aimed at mobilizing knowledge, skills, information and technology to create new jobs, economic competitiveness and environmentally safe and sustainable economic development. All this should help reduce global poverty.

UNIDO activities are carried out in the form of:

a) integrated programs
b) individual projects.

The main sources of funds for the implementation of projects through UNIDO are the United Nations Development Program.

In the financial and banking sector, a prominent place is occupied by specialized UN agencies - the IMF and organizations included in the World Bank Group.

The United Nations system includes the United Nations itself and its specialized agencies, funds and programs. The organizations of the World Bank Group - IMF are specialized agencies of the UN, but they are not part of the general system. Most of these structures agreed to standardize the conditions of the civil service and participate in the work of the International Civil Service Commission (ICSC). This means that they agreed to build the civil service on the principles of science, consistency, functionality, international legal orderliness, and high moral stability.

The structure of the UN civil service naturally corresponds to the structure of the UN itself.

Year of creation	ORGANIZATION	Headquarters location
UN - United Nations
UNITED NATIONS FUNDS AND PROGRAMS
UNICEF - United Nations Children's Fund	New York
UNRWA - United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East	Gaza
UNHCR - Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees	Geneva
WFP - World Food Program	Rome
UNCTAD - United Nations Conference on Trade and Development	Geneva
UNDP - United Nations Development Program	New York
UNITAR - United Nations Institute for Training and Research	Geneva
UNFPA - United Nations Population Fund	New York
UNEP - United Nations Environment Program	Nairobi
UNU - United Nations University	Tokyo
UNCHS - United Nations Center for Human Settlements	Nairobi
UNOPS - United Nations Office for Project Services	New York
UN REGIONAL COMMISSIONS
EEC - Economic Commission for Europe	Geneva
ESCAP - Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific	Bangkok
ECLAC - Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean	Santiago
ECA - Economic Commission for Africa	Addis Ababa
ESCWA - Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia	Beirut
SPECIALIZED INSTITUTIONS AND OTHER ORGANIZATIONS
ITU - International Telecommunication Union	Geneva
WMO - World Meteorological Organization	Geneva
UPU - Universal Postal Union	Berne
WIPO - World Intellectual Property Organization	Geneva
ILO - International Labor Organization	Geneva
World Bank - International Bank for Reconstruction and Development	Washington
IMF - International Monetary Fund	Washington
FAO - Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations	Rome
UNESCO - United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization	Paris
ICAO - International Civil Aviation Organization	Montreal
WHO - World Health Organization	Geneva
IFC - International Finance Corporation	Washington
IAEA* - International Atomic Energy Agency	Vein
IMO - International Maritime Organization	London
IDA - International Development Association	Washington
IFAD - International Fund for Agricultural Development	Rome
UNIDO - United Nations Industrial Development Organization	Vein
WTO - World trade organization	Geneva

* The IAEA is not a specialized agency; it is an intergovernmental organization linked to the UN not through ECOSOC, but through the UN General Assembly.

Each international organization has its own civil service. However, since the emergence of the UN and its specialized agencies, the idea of creating a unified international civil service has emerged. For these purposes, inter-organizational personnel agreements were concluded between the UN and a number of specialized agencies aimed at resolving a number of common problems facing the international civil services of the UN system.

The concept of an international civil service is now universally accepted. World practice has shown that when employees from different countries work in secretariats and are financially completely independent of their state, they are much more effective and can perform a wide variety of functions where an impartial approach is required. Largely thanks to such independence, the UN Secretariat and many specialized organizations managed, on the whole, to successfully withstand the test of the Cold War and to refrain from sliding into the position of one or another of the conflicting parties or factions.

To ensure that political differences within the UN itself did not have a direct impact on the work of the specialized agencies, the founding states gave a common system of international civil service decentralized a character that gives each of them significant independence. Over time, the system developed and became larger-scale and multifaceted. Accordingly, the task of intrasystem coordination became more complicated. States and international organizations themselves have matured the understanding that a coordinated policy in personnel and administrative matters is one of the few factors connecting the organizations of the common system.

To summarize the above, it can be determined that the United Nations system includes a number of autonomous organizations, which, on the basis of the agreements reached, became participants in mechanisms ensuring common ground human resources management. Its main elements are those elements of the human resources management framework that bring United Nations system organizations together to (a) avoid any competition in the recruitment of staff that may result from significant differences in remuneration; b) promote the shared values of the international civil service; c) promote mobility and, to a certain extent, rotation of employees, in this case, within the system.

It should be noted that organizations of the United Nations system are characterized by three more unique features that, in one way or another, influence the management of human resources and draw a clear line between national and international civil services:

Their governance system: all organizations answer to a large number of member states, which determine their tasks, mandates and strategies;

Their legal status: these organizations are extraterritorial and are not subject to national legislation and international conventions about work;

Their international, multicultural nature: the goals and activities of organizations are global character, and their employees are recruited from around the world.

The characteristics that distinguish the international civil service from the national one include the fact that the latter, being part of the state system, participates in ensuring the implementation of the constitutional right of a citizen of his country to work, i.e. permanent employment.

The International Civil Service has no such obligations. From this angle, one can view the entire human resource management system in the MMPO, including the terms of employment and the duration of employment agreements/contracts, the tasks and meaning of professional training and retraining of personnel and a number of other elements, including mobility or staff rotation.

Mobility has special meaning in human resources management, including both the rotation of personnel within and between organizations of the common system, and with national civil services, other national organizations and institutions, allowing for the recruitment of personnel necessary to carry out the increasingly complex tasks of the MMPO, which do not always have enough time and funds for training such personnel through internal, including human, resources.

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In April 1945, in San Francisco, after almost a month of negotiations between the head of Soviet diplomacy, People's Commissar (since 1946 - Minister) of Foreign Affairs of the USSR V. Molotov and the head of the American delegation, Republican Senator Arthur Hendrick Vandenberg, the development of the draft UN Charter. It was submitted for approval to a conference to which 42 countries were invited that had declared war on Germany or Japan before March 1, 1945. Invitations were sent on behalf of the USSR, the USA, Great Britain and China, which signed on January 1, 1942. United Nations Declaration. Subsequently, the number of participants in the San Francisco Conference increased to 50 states. The conference lasted until June 26, 1945 and ended with the signing of the Charter, which came into force in October of the same year.

UN: who created the organization and why!

The United Nations was to become the main instrument of world political regulation, just as the Bretton Woods institutions were to become the basis for world economic regulation. The Soviet Union, having avoided participating in the regulation of international economic relations, focused on world political regulation. There were reasons for this, the main one being the statutory decision-making procedure at the UN, which was favorable for the USSR. This procedure was a two-step process. The lowest level of the organization is the general meeting of UN member countries, General Assembly – had the right to make only advisory decisions. Top link - Security Council – had broad powers, including the right to apply sanctions against certain states.

According to the UN Charter, the USSR, along with the USA, Great Britain, France and China, received a permanent, irremovable seat in the Security Council. In addition, all key decisions of the Council, according to the Charter, were taken not by a majority of votes, but by consensus method- subject to mandatory agreement with the decision of all five permanent members of the Security Council. In other words, each of the permanent members received the right to veto any decision.

The UN turned out to be the only institution where the USA and the USSR could cooperate on issues of world politics. But their interests in it almost always collided.

International public law. Test 1

Therefore, in fact, the main real function of the UN was not to improve the world, but not to allow a war between the USSR and the USA.

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A female samurai, or more precisely an onna-bugeisha (Japanese: 女武芸者) is a woman belonging to the samurai class in feudal Japan and trained in weapon skills.

Delio Onnis (Spanish Delio Onnis; born March 24, 1948, Rome, Italy) is an Argentine football player, center forward, and coach.

Onnagata or Oyama (jap.

What is the UN and why was this organization created?

女形 or 女方, lit. “[actors of] female style/image”) - the role of the kabuki theater; male performers playing female roles, as well as the corresponding acting style.

Eike Onnen (German: Eike Onnen; born August 3, 1982, Hannover, Germany) is a German track and field athlete specializing in the high jump.

Onnen (French Onnaing) is a commune in France, Nord-Pas-de-Calais region, Nord department, Valenciennes district, Anzen canton.

Japanese language (Japanese: 日本語 nihongo) is the language of the Japanese and in fact state language Japan, with a controversial systematic position among other languages.

Felt onnia (lat. Onnia tomentosa), also Felt tinder fungus, is a type of mushroom. Found in coniferous forests, often in groups.

Onnyud-Qi (Chinese: 翁牛特旗, pinyin: Wēngniútè Qí) - huoshun of Chifeng City District Autonomous region Inner Mongolia (PRC).

Onnyeonseonwon (Korean: 옥련선원?, 玉蓮禪院?) is a Buddhist monastery in Sooyeon-gu, Busan Metropolitan City, Republic of Korea.

V.T. Batychko
International law
Lecture notes. Taganrog: TTI SFU, 2011.

Lecture 7. International organizations

7.2. United Nations

The idea of creating the United Nations arose during the Second World War as an organization aimed at maintaining international peace and security. For the first time, the need to create an international organization designed to help maintain international peace and security was expressed in the Atlantic Charter on August 14, 1941. The term “United Nations” itself arose at the Washington Conference in 1942, in which 26 states of the anti-Hitler coalition took part, where it was adopted United Nations Declaration on the Joint Efforts of States in the Fight against the Triple Alliance. The Moscow Conference of Foreign Ministers of the USSR, USA, and Great Britain in October 1943 adopted the Declaration on Issues of General Security, which provided for the need to create an international organization on issues of general security. The 1943 conference in Tehran expressed the correctness of the general thrust of the Moscow Declaration of 1943 and reinforced its provisions at a higher level. An important step towards the creation of a new international organization was the conference in Dumbarton Oaks (1944), at which the draft Charter was mainly developed new organization. June 26, 1945

UN system

At a conference in San Francisco with the participation of 51 states, the Charter of the United Nations was adopted.

