In the 2nd millennium BC. e., far east of ancient civilizations Western Asia and India, a slave-owning society takes shape and the first slave-owning state arises in Northern China. This was of great importance for the history of the peoples inhabiting both China and other countries of the Far East. The most ancient traditions of the Chinese people, the beginnings of their hieroglyphic writing, the growth and spread of the influence of their high culture date back to this time. From this time the centuries-old history of the great Chinese people began.

The decomposition of the primitive communal system and the emergence of the Shang (Yin) state

The Russian name “China” was borrowed from the Central Asian peoples, who gave the country this name after the Chinese (people of Mongolian origin), who owned it in the 10th-12th centuries. n. e. northern part of China. Western European and Middle Eastern names for China are derived from the word "Chin", a Tajik-Persian designation for the country's name. This name comes from the name of the ancient Chinese kingdom of Qin, which extended its power to most of China in the 3rd century. BC e.

The Chinese themselves called their country differently, most often by the name of the reigning dynasties, for example: Shang, Zhou, Qin, Han, etc. Since ancient times, the name “Zhong Guo” (“Middle State”) was also common, which has been preserved up to now. Another Chinese name for the country is “Hua” (“Blooming”) or “Zhong Hua” (“Middle Blossoming”); it is now part of the name of the People's Republic of China.

Nature and population

Based on geographic and economic characteristics, modern China is usually divided into two parts: western and eastern. The territory of Western China is a vast plateau with such powerful mountain systems as the Himalayas, Kunlun and Tien Shan. The world's highest mountain ranges, the Himalayas, in some places more than 8 km above sea level, form a barrier between China and India.

Eastern China does not have such powerful mountain systems, as Western; a significant part of the territory here consists of lowlands, coastal plains, adjacent to them are mountains of medium height and plateaus.

Eastern China has more favorable natural conditions than in the West, the climate is much milder, the vegetation is more diverse, etc. All these conditions contributed to the fact that it was in this part of China that the most ancient agricultural culture arose, the first centers of Chinese civilization appeared, and the state arose earlier than in other parts of the country.

China has a significant river network, but all major rivers are in the eastern part of the country. The main rivers of China flow from west to east. River valleys are the most fertile and most populated areas of the country. The ancient population of China was concentrated in river valleys. The basin of the main river of Northern China - the Yellow River, whose length is more than 4 thousand km, was the center of the ancient Chinese civilization. The Yellow River is a stormy river. It repeatedly changed its course, flooded vast expanses of land, bringing great disasters to the population. The largest river in China is the Yangtze Jiang, with a length of over 5 thousand km, its basin is Central China. The largest river in Southern China is the high-water Xijiang (about 2 thousand km).

The depths of China are replete with minerals. Rivers, lakes and seas are rich in fish. In ancient times, large areas in Cathay were covered with forests.

The climate of eastern China is very favorable for agriculture, since the hottest time of the year - summer - accounts for the largest number atmospheric precipitation, autumn is warm and dry. The climate of the western part of China is characterized by significant dryness: there is a long cold winter and a short, hot summer.

The population of China in ancient times was not homogeneous. The Chinese tribes themselves, which, according to later literary sources, bore the names Xia, Shang, Zhou, etc., were already very early times occupied a significant part of Eastern, Northern and Northwestern China. The south and southwest of the country were inhabited mainly by various tribes of the Sino-Tibetan group of languages. The west, north and northeast of China were inhabited mainly by tribes of the Turkic, Mongolian and Manchu-Tungusic groups of languages.

The main areas of Chinese settlement in ancient times were the areas of the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River, as well as the plain adjacent to the Bohai (Zhili) Gulf. Here, fertile alluvial (alluvial) soil prevailed, formed mainly from river silt. The fertile soil and temperate climate of the Great Chinese Plain contributed to the development of agriculture here among the ancient Chinese tribes.