The goals of the UN are: maintaining international peace and security; development of friendly relations between nations based on respect for the principle of equality and self-determination of peoples; implementation of international cooperation between states in resolving problems of an economic, social, cultural and humanitarian nature; promoting respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms for all without distinction.

The principles of the organization’s activities are the basic principles of international law enshrined in Art. 2 of the UN Charter.

UN bodies perform their functions through the main and subsidiary bodies created by them. The main organs of the UN are: the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council, the Trusteeship Council, the International Court of Justice and the Secretariat.

UN General Assembly is the only body in which all member states are represented. Each of them has equal status regardless of its size, power and significance. Decisions of the UN General Assembly on issues of international peace and security are in the nature of legally non-binding recommendations. The UNGA meets in regular, special or emergency sessions. Regular sessions take place throughout the year. The preliminary agenda for the next session of the UN GA is developed by the UN Secretary General, brought to the attention of UN member states and discussed within 2-3 weeks after the start of the UN session. Within the framework of the UN General Assembly, 7 main UN committees have been created:

1) Committee on Political and Security Affairs;

2) Special Political Committee;

3) Committee on Economic and Financial Affairs;

4) Committee on Social, Humanitarian and Cultural Issues;

5) Committee on Trusteeship and Non-Self-Governing Territories;

6) Committee on Administrative and Budgetary Issues;

7) Legal Affairs Committee.

UN Security Council bears primary responsibility for the maintenance of international peace and security. It is organized as a small, promptly and timely body, which must provide prompt and effective measures for the purpose of maintaining or restoring international peace. Currently, the UN Security Council consists of 15 states (in the future it is expected to increase to 20), of which 5 states are permanent members of the UN Security Council.

The UN Security Council considers international disputes or situations the continuation of which could threaten the maintenance of international peace and security. He may decide to take economic or military measures against a violator of international peace. Members of the UN agree, in accordance with the Charter, to obey and implement the decisions of the UN Security Council (Articles 39-50 of the UN Charter). There are two types of actions by the UN Security Council, sometimes called sanctions or collective measures: action without or with the use of armed forces.

The UN Security Council makes its decisions when 8 members, including 5 permanent members of the Security Council, vote for them. The permanent members of the UN Security Council have the “right of veto”, i.e. the right to block a decision of the UN Security Council. The UN Security Council has two standing committees:

— Committee of Experts;

— Committee for the Admission of New Members to the UN. Economic and Social Council under the leadership

The UN GA carries out extensive activities in connection with its tasks in the field of development of economic, social, cultural and humanitarian cooperation between member states of the organization. EcoSoS currently consists of 54 member states, which are elected by the UN General Assembly for 3 years. EcoCoS makes all its decisions by a majority of the members present and voting. EcoSoS has created various special committees and commissions (for example, the Committee on natural resources, on combating crime, on negotiations with international organizations, etc.).

Guardianship Council is the main organ of the UN, acting under the leadership of the UN General Assembly. The Trusteeship Council is charged with overseeing the executive responsibilities that governing powers have over trustee territories (such territories include the Pacific Islands).

UN Secretariat consists of the Secretary General and staff.

It is the administrative apparatus of the UN and serves its main bodies.

The main problems of the UN include:

— the problem of the organization’s budget, characterized by a constant deficit in the organization’s budget associated with non-payment of membership fees by member states;

— the problem of reforming UN bodies. The proposed reform of UN bodies has not yet been implemented (expansion of the UN Security Council to 20 states, including permanent members of the UN);

- a problem of organizational effectiveness, characterized by the adoption of measures aimed at preventing wars. Currently, there is a tendency to underestimate the role of the UN compared to NATO;

- a problem of trust in the organization, characterized by the passive role of the UN in the Balkan crisis, in solving the problems of the Kurds, and East Timor.

Global economic organizations under the auspices of the UN.

On a global scale, international economic cooperation develops mainly within the framework of the United Nations (UN).

The formation of the UN was historically associated with the victory of the countries participating in the anti-Hitler coalition, which predetermined the natural priority in considering foreign policy issues. However, gradually, with the solution in most of the victorious states in World War II to the task of normalizing their economic situation, with the increase in the number sovereign states freed from colonial dependence and their entry into the UN, as well as with the growth of the objective interconnection of various states, the United Nations equally began to consider not only foreign policy, but also social, economic and general humanitarian problems of our time with the aim of solving them in the most favorable way form for the entire world community.

Currently, the UN is the largest international organization established on the basis of the voluntary unification of efforts of sovereign states in order to maintain and strengthen peace and security, as well as develop international cooperation between states.

The main organs of the UN are the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council, the Trusteeship Council, the International Court of Justice and the UN Secretariat.

One of them, directly related to international economic relations, is ECOCO - the UN Economic and Social Council, under the auspices of which most other economic bodies of this organization operate.

The functions of EKOKOS include organizing research and preparing various kinds reports and recommendations on a wide range of international economic, social, cultural and related issues.

ECOCOS is also endowed with the right to create various bodies on the basis of which its organizational structure is formed in the field of execution of decisions made. Currently, 54 states are members of ECOCO, elected for a period of 3 years. At the same time, every three years a third of the composition of ECOCO changes. By geographic region, representation is formed as follows: for Asia - 11 seats, for Africa - 14, for Latin America -10, for Western Europe and other countries - 13, for countries Eastern Europe— 6 places.

Currently, within the framework of ECOCOS, various intergovernmental and functional commissions and committees operate in the UN system: statistical commission, population commission, commission on transnational corporations, committee on natural resources, commission on human rights, commission on the status of women; Committee on Non-Governmental Organizations and others, which are united under the general name “subsidiary bodies of ECOCO.”

In addition, five regional economic commissions operate within the framework of ECOCO:

— Economic Commission for Europe;

— Economic Commission for Africa;

— Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific;

— Economic Commission for Latin America;

— Economic Commission for Western Asia.

The United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) is an international body designed to regulate global trade relations. The fact is that the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), created after World War II, was in force until 1997 outside the UN framework. Therefore, many countries have set the UN the task of creating within its structures a more independent and universal body designed to regulate complex problems of international trade on behalf of the world community.

Ministry of Economic Development of Russia

To this end, the Trade and Development Commission was created in 1964 as an autonomous UN body to facilitate international trade, negotiations and development international treaties and recommendations in this area. The main body of UNCTAD is the conference, which meets in session twice a year. The secretariat is located in Geneva

Since 1997, the GATT, by decision of its participants, was transformed into the World Trade Organization, as a specialized agency of the UN.

A significant role both in the structure of the UN and in the results of activities relating to certain aspects of international economic relations is played by a number of specialized institutions, the creation and functioning of which is provided for by the UN Charter. These include:

— International Labor Organization (ILO);

— Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO);

— International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA);

— World Meteorological Organization (WMO);

— World Health Organization (WHO);

— World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO);

— Universal Postal Union (UPU);

— International Maritime Organization (IMO);

— International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO);

— International Telecommunication Union (ITU);

— International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD);

— Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and some others.

International financial specialized institutions of the UN occupy a special place in the international economy

The oldest intergovernmental specialized financial institution of the UN, founded back in 1944, is the International Bank for Development and Reconstruction - IBRD, which began operating in 1946. The Bank provides medium- and long-term loans to the governments of its member countries or private organizations under government guarantees and controls their use. Countries receiving loans are obliged to comply with the recommendations of the Bank, provide it with reports on the use of loans and provide it with all necessary information. The interest on IBRD loans is set in accordance with the cost of loans received by the Bank for international markets capital, and ranges from approximately 7.5 to 8.5%. In accordance with the IBRD's charter, only members of the International Monetary Fund - IMF, which was also founded in 1944 and began functioning together with the Bank in 1946, can be its members. The purpose of the IMF, as an intergovernmental specialized agency of the UN, is to coordinate the monetary and financial policies of its member countries and provide them with loans to settle balances of payments and maintain exchange rates. The third specialized UN intergovernmental agency in the field of financial issues is the International Development Association (IDA), founded in 1960 with the aim of providing loans to developing countries on especially preferential terms. Since March 1988 annual interest rates MARs average no more than 0.5%.

All three UN specialized agencies - IBRD, IDA and IMF are members of the International Finance Corporation, founded in 1956 as a branch of the IBRD with the aim of using its own resources and attracting investments from the private and mixed sectors of the national economy, mainly in developing countries.

In addition to financing capital investments, the functions of the International Finance Corporation include providing developing countries with a variety of financial and technical services, as well as organizational and advisory assistance to private investors in developing countries.

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The main bodies according to the Charter include:

— General Assembly (GA),

— Security Council (SC),

— Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC),

— Guardianship Council,

— International Court of Justice,

- Secretariat.

Over the history of the UN, more than three hundred subsidiary bodies have been created.

General Assembly- the most representative body of the UN, has the broadest competence. The General Assembly is a democratic body. Each member, regardless of the size of the territory, population, economic and military power, has one vote. Each UN member can be represented in all bodies by one person ( official representative, advisor, expert). Decisions on important issues are made by a 2/3 majority of the members of the General Assembly present and voting. States that are not members of the UN, those with permanent observers at the UN (Vatican City, Switzerland) and those without, can take part in the work of the General Assembly. The General Assembly is headed by the Secretary General. Consists of delegations from all member states. The composition of the delegation is up to 5 delegates and up to 5 their deputies, as well as the required number of advisers, experts and assistants. Delegations are headed by heads of state, government, foreign affairs departments or other senior officials. In exceptional cases, when a threat to peace is created or the peace is disrupted, and the Security Council cannot take action due to lack of unity among its permanent members, the GA is authorized on the basis of a resolution “ Unity for peace”, adopted in November 1950, to immediately consider the matter and adopt a decision recommending that Member States take collective measures, including, in the event of a breach of the peace or an act of aggression, the use, if necessary, of armed forces to maintain or restore peace.

The official and working languages of the GA are English, Arabic, Spanish, Chinese, Russian and French.

Order of GA meetings

— plenary sessions with the participation of all delegations,

— meetings of sessional main committees,

— meetings of subsidiary bodies created on a permanent or temporary basis (committees, commissions, centers, programs, funds, etc.).

There are a total of 6 main GA committees:

· First Committee (disarmament and international security issues),

· Second Committee (economic and financial issues),

· Third Committee (social, humanitarian and cultural issues),

· Fourth Committee (Special Political Questions and Decolonization),

· Fifth Committee (administrative and budgetary issues),

· Sixth Committee (Legal Affairs).

Committees create subcommittees and working groups, in whose work members of state delegations take part.

Their activities are coordinated by the General Committee - created at each session, consisting of the chairman of the GA, his deputies and committee chairmen.

Operating procedure:

— annual regular sessions(opens on the 3rd Tuesday of September, ends on the eve of the opening of the next session),

- special(convened within 15 days from the date of the corresponding request from the Security Council or from the majority of UN members),

- emergency special sessions(convened by the Secretary General within 24 hours of receiving the corresponding request from the Security Council, supported by any 9 votes in the Security Council, or at the request of a majority of UN members).

At the beginning of the session, an agenda is approved, which usually includes 160–170 issues.

Competence of the General Assembly.

· Discusses any issues or matters within the Charter.

· Reviews the general principles of cooperation in maintaining peace, including the principle of disarmament, and makes recommendations accordingly.

· Considers any issues related to peacekeeping.

· Promotes international cooperation in the political field and the progressive development of international law and its codification.

· Forms UN bodies and receives reports from them on their activities.

· Together with the Security Council, elects a member of the International Court of Justice.

Security Council consists of 15 members: 5 permanent members - Russia, China, France, Great Britain, USA - and 10 non-permanent members - elected by the General Assembly for a period of 2 years. He has primary responsibility for maintaining peace and security. The Council acts on behalf of the UN member states and is the main executive body of the UN; it has a major role in the peaceful resolution of disputes. Decisions on procedural issues in the Council are made by a majority of 9 votes. For other issues, a majority of 9 votes is required, but this number must include the votes of permanent members.

SB in accordance with Art. 39 of the Charter defines existence any threat to the peace, any breach of the peace or act of aggression and does recommendations or makes a decision about what measures should be taken in accordance with Art. 41 and 42 to maintain or restore international peace and security.

To implement its decisions, the Security Council may adopt various sanctions.

The Security Council is assigned the role of guarantor in resolving disputes by peaceful means. In accordance with paragraph 2 of Art. 33" The Security Council, when it deems it necessary, shall require the parties to resolve their dispute by such means».

These powers of the Security Council do not deprive states of their inalienable right to individual or collective self-defense.

If an armed attack occurs on a member of the Organization, the injured state has the right to self-defense until the Security Council takes its own measures necessary to maintain international peace and security (Article 51 of the Charter).

The Security Council is authorized, in case of ineffectiveness or insufficiency of the measures taken or failure to comply with its decisions, to apply the following measures to the guilty party in their following sequence:

United Nations

Preventive (temporary) measures (Articles 33-40 of the Charter), expressed in:

- the Council’s requirement for the disputing parties to resolve the dispute through negotiations, investigation, mediation, conciliation, arbitration, litigation, appeal to regional authorities or other peaceful means of their choice;

— the Council conducting its own investigation into a dispute or threatening situation;

2. Coercive measures of a non-military nature (Article 41 of the Charter), expressed in the complete or partial interruption by UN members of economic relations, railway, sea, air, postal, telegraph, radio or other means of communication with the offending state, as well as the severance of diplomatic relations;

3. Coercive measures of a military nature (Article 42 of the Charter), expressed in the implementation against the aggressor state by air, sea or ground forces demonstrations, blockades and other military actions necessary to restore peace.

To ensure the coercive military measures taken, member states, on the basis of special agreements with the Council, must place at its disposal military contingents, from which the Council forms the UN Armed Forces (the so-called “blue helmets”).

Competence of the Security Council.

· Monitoring the implementation by states of UN principles.

· Preparation of arms regulation plans.

· Determining whether there is a threat to the peace, a breach of the peace or acts of aggression.

Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)- bears responsibility for the performance of the functions set forth in Chapter IX of the UN Charter. Consists of 5 members elected annually by the General Assembly for a period of three years.

Competence of the Economic and Social Council.

· Undertakes research and compiles reports on international issues in the economic, social, cultural, educational, health and similar fields.

· Concludes agreements with specialized agencies and coordinates their activities, receives reports from them.

· Liaises with non-governmental international organizations.

Guardianship Council. Created to lead the UN international trusteeship system. The guardianship system covered three categories of territories:

1) former mandate territories of the League of Nations,

2) territories that were ceded to enemy states following the Second World War,

3) territories voluntarily included in the trusteeship system by the states responsible for their management. This body, under the leadership of the GA, monitored the performance of their duties by the governing authorities in relation to the territories under the trusteeship system.

On November 1, 1994, it actually suspended its activities in connection with the acquisition of political independence of the last trust territory (Palau - a region of Micronesia in the Pacific Ocean).

UN Secretariat — the main, permanent administrative body of the Organization.

The main purpose of the Secretariat is to serve the activities of all UN bodies, including subsidiary ones, and to manage the programs of activities of these bodies. According to Art. 97 of the Constitution The Secretariat consists of the Secretary General and such personnel as may be required by the Organization. The work of the Secretariat is led by the Secretary General. The Secretary General is the chief official of the UN, appointed by the GA on the recommendation of the Security Council for 5 years with the right of re-election. He is present in his personal capacity at meetings of all main bodies, provides an annual report on the work of the Organization, and performs the functions of a depositary of international treaties. Employees of the UN Secretariat may be citizens of all member states. They must be completely independent in the performance of their duties. UN employees enjoy international privileges and immunities as defined in the Convention on the Privileges and Immunities of the United Nations of 1946. The headquarters of the Secretariat and other main organs of the UN (except the International Court of Justice) is New York (USA).

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UNITED NATIONS (UN)

Created in 1945 at a conference in San Francisco(cm.). Its charter came into force on October 24, 1945. The UN included all 50 countries participating in the conference in San Francisco and Poland. In addition, Afghanistan, Iceland, Siam and Sweden were admitted in November - December 1946, Yemen and Pakistan in September - October 1947, Burma in April 1948, and Israel in May 1949.

The UN was created to maintain and strengthen international peace and security, develop friendly relations between states, and implement international cooperation in economic, social, cultural and other fields.

The UN is based on the principle of sovereign equality of all its members, who have accepted the obligation to resolve their international disputes by peaceful means, to refrain "in their international relations from the threat or use of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any state or against any other in a manner incompatible with the goals of the United Nations" (Article 2, paragraph 4 of the Charter).

The Charter does not, however, give the UN “the right to intervene in matters essentially within the internal competence of any state, and does not require members of the United Nations to submit such matters for resolution in accordance with the present Charter” (Article 2, paragraph 7 of the Charter ).

In addition to the countries that have signed the charter, admission to UN membership “is open to all other peace-loving states that accept the obligations contained ... in the charter and which, in the judgment of the Organization, are able and willing to fulfill these obligations” (Article 4, paragraph. 1).

Admission to UN membership “is carried out by resolution of the General Assembly on the recommendation of the Security Council” (Article 4, paragraph 2). For such recommendations to be approved by the Security Council, the unanimity of all permanent members of the Security Council is required.

I. UN structure

The main organs of the UN are: the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council, the Trusteeship Council, the International Court of Justice and the Secretariat.

1. The GENERAL ASSEMBLY consists of all members of the UN. It can discuss all issues within the scope of the UN Charter or relating to the powers and functions of any of the UN bodies, except for issues on the agenda of the Security Council. It can make recommendations on issues under consideration to UN member states or UN bodies.

The General Assembly meets annually in regular session, opening on the third Tuesday in September, and in special sessions as circumstances require. Each member of the General Assembly has one vote. Decisions on important political issues “are made by a two-thirds majority of the members of the Assembly present and voting” (Article 18 of the Charter). These matters include: recommendations regarding the maintenance of international peace and security, elections of non-permanent members of the Security Council, members of the Economic and Social Council, Trusteeship Council, admission of new members to the UN, expulsion from the UN, suspension of the rights and privileges of UN members, matters relating to functioning of the guardianship system, and budgetary issues (Article 18). Other issues are adopted by a simple majority of votes.

The General Assembly has 6 main committees: 1) Committee on Political and Security Affairs (including arms regulation); 2) Committee on Economic and Financial Affairs; 3) Committee on Social, Humanitarian and Cultural Issues; 4) Guardianship Committee; 5) Committee on Administrative and Budgetary Affairs and 6) Committee on Legal Affairs. All delegations are members of these six main committees.

The General Assembly also creates a General Committee of 14 members, consisting of the Chairman of the General Assembly, 7 Vice-Chairmen and 6 Chairmen of the Main Committees, and a Credentials Committee of 9 members.

The Chairman of the General Assembly and his deputies are elected at the plenary meeting of the Assembly, and the chairmen of the main committees are elected at meetings of the committees themselves.

2. The SECURITY COUNCIL consists of AND members, including 5 permanent members (USSR, USA, England, France and China) and 6 non-permanent members, elected by the General Assembly for 2 years.

States whose term of office on the Council has expired cannot be immediately re-elected for a new term.

At the first elections in January 1946, the following were elected as non-permanent members of the Security Council: Australia, Brazil, Poland, Egypt, Mexico, and Holland. At the second session of the Assembly in 1947, instead of Australia, Brazil and Poland, the Ukrainian SSR, Canada and Argentina were elected.