The ancient tribes who inhabited the region of loess soils, which occupy a huge area in Northern and Northwestern China, were in a less advantageous position. Loess, which is deposits of mineral dust particles blown from mountainous heights by the winter monsoons, contains nutrients(organic residues and easily soluble alkalis), which make it possible to do without fertilizers. But in the area of ​​the loess plateau there is relatively little precipitation, so artificial irrigation is required for the development of agriculture. Due to the conditions noted above, among the tribes that inhabited the loess plateau in ancient times, agriculture was less developed than in the lower reaches of the Yellow River.

Decomposition of the primitive communal system

According to Chinese literary sources, we can conclude that it was preserved in China in the 3rd millennium BC. e. remnants of the maternal family. This is evident from the fact that ancient sources, reporting on the origin of the first ancestors of the Shang, Zhou and Qin tribes, do not talk about their fathers, but only give the names of their mothers; kinship was then calculated along the maternal line. It is known that under the maternal clan (matriarchy), sons could not inherit from their father, since they belonged to another clan, namely the mother’s clan. According to Sima Qian, the author of “Historical Notes” 1 (“Historical Notes” (“Shi Ji”), consisting of 130 chapters, represents the first comprehensive history of the country in China, covering the period from legendary antiquity to the 1st century BC BC Sima Qian (2nd-1st centuries BC), the author of this work, used sources available in his time and subsequently lost. “Historical Notes” cover a wide range of issues: internal political events, external relations of China in ancient times. times, the economic system of the country (mainly the 2nd-1st centuries BC), cultural development, etc.), the legendary rulers Yao and Shun, before their deaths, chose successors not from among their sons.

“Historical Notes” bring to us memories of the period when the council of tribal elders existed. The tribal leader often consulted with him on important issues. Tribal or clan leaders could be relieved of their duties by decision of the council of elders. From the legends cited in literary sources, we can conclude that at the end of the 3rd millennium the elective principle was replaced by hereditary law: tribal leaders were no longer elected, the hereditary power of the leader appeared, passed from father to son. The leader's family, separated from the rest of the tribe, later became the bearers of royal power. But even in these conditions, the council of elders still exists, although its rights are limited, and its decisions become optional for the hereditary leaders of the tribe.

Data from archaeological excavations allow us to conclude that in the 2nd millennium, when bronze appeared in China, the primitive communal system decomposed and a gradual transition to a class, slave-owning society took place.

The sources do not make it possible to trace the entire process of the decomposition of the tribal system and the transition to a class society in China; they report only fragmentary data on this. From them we can conclude that slavery appears in the depths of tribal society. Prisoners captured during wars between individual tribes and clans were used as labor and turned into slaves. This process took place on the basis of the further development of productive forces, the emergence of private ownership of the means of production and products of labor, on the basis of growing property inequality, and took place in continuous struggle both within the tribes that inhabited China in ancient times and between tribes. Based on Chinese literary sources, it can be assumed that the struggle within the tribes was accompanied by the struggle of clan elders against tribal leaders.

By the end of the 3rd millennium, as can be assumed based on ancient legends, the Xia and Shan tribes played a decisive role in the territory of ancient China. Ultimately, the winner was the Shan tribe, whose name is associated with the creation of the first state in Chinese history. Science does not have reliable archaeological data about the Xia tribe. We can judge about it only from some data from literary sources.

Creation of the Shang (Yin) State

Judging by the legends preserved in ancient literary sources, the Shang tribe originally inhabited the Yishui River basin (northwestern part of the present Hebei province). Then, as some modern Chinese researchers suggest, this tribe settled from the Yishui River basin in different directions: to the west - to the territory of the modern Shanxi province, to the south - to Henan, to the southeast - to Shandong, to the northeast - along the coast Bohai Bay to the Liaodong Peninsula.

By the 18th century BC e., when, according to legend, Cheng Tan stood at the head of the Shai tribe, the final conquest of the Xia tribe dates back to him.