The election of the Ukrainian SSR was preceded by fierce resistance from the United States of America, which, however, suffered defeat. By opposing the election of the Ukrainian SSR instead of Poland, whose term on the Council had expired, the United States acted contrary to the provisions of Art. 23 of the Charter, which stipulates that when selecting non-permanent members of the Council, attention should be paid “in the first place to the degree of participation of the members of the Organization in the maintenance of international peace and security... as well as equitable geographical distribution.”

The term of office of non-permanent members of the Security Council, as well as members of the Economic and Social Council and the Trusteeship Council, begins on the 1st of the year following their election and ends on the 31st of the 12th of the year in which their successors are elected.

In addition, if the Security Council is considering the use of armed forces placed at its disposal by a state that is not a member of the Council, that state may participate in meetings of the Council with the right to vote when the Council considers the use of these forces.

The Security Council has a continuous session. All its members preside over it monthly in turn.

The Security Council is the main political organ of the UN, which, according to its charter, has “primary responsibility for the maintenance of international peace and security.

Security Council resolutions fall into two categories: decisions and recommendations. Decisions made by the Security Council on the basis of Chapter VII of the Charter are binding on all UN members.

Bodies of the Security Council. The Security Council has the following bodies: the Military Staff Committee, the Atomic Energy Control Commission and the Conventional Armaments Commission.

1. The Military Staff Committee consists of the chiefs of staff or representatives of the chiefs of staff of states that are permanent members of the Security Council, i.e. the USSR, the USA, England, France and China. It must assist the Security Council "in all matters relating to the military requirements of the Security Council for the maintenance of international peace and security, to the use and command of the troops placed at its disposal, and to the regulation of armaments and possible disarmament" (art. 47 of the charter).

2. The Atomic Energy Control Commission was established on January 24, 1946 by a decision of the General Assembly at the proposal of the delegations of the USSR, USA, England, France, China and Canada, agreed upon at the Moscow Conference of Foreign Ministers of the USSR, USA and England in December 1945. The Commission consists of representatives of all states that are represented in the Security Council, and a representative of Canada.

3. The Commission on Conventional Armaments, established by a resolution of the Security Council dated 13.2.1947, consists of representatives of all states that are members of the Security Council. The Commission must prepare proposals: a) on the general regulation and reduction of armaments and armed forces and b) on practical and effective guarantees in connection with the general regulation and reduction of armaments.

3. THE ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COUNCIL consists of 18 members elected by the General Assembly for three years. States whose term on the Council has expired may be immediately re-elected for a new three-year term.

The Economic and Social Council should study international issues in the areas: economic, social, culture, education, health, etc., draw up reports on them and make recommendations to the General Assembly, members of the UN and interested specialized agencies, provide the Security Council with the necessary information and assistance. According to the rules of procedure, the Economic and Social Council has at least three sessions per year.

The Economic and Social Council has the following permanent commissions: 1) on economics and employment, 2) on transport and communications, 3) on statistics, 4) social, 5) on human rights, 6) on the protection of women's rights, 7) tax, 8) demographic (by population), and four temporary commissions: economic commission for Europe, economic commission for Asia and Far East, the economic commission for Latin America and the drug commission.

4. THE GUARDIANESS COUNCIL is established to administer the territories which are included in the trusteeship system by subsequent agreements. The goals of this system are defined in Chap. XII of the UN Charter (see. International guardianship).

5. INTERNATIONAL COURT. The main judicial body of the UN is the International Court of Justice, consisting of 15 judges elected in parallel by the General Assembly and the Security Council for 9 years; Judges may be re-elected after this period.

At the first elections (6.2.1946), representatives of the USSR, Canada, Poland, Egypt, China, Mexico, Yugoslavia, Norway, Belgium, the USA, France, El Salvador, Brazil, England and Chile were elected as international judges.

All members of the UN are parties to the statute of the International Court of Justice.

6. The UN SECRETARIAT is headed by a Secretary General, elected by the General Assembly on the recommendation of the Security Council for a 5-year term. After this period, he may be re-elected again. When the Security Council decides on the issue of nominating a candidate for the post of Secretary General, the unanimity of all its permanent members is required. Trygve elected first UN Secretary General Lee(q.v.), former Minister of Foreign Affairs of Norway.

The staff of the Secretariat is appointed by the Secretary General.

The Secretariat has 8 departments: 1) for Security Council Affairs; 2) economic; 3) social; 4) on guardianship and collection of information about non-self-governing territories; 5) public information; 6) on legal matters; 7) conference and general services; and 8) administrative and financial management. These departments are headed by Assistant Secretaries General.

7. OTHER UN PERMANENT BODIES. In addition to the above main UN bodies, the following have been established:

1) The International Law Commission was created by decision of the 2nd session of the General Assembly. It consists of 15 members - specialists in the field of international law, elected by the General Assembly for a three-year term. The Commission should deal with issues of the progressive development of international law and its codification.

2) The Advisory Committee on Administrative and Budgetary Questions consists of 9 members elected by the General Assembly for 3 years.

3) The Committee on Contributions consists of representatives of ten countries elected by the General Assembly for 3 years. The Committee in accordance with paragraph 2 of Art. 17 of the charter prepares the scale of contributions for UN members, i.e. it establishes what share of UN expenses each UN member state should bear.

4) The Audit Board consists of representatives of three UN member countries, elected by the General Assembly for 3 years.

8. BODIES AD HOC. In addition to permanent bodies, ad hoc bodies can also be created.

At the second session of the General Assembly (IX-XI 1947), the Anglo-American bloc achieved, contrary to the provisions of the UN Charter, the establishment of the so-called. intersessional committee, as well as a special committee on the Greek question and a temporary commission on Korea.

a) The Intersessional Committee of the General Assembly (“Small Assembly”) was created for the period between the second and third sessions of the Assembly from representatives of all UN member countries. At the third session of the Assembly, the existence of this illegal body was extended for another year. The creation of this body is in direct contradiction to the provisions of the charter and represents an attempt by the Anglo-American bloc to belittle the importance and role of the Security Council. Since the creation of an intersessional committee is a violation of the principles of the charter, the USSR, Ukrainian SSR, Byelorussian SSR, Poland, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia refused to participate in its work.

b) A Special Committee on the Greek Question was created consisting of Australia, Brazil, China, France, Mexico, Holland, Pakistan, England, the USA, the USSR and Poland. The delegations of the USSR and Poland stated that they would not participate in the work of this body, because the creation of such a committee violates the sovereignty of Bulgaria, Albania and Yugoslavia and is a gross violation of UN principles.

c) The Temporary Commission on Korea was created consisting of Australia, Canada, Chile, El Salvador, France, India, the Philippines, Syria and the Ukrainian SSR. Since the proposal of the USSR delegation to invite representatives of the Korean people to participate in the discussion of the issue of Korea was rejected, the USSR, Ukrainian SSR, BSSR, Poland, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia refused to participate in the vote when resolving this issue. The Ukrainian SSR, elected to the temporary commission on Korea, refused to participate in the work of this commission.

9. UN SPECIALIZED AGENCIES.

Specialized institutions are organizations “created by intergovernmental agreements and clothed in a broad international framework, defined in their constituent acts, responsibility in the field of economic, social, culture, education, health and similar fields" (Article 57 of the charter). Such specialized agencies are: 1) World Health Organization, 2) International Labor Organization (or Bureau), 3) Food Organization and Agriculture, 4) Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 5) International Civil Aviation Organization, 6) International Monetary Fund, 7) International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, 8) International Telecommunication Union, 9) Universal Postal Union, 10 ) International Organization for Refugees, I) Intergovernmental Consultative Organization for Maritime Transport of the USSR is a member of the International Telecommunication Union and the Universal Postal Union.

II. UN activities

During their existence, UN bodies dealt with many major political, economic and other issues in the field of international relations. The most important of these issues are: 1) the establishment of control over atomic energy, 2) the regulation and reduction of weapons and armed forces, 3) the fight against propaganda for a new war, 4) the principle of unanimity of the permanent members of the Security Council, 5) the Greek question, 6) the Spanish question issue, 7) Indonesian issue, 8) Corfu Strait incident, 9) Palestinian issue.

I. Control of atomic energy. 24. I 1946 The General Assembly established a commission "to consider the problems arising in connection with the discovery of atomic energy and other related issues."

The first meeting of the Commission for the Control of Atomic Energy took place on June 14, 1946. At this meeting, US representative Baruch proposed the establishment of an international authority (Authority), with broad powers and an almost unlimited right to interfere in the economy of any country, in the work of any industries, and even the right to make laws binding on all countries of the world. At the next meeting of the commission, June 19, 1946, the representative of the USSR, on behalf of the Soviet government, proposed concluding a convention banning the production and use of weapons based on the use of atomic energy for the purpose of mass destruction of people.

II. VI 1947 The Soviet government, in addition to and in development of its proposal regarding the conclusion of a convention on the prohibition of atomic weapons, submitted to the commission for consideration the main provisions that should form the basis of an international agreement on the control of atomic energy. These provisions provided for the establishment within the Security Council of the International Control Commission to carry out measures to control nuclear enterprises. The conditions and organizational principles of international control over atomic energy, the composition, rights and duties of the International Commission must be determined by a special convention concluded in accordance with the convention on the prohibition of atomic weapons. The International Control Commission should consist of representatives of member countries of the Atomic Commission, established on January 24, 1946.

On June 17, 1947, the Atomic Energy Control Commission, the majority of which supported the US representative, decided not to consider the Soviet proposal, but to discuss this proposal along with the issues raised in the commission’s work plan, drawn up at the behest of the United States.

Six so-called ones were created. "working groups" in which the representative of the USSR did not participate. These groups produced six "working papers" on the functions of an international supervisory body.

These documents provided for the provision of broad rights to the international control body, including the right to own and operate all nuclear enterprises around the world; ownership of all reserves of atomic raw materials (uranium, thorium, etc.), all chemical and metallurgical enterprises processing atomic raw materials, all enterprises capable of using “nuclear fuel” (the so-called uranium, thorium and other fissile materials) for the production of power energy (eg electricity); the right to issue licenses for the construction and operation of nuclear enterprises and the right to withdraw these licenses; the right to carry out geological exploration of reserves of atomic raw materials in any part of the world, including military and restricted zones, etc.

Granting such rights to the control body is incompatible with the principles of state sovereignty and the principles of the UN Charter, and also contradicts the General Assembly resolution of January 24, 1946 on the prohibition of atomic weapons.

The USSR representative in the Atomic Commission objected to these unacceptable proposals. However, US representatives, relying on the majority of the commission, achieved their acceptance and inclusion in the second report of the Atomic Commission to the Security Council.

10. IX 1947 this second report was approved by the majority of the commission and sent to the Security Council.

18. V 1948, the US government, which for two years rejected all proposals of the Soviet Union to ban atomic weapons, relying on the obedient majority of members of the Atomic Commission, achieved a decision to suspend its work for an indefinite time, allegedly because the Soviet Union did not agree to the establishment of nuclear weapons. .n. "international control".

At the third session of the Assembly, the USSR proposed to recommend that the Security Council and the Atomic Commission continue their work and prepare drafts of a convention on the prohibition of atomic weapons and a convention on the establishment of effective international control over atomic energy so that these conventions would be signed and entered into force simultaneously. This proposal, aimed at finding an agreed solution to such an important problem, was rejected by the majority of the Assembly, following the footsteps of US policy, seeking to maintain freedom of action in the production of atomic weapons. The USA and England achieved the adoption by the Assembly of a resolution they liked, authorizing the actual disruption of the work of the Atomic Commission.

2. General reduction and regulation of weapons. On 29.X 1946, at a plenary meeting of the General Assembly, the head of the USSR delegation, V. M. Molotov, made a proposal for a general reduction in armaments.

Despite the resistance shown by representatives of the United States, Great Britain and a number of other states, the discussion of the issue of arms reduction was crowned with a victory for Soviet diplomacy.

14. XII 1946 The General Assembly unanimously adopted a resolution on the “Principles governing the general regulation and reduction of armaments”, in which it recommended that the Security Council begin to develop practical measures essential for establishing the general regulation and reduction of armaments and armed forces; The Atomic Commission - to fulfill the responsibilities assigned to it by the resolution of the General Assembly of 24. I 1946 "as a significant step towards achieving the urgent goal of prohibiting and removing atomic weapons from national arsenals." “In order to ensure that the general prohibition, regulation and reduction of armaments covers the main weapons of modern warfare”, within the framework of the Security Council, a international system, operating through special bodies.

28. XP 1946, the representative of the USSR in the Security Council, through the Secretary General on behalf of the government of the USSR, proposed that the Security Council “begin to develop practical measures to implement the decision of the General Assembly... on the general regulation and reduction of weapons and armed forces...” and establish a commission, which “to be instructed to prepare and present its proposals to the Security Council within one or two months, but no later than three months...” 13. II The Security Council created a Commission on Conventional Arms, which, at the insistence of the Americans and the British, is deprived of the right to deal with issues related to atomic weapons.

Due to sabotage by delegations from the countries of the Anglo-American bloc, the commission did not outline any practical measures during the year.

To ensure that the General Assembly resolution on the reduction of armaments and the prohibition of atomic weapons did not remain only on paper, the government of the USSR submitted in September 1948 at the third session of the Assembly a proposal to reduce by one third within one year the armaments and armed forces of all five permanent members of the Security Council and to ban atomic weapons as weapons of aggression. To monitor the implementation of these measures, the USSR proposed establishing an international control body within the Security Council.

This proposal of the USSR met the aspirations and hopes of all peace-loving peoples of the world. However, representatives of the USA and England took a completely opposite position. They sought to delay and disrupt the resolution of the issue of banning atomic weapons and reducing weapons and armed forces. Relying on the obedient majority of the Assembly, the Anglo-American bloc achieved the rejection of the Soviet proposal.

3. Fight against the instigators of a new war. 18. IX 1947, the head of the USSR delegation at the second session of the General Assembly, A. Ya. Vyshinsky, made a proposal on behalf of the USSR government to combat the instigators of a new war. It was proposed to condemn “the criminal propaganda of a new war being carried out by reactionary circles in a number of countries and, especially, in the United States of America, Turkey, Greece,” and to point out that allowing, and especially supporting, this kind of propaganda for a new war is a violation of the duty assumed by UN members , and “to call on the governments of all countries to prohibit, under pain of criminal punishment, the conduct of any form of propaganda of war... as a socially dangerous activity that threatens the vital interests and well-being of peace-loving peoples.” It was further proposed to confirm the need for the speedy implementation of the Assembly decisions of November 14, 1946 on the reduction of armaments and of January 24, 1946 on the exclusion of atomic weapons and all other main types of weapons from national armaments.

The USSR proposal was discussed for 6 days (X 22-27).

The delegations of the USA and England opposed this proposal. US Representative Austin called for “killing the Soviet proposal” because it allegedly contradicts freedom of speech and information. However, under pressure public opinion The US delegation was forced to vote for a resolution condemning the warmongers. The adoption of this resolution was a major political victory for the Soviet Union.

4. The principle of unanimity of permanent members of the Security Council. Provided by Art. 27 of the charter, the principle of unanimity of the permanent members of the Security Council when deciding political issues, or the provision of the so-called permanent members of the Security Council. “veto power” means that a decision on any issue, except procedural ones, can be made only if at least 7 votes are cast for this decision, including the concurring votes of all permanent members of the Council. Whether the UN will cope with the tasks assigned to it depends on compliance with this principle. “Can we count,” said J.V. Stalin in his report on November 6, 1944, “that the actions of this international organization will be sufficiently effective? They will be effective if the great powers, which bore the main burden of the war against Hitler’s Germany on their shoulders, , will continue to act in a spirit of unanimity and agreement. They will not be effective if this necessary condition is violated."

The need to observe the principle of unity of the great powers was recognized during the war by politicians in other countries.

At the conference in San Francisco, the principle of unanimity of the permanent members of the Security Council was approved and set forth in Art. 27 of the charter. This principle was further guaranteed in Art. 108 and 109 of the charter, which indicate that amendments to the charter adopted by two-thirds of the votes of the Assembly or General Conference convened on the basis of art. 109 to revise the charter, and ratified by two-thirds of the UN membership, cannot enter into force unless all permanent members of the Security Council have ratified the amendments.

Soon, however, after the entry into force of the UN Charter, the principle of unanimity of the permanent members of the Council began to come under fierce attacks from a number of powers that were co-authors of the Charter. England and the USA sought to undermine the principle of unanimity with the help of small countries subordinate to them.

At the second part of the first session of the Assembly, Cuba proposed to include in the agenda the issue of convening on the basis of Art. 109 of the Charter of the General Conference of Members of the UN with the aim of “amending paragraph 3 of Article 27 of the Charter in order to eliminate the provision known as the right of veto.” Australia also proposed to include on the agenda the issue of application of Art. 27 of the charter.

The Soviet delegation resolutely opposed the restriction of the rights of permanent members of the Council. The head of the USSR delegation, V.M. Molotov, in his speech at the plenary meeting of the Assembly on 29.X. 1946, indicated that “rejection of the principle of unanimity of the great powers, which, in essence, is hidden behind the proposal to abolish the “veto,” would mean the liquidation of the United Nations organization, since this principle is the foundation of this organization." Those “people and entire influential groups... who do not want to settle for anything less than the submission of all peoples to their dictatorship, their golden bag,” are striving to eliminate the principle of unanimity of the great powers.”

Australia's proposal to state in an Assembly resolution that "on a number of occasions the use and threat of use of the veto" was inconsistent with the purposes and principles of the charter was rejected. Delegations from all five Great Powers voted against this item.

The proposal to convene a General Conference was also rejected. The Assembly adopted a resolution in which it recommended that the permanent members of the Council consult among themselves, and that the Council “adopt an order and procedure that does not violate the provisions of the charter,” but facilitates the rapid performance of its functions by the Council, and in adopting this order and procedure, take into account the views expressed by UN members . The USSR delegation voted against this resolution, the US and British delegations voted for the resolution, the French and Chinese delegations abstained.

At the second session of the Assembly, Argentina and Australia again proposed the convening of a General Conference to revise the statutes. In his speech at the plenary meeting of the Assembly on IX 18, 1947, the head of the USSR delegation A. Ya. Vyshinsky stated on this issue that “strengthening the United Nations is possible only on the basis of respect for the political and economic independence of states, on the basis of respect for the sovereign equality of peoples, as well as consistent and unconditional adherence to one of the most important principles of the United Nations - the principle of coherence and unanimity of the great powers in resolving the most important issues of maintaining international peace and security. This is in full accordance with the special responsibility of these powers for the preservation of world peace and is a guarantee of the protection of the interests of all countries. - members of the United Nations, large and small.

The Soviet Union considers it its duty to resolutely fight against any attempt to shake this principle, no matter what motives these attempts are hidden behind."

The US delegation proposed to transfer the issue of the principle of unanimity of the permanent members of the Security Council to an intersessional committee, the very creation of which contradicts the provisions of the charter. The delegations of England, France and China supported this proposal, and it was adopted by the Assembly.

The USSR delegation voted against this resolution. The head of the Soviet delegation stated at the plenary meeting of the Assembly on November 21, 1947 that this resolution “is a direct attack on the rule of unanimity, which in turn is one of the most important and fundamental principles of the UN, one of the powerful and real means ensuring the unity of the great powers, the basis of cooperation peace-loving peoples. This resolution completes a certain stage of the campaign against the principle of unanimity, a campaign led by the government of the United States of America, which must bear full responsibility for the consequences that the adoption and implementation of this resolution will inevitably entail."

At the third session of the Assembly, the United States, England, France and China introduced and achieved approval by the Assembly of a resolution recommending that the Security Council resolve a number of important political issues by procedural voting. The approval of this project is a direct violation of the UN Charter.