Cheng Tang, according to Chinese tradition, founded the Shang dynasty. In later times, after the fall of this dynasty, in inscriptions on bronze vessels, the Shang dynasty and the state as a whole, as well as its crown population, were first designated by the hieroglyph “yin.” This name has become widespread both in ancient sources and in modern Chinese and foreign literature. Therefore, we also use two names to designate the same state or period: Shang and Yin.

The name Shan, used until the destruction of this kingdom in the 12th century. BC e., comes from the name of the area where, apparently, the ancestral domains of the leaders of the Shan tribe were located. This name was also used to designate a tribe, then it was adopted as the name of the state and country.

The main source of information about the Shang (Yin) kingdom is data gleaned from excavations of the remains of the last capital of this kingdom, the city of Shang, found near the city of Anyang, near the village of Xiaotun (in modern Henan province). Special significance The bones found here have inscriptions. These inscriptions are mainly fortune-telling records - questions of the Yin kings to the oracles and the answers of the latter. The inscriptions were made on the bones of various animals (most often bulls and deer) and the scutes (shells) of turtles and can be dated back to the 14th-12th centuries. BC e.

Based on the data from these inscriptions, some researchers conclude that the entire territory of the Shang (Yin) state was divided into five large regions, which bore the names: Shang, Northern lands, Southern lands, Eastern Lands and Western Lands. The Shan region was considered central, the main one, therefore in the inscriptions on the bones it was called Central Shan.

The Shang (Yin) kingdom occupied the territory of modern Henan province, as well as parts of adjacent provinces. Around the Shang kingdom there were a number of semi-independent tribes that were at times subordinate to it, including tribes that were Chinese in language. In the neighborhood of the Western lands lived the Zhou, Qiang, Guifang, and Kufan ​​tribes; the neighbors of the Northern Lands were the Luifang and Tufan tribes; the neighbors of the Southern lands were the Tsaofan and others, and finally, next to the Eastern lands there was the Renfang tribe.

Tools. Agriculture.

Materials from archaeological excavations provide a certain idea of ​​the development of productive forces during the Shang (Yin) period. First of all, bronze products became widespread, but at the same time stone and bone tools still retained great importance.

During excavations in Xiaotong of the Yin city, the capital of the Shang (Yin) kingdom, many items made of copper and bronze were discovered: sacrificial vessels, household utensils and weapons - swords, halberds, axes, arrowheads, spear points. In addition, bronze tools were found: axes, knives, awls, chisels, pitchforks and needles. If we take into account that in the pre-Yin period, vessels were made mainly from clay, and tools and weapons were made from stone and bone, then we should conclude that during the Shang (Yin) period great progress was made in the development of productive forces. This is also evidenced by a wide variety of forms, more skillful manufacture of products, in particular vessels, and rich painting on them.

Although in the life of the population of ancient China during this period primitive forms of economy - fishing and partly hunting - still retained importance, they no longer played a decisive role. They were replaced by cattle breeding and agriculture, and the latter began to play the main role.

To denote various types of concepts related to agriculture, a number of signs are used in the inscriptions on bones, meaning: “field”, “well”, “arable land”, “boundary”, “wheat”, “millet”, etc. The sign “field” (tian) was depicted in the form of regular four squares connected together, or in the form of a rectangle divided into several parts, or in the form of an uneven pentagon.

The main grain crops in Northern China were millet, which required relatively little moisture, wheat, barley and sorghum (kaoliang). It is possible that rice culture also existed at this time in the Yellow River basin. Inscriptions on the bones indicate the presence of horticultural crops during the Shang (Yin) period, as well as the breeding of silkworms (silkworms) and the cultivation of mulberry trees. According to legend, silkworms have been bred in China since ancient times. Silk cocoons were discovered during excavations at one of the Neolithic sites in the village of Xincun (Shanxi Province). In the inscriptions on bones there are often signs depicting silkworm. Silkworm caterpillars were held in high esteem by the Yin. They even made sacrifices to their spirits. In fortune-telling inscriptions there are also often signs depicting silk threads (a silkworm product), a dress, etc.