5. Greek question. In February 1946, the USSR government proposed discussing the need to withdraw British troops from Greece. The representative of the USSR A. Ya. Vyshinsky in his letter, noting the extremely tense situation in Greece, indicated that the presence of British troops in Greece is not necessary, that it has in fact turned into a means of putting pressure on the internal political situation in the country and is being used by reactionary elements in Greece against democratic forces of the country. The Soviet government demanded the withdrawal of British troops from Greece.

Due to the opposition shown by Great Britain, the USA, China, Australia and a number of other members of the Security Council to the Soviet proposal, the Council did not make any decision.

4. XII 1946, the Greek government appealed to the Security Council with a complaint against its northern neighbors (Albania, Yugoslavia and Bulgaria), accusing them of providing assistance to Greek partisans. The Security Council has been considering this issue for almost 8 months. A special commission was sent to the Balkans, in which all members of the Security Council were represented, to study the situation on the ground.

Having failed to achieve its goals in the Security Council, the US government decided to bring the issue to the General Assembly.

At the second session of the Assembly, the US delegation introduced a draft resolution in which responsibility for the situation in Greece was assigned to Albania, Yugoslavia and Bulgaria. The US proposal further provided for the establishment of a special committee on the Balkans, which should monitor the implementation of the Assembly resolution and recommend, if in its opinion, the convening of a special session of the Assembly.

The USSR delegation objected to the proposal of the US delegation, since it only worsened the situation in the Balkans and violated the sovereignty of Yugoslavia, Bulgaria and Albania. The USSR delegation introduced a draft resolution which proposed: a) the Greek government should put an end to border incidents on northern borders Greece; b) withdraw foreign troops and foreign military missions from Greece; c) create a special committee that will be entrusted with overseeing that foreign economic assistance provided to Greece is used only in the interests of the Greek people, etc.

The US delegation, relying on a mechanical majority, achieved the adoption of its proposal. The head of the USSR delegation, A. Ya. Vyshinsky, stated that the functions and powers of the committee being created are incompatible with the sovereignty of UN members and contradict the UN Charter, and that the USSR will therefore not participate either in the elections of the committee on the Balkans or in the work of this committee. Similar statements were made by delegates from Poland, the BSSR, the Ukrainian SSR, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia.

The internal situation in Greece worsened due to the increased interference of the United States and England in its affairs. The activities of the Special Committee, aimed at facilitating the suppression of the people's liberation struggle in Greece and to reinforce the artificial accusations brought by the Greek monarcho-fascists against Greece's northern neighbors, only complicated the situation in the Balkans.

At the third session of the Assembly, the USSR delegation proposed the withdrawal of foreign troops and military personnel from Greece and the abolition of the Balkan Commission. Under pressure from the Anglo-American bloc, this proposal was rejected by the Assembly. The Anglo-American majority thereby demonstrated its reluctance to ensure a normal situation in Greece and to achieve the establishment of good neighborly relations between Greece and its northern neighbors.

6. Spanish question. 9. IV 1946 The Polish government appealed to the Secretary General with a request to include the issue of Spain on the agenda of the Security Council. The letter stated that the activities of the Franco regime had already caused international friction and posed a threat to international peace and security.

The Security Council discussed the Spanish question from April 17 to June 26, 1946. The representative of Poland proposed that the Security Council adopt a resolution obliging all UN members to immediately break diplomatic relations with Franco. The representative of the USSR supported this proposal, but under pressure from the United States, the majority of members of the Security Council rejected Polynya's proposal.

In October 1946, at the proposal of the delegations of Belgium, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, Norway and Venezuela, the Spanish question was brought up for consideration by the Assembly. The General Assembly adopted a resolution stating that “the fascist Franco government in Spain, which was forcibly imposed on the Spanish people with the help of the Axis powers and which provided significant assistance to the Axis powers in the war, does not represent the Spanish people,” and recommended that “the Franco government be deprived of the right to join international institutions created by or associated with the United Nations,” and all members of the UN “to immediately recall their ambassadors and envoys from Madrid.”

In pursuance of this resolution, the UN members who had their ambassadors and envoys in Spain recalled them. Only Argentina, contrary to the decision of the Assembly, appointed its ambassador to Spain.

At the second session of the Assembly the Spanish question was again discussed. The delegations of the USA, Argentina and a number of other countries, primarily Latin American, achieved that the 2nd paragraph of the resolution of the first session of the Assembly on depriving the Franco government of the right to join international institutions created by the UN and on the recall of ambassadors and envoys of member states from Madrid UN - was excluded from the resolution. By this, the United States and countries following in the footsteps of American policy showed their interest in preserving the hotbed of fascism in Europe.

7. Question about Indonesia. 21. I 1946, the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Ukrainian SSR D. Z. Manuilsky addressed the Chairman of the Security Council with a letter, in which, pointing out that in Indonesia “for a number of months, military actions have been conducted against the local population, in which both regular English troops as well as enemy Japanese armed forces" and that "this situation creates a state of threat to the maintenance of international peace and security", asked the Security Council to investigate the situation and take appropriate measures.

Representatives of England (Bevin) and Holland (Van Cleffens), without denying the presence of military actions in Indonesia, blamed the Indonesians for this and stated that military actions were being carried out against “terrorists”.

The representative of the USSR A. Ya. Vyshinsky, showing the inconsistency of the arguments of Bevin and Van Cleffens, pointed out that the events in Indonesia are not internal matter Holland, because they threaten international peace and security, and proposed creating a commission to investigate the situation in Indonesia from representatives of the USSR, USA, England, China and Holland.

US Representative Stettinius objected to this proposal; he was supported by the representative of Brazil. During the vote, the USSR proposal was rejected.

In July 1947, the Indonesian issue again arose in the Security Council, but in a different context. Military actions in Indonesia carried out by Holland against the Indonesian Republic, despite Lingajat Agreement(see), did not stop. Australia and India have asked the Security Council to consider this issue and recommend an immediate cessation of hostilities. The representative of the USSR supported this proposal and recommended inviting a representative of the Indonesian Republic to the Council meeting. 31. VII 1947 The Security Council began to consider the Indonesian issue.

1. VIII 1947 The Security Council decided to propose to Holland and Indonesia to immediately cease hostilities.

This decision of the Security Council was brought to the attention of the Dutch Government and the Government of the Indonesian Republic. But this did not give any results. The committee elected by the Security Council, consisting of Australia, Belgium and the United States, did not help matters either.

At the end of September 1947, the Council received from Batavia a report from the consuls on the situation in Indonesia. This report was discussed by the Council throughout October. The proposal of the USSR delegation to withdraw Dutch and Indonesian troops to their original positions was rejected.

1. XI The Security Council adopted by 7 votes to 1 (Poland) with 3 abstentions (USSR, Syria, Colombia) the proposal of the US representative, according to which Holland and Indonesia were called upon to immediately consult each other on the issue of implementing the Security Council resolution of 1. VIII 1947 This decision essentially only encouraged the aggressive actions of Holland in Indonesia.

17. I 1948 was signed Renville Agreement(see), which legitimized the seizure by the Dutch of areas with important economic and military significance. But this agreement was systematically violated by the Dutch. They avoided negotiations with the Republicans, increased their armed forces in Indonesia and made preparations for the creation of the so-called. United States of Indonesia, subject to the Dutch crown. The Dutch violations of the Renville Agreement were so obvious that even the impartial “Committee of Good Offices,” in its report to the Security Council on December 12, 1948, was forced to admit that the actions of the Dutch “could create serious concern in Indonesia,” which could result in an armed conflict on a large scale .

14. XII 1948, the government of the Indonesian Republic addressed the Security Council with a statement in which it indicated that the current situation in Indonesia poses a threat to peace, and asked the Security Council to take measures to, firstly, prevent the situation from worsening and, secondly, secondly, to resume negotiations between Holland and the Indonesian Republic on the basis of the Renville Agreement. 17. XII 1948, the Dutch government presented an ultimatum to the Indonesian Republic, in which it demanded that the government of the republic declare its unconditional consent to the decree on the inclusion of the Indonesian Republic in the so-called. United States of Indonesia.

The Republican government was supposed to respond to this ultimatum by 10 o'clock. on the morning of December 18, 1948. On the night of December 19, 1948, Dutch troops began military operations and, taking advantage of their military superiority, captured all the important centers of the republic within a few days. At the same time, the Dutch authorities deprived the members and employees of the Good Offices Committee who were in Batavia of communications. Only on December 21, 1948 the committee was able to inform the Security Council about the outbreak of hostilities.

On December 22, 1948, at a meeting of the Security Council, a representative of the USSR proposed condemning the Dutch aggressors, demanding an immediate cessation of hostilities and the withdrawal of Dutch troops to their original positions. To monitor the implementation of this decision, the representative of the USSR proposed to establish a commission consisting of representatives of all members of the Security Council. The USSR's proposal was rejected by the Council on the grounds that this issue was allegedly an internal matter of Holland. The Council limited itself to calling on both sides to stop hostilities. The Dutch government ignored this call.

27. XII 1948, the representative of the Ukrainian SSR in the Security Council proposed that Dutch troops be withdrawn to the borders established by the Renville Agreement. On the same day, the USSR representative proposed that hostilities be stopped within 24 hours. The United States and other patrons of the Dutch aggressors in the Security Council rejected these proposals.

Despite the occupation of almost the entire territory of Indonesia by Dutch troops, the Indonesian people did not lay down their arms. Most of Indonesia's armed forces retreated to the forests and mountains. A guerrilla war broke out.

28. I 1949 The Security Council, at the proposal of the United States, Norway and Cuba, adopted a resolution on the Indonesian issue, in which it, in particular, “calls on the government of the Netherlands to ensure the immediate cessation of all military operations, calls on the government of the republic to order its armed followers to stop the guerrilla war and calls on both sides cooperate in restoring peace..." The USSR's proposal to withdraw Dutch troops in Indonesia to their original positions was again rejected by the Council. The Council resolution does not contain a single word of condemnation of the Dutch aggressors.

The Dutch government did not respond to this call from the Council and continued the war.

One of the reasons for such a policy of the Dutch colonialists and their unleashing of an aggressive war in Indonesia is the fact that the Security Council, which is entrusted with the main responsibility for maintaining international peace and security, due to the policies of the USA, England, France and other patrons of the Dutch colonialists, did not fulfill its duties . The creation by the Council of the “Good Offices Committee” only facilitated the preparation by the Dutch ruling circles of a new aggression against the peoples of Indonesia.

8. Incident in the Corfu Strait (Albanian issue). 10. I 1947 England raised before the Security Council the question of an incident that occurred on 22. X 1946 in the Corfu Strait, when two British destroyers sailing in the territorial waters of Albania were blown up by stray mines. The British accused Albania of planting the mines. The Security Council discussed this issue from 28. I to 9. IV. Representatives of the USA, China, France, Belgium, Colombia and Brazil supported the British accusations of Albania. Representatives of Poland and Syria indicated that the Security Council did not have direct evidence of Albania's guilt, and recommended that the issue be referred to the International Court of Justice.

The representative of the USSR spoke in defense of Albania, showing the inconsistency of the English accusation. For English project The Security Council resolution received a majority vote. Representatives of the USSR and Poland voted against. The resolution was rejected because unanimity was not reached among the permanent members of the Security Council.

9. IV The Security Council adopted a resolution in which England and Albania were recommended to refer the dispute to the International Court of Justice. Representatives of the USSR and Poland abstained from voting.

9. The Palestinian issue. After the Second World War, England, taking into account the military-strategic importance of Palestine, its position on the world's sea and air routes, as well as the outlet of Middle Eastern oil to the Mediterranean Sea, tried at all costs to maintain its dominance over this country. At the same time, the United States sought to oust England from its dominant position and establish its control over Palestine. At the same time, England relied, starting from 1939, mainly on Arab feudal circles, and the USA relied on Jewish bourgeois nationalists - Zionists.

30. IV 1946, the report of the Anglo-American Commission on the Palestinian Question, which was created without the knowledge of the UN, was published. The commission recommended maintaining the British Mandate indefinitely. On this basis, the so-called "Morrison plan" (see on the Palestinian issue>>), which, however, was rejected not only by Arabs and Jews, but also by the US government, which disavowed its experts. Truman's refusal to accept the "Morrison Plan" led to sharp controversy between statesmen in England and the United States. After the failure of this plan, England's policy in Palestine reached a dead end. England was forced to refer the Palestinian issue to the UN for discussion. For this purpose, a special session of the UN General Assembly was convened, which took place in New York from 28.4 to 15.5 1947.

Under pressure from the United States and England, the agenda of the session was limited to a procedural issue: the creation and instruction of a special UN commission to prepare for the consideration of the Palestinian issue during the future session of the General Assembly. An instruction was adopted that defined the functions and powers of this commission, and the United States succeeded in rejecting the proposal of the Soviet delegation to include in the instructions a clause that would oblige the commission to prepare proposals for the immediate creation of an independent state in Palestine.

Soviet delegate A. A. Gromyko, in his speech at an emergency session of the UN (14. V 1947), stated the bankruptcy of the mandate system, the impossibility of resolving the Palestinian issue on the basis of a mandate and the need to abolish the mandate and declare the independence of Palestine. He pointed out that the legitimate interests of the Arab and Jewish peoples Palestine can be properly protected by establishing in Palestine an independent dual democratic Arab-Jewish state. However, if it is impossible - due to the deterioration of relations between Jews and Arabs - to implement this decision, A. A. Gromyko proposed to consider the second option: the project of dividing Palestine into two independent democratic states - Jewish and Arab.

The UN Commission, which completed its work on IX 1947, came to the unanimous conclusion that the Mandate for Palestine should terminate as soon as possible. Palestine after transition period must gain independence and maintain its economic integrity.

In addition to these unanimously accepted recommendations, the majority of the UN commission spoke in favor of dividing Palestine into two independent states - Arab and Jewish, with the allocation of Jerusalem and some surrounding areas into a special district under the trusteeship and administration of the UN. The minority of the commission spoke in favor of the creation of a federal state (republic) in Palestine consisting of the Arab and Jewish states.

The Soviet Union and the People's Democracies pointed out that the minority's recommendations had a number of merits and advantages, but in the current situation, due to the deterioration of relations between Arabs and Jews, they were practically impossible to implement. Therefore, the delegations of these countries supported the decision of the majority of the UN commission as the only feasible one in this situation, pointing out that the creation of two democratic independent states in Palestine, along with the abolition of the mandate and the withdrawal of British troops from the country, would provide the people of Palestine with the opportunity for self-determination, national equality and peaceful coexistence.

The United States and a number of states dependent on it supported the recommendations of the majority and advocated the division of Palestine into two states, but did not at all insist on the elimination of the colonial regime.

The Arab states categorically objected to the report of the UN commission and insisted on the formation of a “unitary state” in Palestine.

As for England, its representatives at the 2nd session of the UN verbally declared their readiness to cancel the mandate, but these statements were accompanied by numerous reservations, indicating the actual reluctance of England to cooperate with the UN and implement its decisions.

On November 29, 1947, the UN General Assembly adopted a resolution based on the recommendations of the majority of the UN commission.

After the second session, England began to seek to disrupt the decisions of the Assembly, provoking for this purpose a series of new armed clashes between Arabs and Jews. British diplomats put forward a secret plan for the annexation of Palestine to Transjordan (or the division of Palestine between Arab states).

In turn, the United States changed its position and put forward a proposal to transfer Palestine to UN trusteeship. To consider this proposal, a special session of the UN General Assembly was convened, which took place in New York from April 16 to April 14, 1948. At the session, representatives of the USSR showed that the United States wanted to maintain the colonial regime in Palestine under the guise of trusteeship.

Trying to save the American plan, the representative of England made a proposal to establish the so-called in Palestine. "temporary regime" or "neutral power". The Soviet delegation showed that new English sentence essentially no different from the American one.

The proclamation of the Jewish state of Israel in Palestine (14. V 1948) showed the unreality of the plans of England and the United States. While the American delegate to the UN was still trying to defend the English proposal, it became known that Truman had made a new turn in US Palestinian policy and recognized the de facto state of Israel.

The session made only one decision: to appoint Count Folke Bernadotte, connected with the Anglo-American ruling circles, to Palestine as a UN mediator.

After the formation of the State of Israel, it was recognized by the Soviet Union, Czechoslovakia, Poland, Hungary, Romania, Yugoslavia, Finland, Uruguay, Nicaragua, Venezuela and the Union of South Africa. England and, under its influence, France and the Benelux countries refused to recognize the state of Israel.

The issue of the war that arose in Palestine between the Arab states and the state of Israel was brought up for discussion by the Security Council. Under pressure from England, the Security Council adopted 22. V, an ineffective resolution that contained only a call for a truce, without reference to Art. 39 of the UN Charter (which provides for the application of sanctions in the event of a threat to peace and violation of peace).

The Arab states rejected the call of the Security Council, and on 26. V the British proposal was accepted to call on the warring parties to establish a four-week truce on the terms proposed by the Arab states. After long negotiations, this truce came into force (11.6.1948).

To monitor compliance with the terms of the truce, UN mediator Bernadotte invited American, French and Belgian military observers to Palestine. The Soviet Union's demand for the appointment of military observers also from other member states of the Security Council was rejected by the Security Council.

In May-June 1948, secret negotiations were held between the United States and England, as a result of which a common Anglo-American policy on the Palestinian issue was once again outlined.

On the basis of the Anglo-American agreement, Bernadotte presented the following proposals to the governments of the Arab states and the state of Israel on June 28, 1948: a union was created consisting of the Arab (including the Arab part of Palestine and Transjordan) and the Jewish states; the union must coordinate not only economic activities, but also foreign policy and defense issues. In addition, significant territorial changes were envisaged.

6. VII 1948 Bernadotte's proposals were rejected by both the State of Israel and the Arab states.

The USSR representative in the Security Council A. A. Gromyko and the Ukrainian representative D. Z. Manuilsky sharply criticized Bernadotte’s proposals, pointing out that he exceeded his powers by developing a plan that contradicted the UN resolution on Palestine of November 29, 1947.

9. VII 1943, after the expiration of the truce, the Arab states resumed hostilities, but under the threat of sanctions they agreed to extend the truce indefinitely. 19. VII military operations were formally painted over. Nevertheless, in the future there were repeated cases of violation of the truce, as a result of which in August - December 1948 the Security Council more than once returned to discuss the situation in Palestine.

17. IX 1948, on the eve of the opening of the third session of the UN, Bernadotte was killed in Jerusalem. His new proposals on the Palestinian issue were published after his death. This time the question of a “union” of Israel and Transjordan was not raised, but, as in the previous project, it was proposed to annex the Arab part of Palestine and the Negev to Transjordan, i.e., essentially put these areas under the actual control of England. The United States, agreeing to the annexation of the Arab part of Palestine to Transjordan and supporting England in this matter, at the same time insisted on preserving the Negev within the state of Israel. In December 1948, the third session of the UN General Assembly rejected England's proposal to annex the Arab part of Palestine and the Negev to Transjordan.

Seeking the implementation of Bernadotte's plan and the disruption of what began on January 13, 1949 on the island. Rhodes of peace negotiations between Egypt and Israel, England transferred large military reinforcements to the Aqaba region (Transjordan) and tried to provoke a military clash with Israel in January 1949.