The further development of agriculture is evidenced by higher technology for cultivating land than before. A number of modern Chinese scientists suggest that irrigation was already used then, apparently primitively and on a small scale. This conclusion is suggested both by ancient legends, which report the beginnings of artificial irrigation back in the pre-Yin period, and by inscriptions on bones. In the latter there are a number of hieroglyphs expressing the idea of ​​irrigation. One of them depicted a field and streams of water, which were, as it were, irrigation canals.

Metal tools were already used in agriculture. This is evidenced by copper shovels found during excavations in the vicinity of Luoyang and near Anyang. The interpretation of a number of signs in the inscriptions on the bones suggests that the Yin people used livestock to cultivate the land. Thus, one of the signs, “u,” depicted an ox standing at the side of an agricultural implement. Another sign, “li” (plow, to plow), also contains an ox, and sometimes, but rarely, a horse. In fortune-telling inscriptions there are also combinations of two hieroglyphs denoting a plow and an ox.

According to Chinese legends, in ancient times there was a so-called “coupled plowing”, when two people plowed together. This gave more effect when loosening the soil. The concept of “coupled plowing” also had a broader meaning: it meant combining the efforts of two or more people when cultivating the land, i.e., collective cultivation of the field.

Hunting and fishing no longer played a major role in the economy of the Yin people, but continued to retain significant importance. This is evidenced by many inscriptions on the bones.

Cattle breeding occupied a significant place in Yin society. This is evidenced by the number of animals sacrificed to the spirits. Sometimes it also includes white kaolin. At this time, the potter's wheel already existed, although clay vessels were also produced by hand. Clay products were fired, sometimes covered with glaze, and often decorated with delicate ornaments.

We have already talked about the development of sericulture in Yin times. The production of silk fabrics and the development of weaving is evidenced by the existence of such hieroglyphs that denoted the concepts of “silk thread”, “clothing”, “shawl”, etc.

The existence of various branches of crafts and special workshops, as well as the high skill of Yin artisans, indicate that handicraft production has already come a long way in its development.

Development of exchange.

With the advent of the division of labor between agriculture and crafts and the growth of surplus agricultural products and handicrafts, exchange began to develop. Archaeological finds allow us to conclude that there are economic ties between the Yin and other tribes, including very distant ones. From the tribes on the Bohai coast, the Yin received fish and sea shells; apparently from modern Xinjiang - jasper. Copper and tin were brought from the areas located in the upper reaches of the Yangtze River and in Southern China, from which bronze was smelted. Nomadic and semi-nomadic tribes received agricultural products and handicrafts, in particular weapons, from the Yin. Finds of vessels on the Abakan River, and bronze weapons on the Yenisei River, similar to the products of Shan artisans, indicate connections between the Yin and the tribes of Siberia.

Archaeological excavations indicate that at least after the 14th century. BC e. among the Yin, precious cowrie shells were the measure of value.

In the ruins of the Yin capital, many such shells with a smooth, polished outer side were found. To make the shells more convenient to wear, holes were drilled in them and strung on a thread. The cost of the bundles appears to have been significant. In the inscriptions there is a mention of the king’s gift of several bundles, up to ten at most. Later, as exchange expanded, the number of sea shells in circulation became insufficient and it was difficult to obtain them. Then they began to resort to replacing natural shells with artificial ones made from jasper or bones. Shells, having become a measure of value, later turned into a symbol of preciousness and wealth. Concepts meaning treasure, wealth, accumulation and many others, close to them in meaning, began to be denoted by hieroglyphs in which the main integral part was a shell.

The class character of Yin society.

The remains of dwellings and burials indicate significant wealth stratification. While the poor huddled in dugouts, the rich lived in large wooden houses with stone foundations. The burials also reflect class differentiation. The tombs of kings and nobles differ sharply from the burials of ordinary people in the abundance and richness of things found in them. Found in noble burials large number expensive items made of bronze and jade, as well as decorated weapons. Along with the deceased noble people, their servants, probably slaves, were buried. Thus, corpses with severed heads were found in the graves of Yin couples. There is reason to believe that sometimes slaves were buried alive.

Until relatively recently, scientists unanimously considered Yin society to be pre-class, noting that by the end of its existence (12th century BC), primitive communal relations had decomposed and a transition to a slave-owning system had taken place. However, further research into deciphering Yin inscriptions on bones and archaeological excavations carried out by Chinese scientists in recent years have led to a different conclusion, namely: Yin society was a class, slave-owning society. But it is very difficult to establish the exact time of the transition from clan society to class society. Although the data from archaeological excavations, reflecting class relations, date back to the period after the transfer of the capital by King Pan Geng to Shang, i.e. to the 14th century. BC e., it can be assumed that class society arose even before this time. For a long time, this system, of course, retained significant remnants of primitive communal relations.

The most reliable literary monument, the data of which about the Yin sheds light on the period preceding the creation of the Shang dynasty, is the chapter “Basic Records of Yin” from Sima Qian’s “Historical Notes”. It is characteristic that the list of Yin wans (rulers, kings) given by Sima Qian is mainly confirmed by inscriptions on the bones. This gives reason to consider Sima Qian’s materials quite reliable. According to Sima Qian, Cheng Tang, addressing the zhuhou (military leaders) and the population, said: “Those of you who do not respect my orders, I will severely punish and destroy. There will be no mercy for anyone." This could be said by a ruler who was already in complete control of the lives of his subordinates.

Brief Geography of China

China is a country with many rivers. Across the territory of China, occupying over 9.6 million square meters. km, flow the most diverse rivers in terms of length and categories, large and small, quiet and stormy, long and short, which, like the hardworking Chinese people, multiply the wealth of the country by giving it a valuable resource - water. And they all play an extremely important role in soil irrigation, ship navigation, electricity generation, urban water supply, cultural development and many other areas of the economy and construction of the country.

If you select rivers by the area of ​​their valley, which exceeds 100 square meters. km, then there are 50 thousand such rivers in China. If you select rivers by the area of ​​their valley, which exceeds 1,000 square meters. km, then there are 1,500 of them in China. The total annual flow of all rivers in China is 2,600 billion cubic meters. m. And if you connect the natural rivers of China into a single chain, then its total length would reach 430 thousand km. In other words, this chain would wrap around the water area 10.5 times. Such famous rivers of China as the Yangtze, Yellow River, Lancang and Heilongjiang are among the ten largest rivers in the world. China is a country with a vast territory. Geographical location determines the difference in climates of different regions and the unequal nature of rivers. Depending on the different forms of river flow and circulation water resources China's rivers are generally divided into the following two categories.

The watershed line between the basin of internal and external rivers begins in the north from the point of contact of the Greater Khingan ridge with the Mongolian border and then stretches to the southwest along the Yinshan, Helanshan (Alashan), Qilianshan, Bayan-Khara-Ula, Tangla and Kailash ridges and ends at western section of the state border. In addition to the Ordos Plateau, the area on the Songhua-Nenjiang Plain and Lake Yamjoyum-Tso south of the river. Yaluzangbujiang, all areas south and east of this line belong to the Pacific and Indian Ocean basins. To the northwest of this line lies the basin of inland rivers (with the exception of the Black Irtysh basin).

Rivers in China are distinguished by their deep flow, abundance, rich resources and diversity of water systems to which they belong. Besides natural rivers There are also many artificial canals in China. Among them, the most famous is the Beijing-Hangzhou Great Canal of China, which crosses Beijing, Hebei, Tianjin, Shandong, Jiangsu and Zhejiang. Its total length is 1,801 km, which is ten times longer than the Suez Canal and twenty times longer than the Panama Canal. The construction of this ancient Chinese canal began in the 5th century. B.C. This is the oldest and longest canal in the world.