The Anglo-American contradictions that aggravated as a result were partially resolved by an agreement according to which England (29. I 1949) and other states of the “Western bloc” recognized the state of Israel de facto, and the United States recognized Israel and Transjordan de jure, and the state of Israel received an American loan in 100 million dollars on conditions that make it dependent on the United States. In February - April 1949, Israel concluded agreements to cease hostilities with Egypt, Transjordan, Lebanon and Syria.

On April 26, 1949, a conference opened in Lausanne with the participation of Israel, the four indicated Arab states and members of the Conciliation Commission, formed by decision of the third session of the UN. The conference failed to resolve issues related to the peaceful settlement and which were the object of contradictions between England and the United States (territorial issues, the problem of refugees, etc.). These issues have been submitted for discussion to the fourth session of the UN General Assembly. 11. V 1949 Israel is admitted to membership of the United Nations.

III. UN Performance Assessment

There are serious shortcomings in the work of the UN. “These shortcomings,” said the head of the Soviet delegation A. Ya. Vyshinsky in his speech at the plenary meeting of the Assembly on 18.IX. 1947, “must be revealed and named with all decisiveness and consistency. They were expressed mainly in deviations from the most important principles laid down in the basis of the organization, and in some cases in direct violation of a number of important decisions of the General Assembly.

These shortcomings are largely the result of the desire of such influential member states of the United Nations as the United States and Great Britain to use the organization in their narrow group interests, neglecting the interests of international cooperation based on the principles expressed in the charter. The policy of using the organization by individual states in their own selfish, narrowly understood interests leads to the undermining of its authority, just as happened with the League of Nations of sad memory.

On the other hand, the unsatisfactory state of affairs in the United Nations, which negatively affects its authority, was the result of the organization being ignored by the above states, which are trying to implement a number of practical measures outside and bypassing the United Nations."

The most important shortcomings are the unsatisfactory progress in implementing the Assembly decision of December 14, 1946 on the general reduction of armaments and the unsatisfactory state of affairs with the ban on atomic weapons and other main means of mass destruction. Vivid examples Violations of UN principles and ignoring them are the so-called. "Truman Doctrine" and "Marshall Plan". What is abnormal is the fact that foreign armed forces continue to be present on the territories of UN member states, serving as a means of political interference in their internal affairs. The events in Indonesia cannot be qualified otherwise than as an act of aggression committed against the Indonesian people by Holland, a UN member state. Without showing due attention to eliminating the unsatisfactory state of affairs in resolving these issues, some influential powers (USA, England) are showing special interest in the Iranian issue, which continued to remain on the agenda of the Security Council long after its complete settlement, as well as after the appeal of the Iran with a request to remove this issue from the Council's agenda.

The unsatisfactory situation in the United Nations is not accidental, but is a consequence of the attitude towards the organization on the part of a number of member countries of this organization - and primarily the USA and Great Britain. This attitude does not contribute to the strengthening of the United Nations and does not serve the cause of international cooperation. On the contrary, it leads to the weakening and shattering of the United Nations, which undoubtedly corresponds to the plans and intentions of the reactionary circles of the above countries, under whose influence the corresponding policy is being pursued.

Diplomatic Dictionary. - M.: State Publishing House of Political Literature. A. Ya. Vyshinsky, S. A. Lozovsky. 1948 .

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Among international organizations outside the UN system, several large groups of organizations can be distinguished depending on the main areas of their activities. Firstly, these are organizations aimed at removing barriers to the development of trade: the World Trade Organization (WTO), the International Chamber of Commerce, etc., and economic organizations: the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD), the Paris Club. Secondly, these are organizations aimed at maintaining peace and controlling various types of weapons (for example, the Partnership for Peace, the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons, the Organization for Peace and Security in Europe, etc.). Thirdly, these are humanitarian cooperation organizations, such as, for example, the Union of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies. Fourthly, these are organizations aimed at ensuring the development of certain sectors of the world economy (civil aviation organization). Fifthly, organizations that unite the parliamentary and trade union movements (interparliamentary union, international confederation of trade unions). Sixthly, international organizations aimed at assisting the fight against crime and the development of the judicial system (Interpol, Permanent Arbitration Court). Seventhly, organizations aimed at developing cooperation in the field of sports are the International Olympic Committee (IOC). And finally, eighth, a number of regional international organizations, whose member countries are pursuing common interests in a certain region (Council of Europe, Association of Southeast Asian Nations, Eurasian Economic Community, Shanghai Cooperation Organization, Council of the Baltic States, etc.).
In addition, we must not forget about international non-governmental organizations, the number of which significantly exceeds the number of international governmental organizations.
The WTO dates back to April 1994, and actually began to work in January 1995. The predecessor of the WTO was the so-called General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, created in 1947 to remove barriers to international trade (GATT), a series of agreements between major capitalist and developing countries. The purpose of the WTO is to ensure the possibility of resolving conflicts related to foreign trade that arise between member countries. It is the WTO that negotiates the reduction and elimination of tariffs and other trade barriers. The WTO includes 151 member countries and 31 observer countries. Russia, which is actively negotiating accession to the WTO, also falls into the latter category.
The International Chamber of Commerce was created in 1919. The main purpose of this organization was to provide conditions for free trade and the development of private enterprise and for the expression of business interests at the national and international levels. Members of this organization are national chambers of commerce from 91 countries, including the Russian Federation.
The International Customs Organization (originally called the International Customs Union) was created in 1950 to create conditions for cooperation between the customs authorities of the participating countries. Today there are 172 participating countries, including the Russian Federation.
Partnership for Peace - this international organization was formed in 1994 with the goal of expanding and intensifying political and military cooperation between European countries that are not members of the North Atlantic bloc. The organization includes 23 countries. A country automatically leaves the membership of this organization if it joins the North Atlantic bloc.
Union of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies - an organization founded in 1928 with the aim of providing humanitarian assistance to countries in need through the International Committee of the Red Cross (during military operations) and the International Federation of the Red Cross and Red Crescent (in peacetime). The international organization unites national societies created in 185 countries and the Palestine Liberation Organization.
The International Trade Union Confederation was created in November 2006. The predecessors of this international organization were the Confederation of Free Trade Unions and the World Confederation of Workers. The World Confederation of Workers was created in 1920 as international federation Christian trade unions and was renamed in 1968. The purpose of the international organization is to promote the trade union movement in the world. The members of this organization include 305 organizations from 152 countries and the Palestine Liberation Organization.
The Inter-Parliamentary Union was organized in 1989 with the aim of facilitating contacts between parliamentarians, providing an opportunity to discuss important international problems and measures that can be taken by national parliaments to solve them. The Union is dedicated to protecting human rights and disseminating information and knowledge about parliamentary institutions. Members of this organization are 146 countries of the world, including the Russian Federation, as well as 7 associated members, such as the Central American Parliament, the European Parliament, the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe, etc.
Interpol - the international criminal police, was organized in September 1923 as the international commission on criminal police, and in 1956, after the adoption of a new charter, it was renamed and received its modern name. There are 186 participating countries. The main goal of Interpol is to promote international cooperation between police officers of different countries in their fight against crime.
The International Olympic Committee was founded in June 1894. The main goal of the International Olympic Committee is to promote the Olympic movement in the world and to host the Olympic Games. The next Winter Olympics will take place in 2010 in Vancouver (Canada), followed by the 2012 Summer Olympics in London (UK) and finally the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi (Russia). Today, the International Olympic Committee includes 204 national Olympic committees from around the world.
The Council of Europe, which includes Russia, was formed on May 5, 1949 and began work in August of the same year. Its main goals are to protect human rights, support the development of democracy and ensure the rule of law, promote the ideas of cultural development of Europe and maintain its cultural diversity, find common solutions to the problems facing European countries - ensuring the rights of minorities, preventing discrimination based on nationality, combating xenophobia, developing tolerance, fighting terrorism, human trafficking, organized crime and corruption, preventing violence against children, ensuring and strengthening stability by supporting political, legislative and other reforms. The members of this council are 47 countries, and 5 countries have observer status.
The number of international public sector non-governmental organizations greatly exceeds the number of intergovernmental organizations, and the range of issues considered by these non-governmental international organizations is extremely wide. However, for the most part, non-governmental international organizations are involved in promoting the solution of social problems and issues of social development. Let's look at just a few of them.
The International Social Security Council was founded in Paris in 1928. This non-governmental organization brings together national and local organizations from more than 70 countries. A number of large international organizations are also members of the Council. The Council carries out work to combat poverty, assist the disabled, the unemployed, representatives of indigenous peoples and national minorities, the elderly, migrants, refugees and other socially vulnerable groups. The Council has UN advisory status. Social policy proposals developed by this international organization are submitted to the UN and UN system organizations such as UNESCO, the UN Economic and Social Council and the Commission for Social Development. The Council discusses and develops social policies in member countries. As an advisory organization, the Council participates in discussions on issues of social development, social protection and social justice. Russia is not represented in this organization.
Helpage International - this international non-governmental organization was organized in 1983. Its members are more than 70 non-governmental organizations from 50 countries. The main objective of the organization is to work with the elderly population, support the development of national and regional organizations working in this direction, and promote partnerships between non-governmental organizations and government structures on issues of older people. The purpose of the organization is to help older people and provide them with conditions for a full, healthy and respected life. In countries experiencing conflicts and other emergencies, Helpage implements special programs to assist the most vulnerable groups of the elderly population.
The International Social Security Association was founded in 1927 as a platform for communication between social security institutions from around the world. Today it includes 365 organizations representing 154 countries. Affiliated members from the Russian Federation include the Ministry of Health and Social Development, the Pension Fund of the Russian Federation and the Social Insurance Fund of the Russian Federation, and the non-state pension fund Gazfond is among the associated members. The Association is a global center for the synthesis and dissemination of social security experience; it conducts scientific and educational activities, organizes forums and conferences to discuss critical social security issues. The Association has developed an international database on social security, which includes a description of social security systems, a description of private pension systems, reforms carried out in the field of social security, social legislation of different countries, articles and scientific studies on social security issues and a dictionary of international terms of social security .