Yangtze— longest river in China

The Yangtze crosses the territory of China. It is called the cradle of the Chinese nation, the hearth and birthplace of ancient Chinese culture. It is distinguished by its deep current, enormous length and extraordinary beauty. The Yangtze is the symbol of the Chinese nation. The Yangtze is the longest river in Asia.

The Yangtze has different names in different parts. The main source of the Yangtze is called Totohe (Ulan Muren). The section from the source to Batankhekou is called Tuntianhe (Muruy-Us, Ji-Chu), the length is 1,188 km. The section from Batanghekou to Yibin is called the Jinshajiang, the river crosses the border of Tibet and Sichuan and runs along the Hengduan Shan mountain range. Its length here is 2,308 km. Starting from Yibin, where the Minjiang flows into the river, it is called Changjiang. From Yizheng to Yangzhou, the river is called the Yangtze.

Depending on various hydrological and geological features, the Yangtze is usually divided into three parts. The upper course is considered to be the part from the source to Yichang in Hubei Province, its length is 4.512 km; from Yichang to Hukou, Jiangxi Province - medium current, length - 938 km; from Hukou to the mouth of the Yangtze - lower reaches, length - 850 km. The average annual flow of the Yangtze is 1,000 billion cubic meters. The Yangtze accounts for one third of the total flow of water in China. This volume is four times larger than the drainage of the largest river in Europe - the Volga. The relief in the Yangtze Valley is diverse: plateaus and mountainous areas occupy 65.6%, hills - 24%, plains and lowlands - 10.4%.

The Yangtze is the largest river in China. Its total length is 6,380 km. The area occupied by its valley is 1.8 million square meters. km. The source of the Yangtze is located on the slopes of Mount Basudan Ula, the main peak of the Tangla mountain range on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. Flowing through 11 provinces, cities and autonomous regions such as Qinghai, Tibet, Sichuan, Yunnan, Chongqing, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangxi, Anhui, Jiangsu and Shanghai, the river flows into the East China Sea. The Yangtze basin covers 16 provinces, cities and autonomous regions. It occupies one fifth of China's territory.

The Yangtze water system was formed against a complex geological background. About 200 million years ago, the sea roared in the area of ​​​​present Tibet, Xinjiang, southern Qinghai, western Sichuan, central and western Yunnan and western Guangxi. Movement of the earth's crust that arose in the late stage Jurassic period and in the early stages Cretaceous period, led to the formation of folds of the earth's crust in the Tangla region of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. This is how the Ulan-Muren River, the main source of the Yangtze, arose in the gorges between Kunlun, Bayan-Khara-Ula and Tangla. Under the influence of the Himalayan orogeny movement at the beginning Cenozoic era The Qinghai-Tibet Plateau rose continuously. And under the influence of ruptures and the intersection of different geological layers in the Murui-Usa, Jinshajiang, Minjiang area.

Tuojiang and Jialingjiang gradually formed gorges and rivers. The beginning of the Tertiary era was accompanied by a warm climate and heavy rains. Under the influence of severe erosion in the mountainous areas along the Yangtze, river currents formed in different geological stripes along the river merged into a single large river, gradually connecting with their tributaries. For example, Muruy-Us connected with Jinshajiang. And Jialingjiang and Minjiang in the Sichuan Basin, merging, connected with the Yangtze. Further, heading east, the river took into its bed several more large rivers of the provinces of Hunan and Jiangxi.

The climate in the Yangtze Valley is predominantly subtropical, with seasonal winds. There is an abundance of hydro resources. Rains form 75-80% of the annual runoff, underground sources - 20-25%, some percentage comes from the melting product of glaciers and mountain snow. The Yangtze has many tributaries. 48 tributaries have a basin of 10 thousand square meters. km or more. Largest swimming pool near the Jialingjiang River - 160 thousand square meters. km.

The Yangtze has enormous wealth in the form of untapped water resources. The height of the fall from the source to the mouth of the Yangtze is 6,600 meters. The fall height on the upper reaches of the Jinshajiang River is 3,300 meters. In many sections of the river, nature provides excellent conditions for the construction of large and medium-sized hydroelectric power plants. The Yangtze is also the most important artery in China's water transport network. The total length of navigation sections is 70 thousand km, which is 70% of the length of the country's river transport lines.

One of the main grain granaries of China is located in the Yangtze basin. Catch freshwater fish in the basin accounts for over 60% of the gross production of fisheries in China. The Yangtze Basin is famous for its vast territory and ancient history. On both banks there are the most famous cities and historical monuments of China. Among them are Shanghai, Wuhan, Chongqing, Chengdu, Nanjing, Suzhou, Kunming, etc.

Zhujiang is the result of the confluence of three famous rivers

Zhujiang was originally the name given to the waterway from Guangzhou to its mouth at the sea near Hukou. Its length is 96 km. Unlike other rivers in China, the Pearl River has neither common sources, nor a common bed, nor even a common mouth. It is actually a collection of four water systems, namely Xijiang, Beijiang, Dongjiang and Liuxihe. The Pearl River is considered the third largest major river in China.

The formation of Xijiang, Beijiang and Dongjiang belongs to the geological period Mesozoic era 100 million years ago. The rivers were formed under the influence of the Yangshan geological process. A strip of ruptures, which run first from the northeast to the southwest, then from the northwest to the southeast, served as the basis for the formation of the geological structure of the three rivers.

Among these three rivers, Xijiang is considered to be the longest. Its length is 2,197 km. The basin area is 350 thousand sq. km. It is usually called the main current of the Zhujiang. The main source of the Nanpanjiang originates in the Masyongshan Mountains in Yunnan Province. The river joins Beijiang at Sanshui City, Guangdong Province, then heads to the Pearl Delta and from there flows into the South China Sea at Modaomen.

The origins of Beijiang are located in the Dashishan Mountains of Xinfong County, Jiangxi Province, and in Moshishen, west of Linwu County, Hunan Province. These sources merge in Shaoguan in Guangdong Province and are called Beijiang there. The length of the river is 468 km. At Sanshui, Guangdong Province, it turns southeast, then passes through the Pearl Delta and flows into the South China Sea at Hongqili.

Dongjiang has two sources: eastern and western - in Xunwu County and Anyuan County, Jiangxi Province. Merging together in Longchuan County, Guangdong Province, they receive the name Dongjiang. The lower reaches of Dongjiang pass through the Zhujiang Delta. The river flows into the South China Sea at Humen. The length of the river is 523 km. Mountains and hills occupy 94.5% of the total area of ​​the basin, plains and depressions occupy only 5.5%.

The Zhujiang Basin is located in a tropical and subtropical zone that often experiences strong seasonal winds. The average annual precipitation is 1,000-2,000 mm, in some places 3,000 mm. The average annual flow is 341.2 billion cubic meters. In terms of total flow volume, it is second only to the Yangtze and ranks second among the rivers of China.

The Zhujiang Basin is characterized by an extreme concentration of hydro resources. According to theoretical estimates, the explored but undeveloped hydraulic capacity reaches 33.35 million kW. The estimated average annual electricity generation is 292.1 billion kWh, which is 5.8% of the country's gross production. In addition to the Han Chinese, the basin is inhabited by representatives of 10 national minorities - Zhuang, Miaochang, Yaochang, Buitian, Maonan, Yian, Liyan, etc. There are also deposits of various non-ferrous metals, such as coal, manganese ores, iron, aluminum, tin, etc. The Pearl Valley is also one of the country's main grain production bases, as well as a forestry base and a production base for tropical and subtropical crops. Cane sugar production here accounts for half of the country's gross output. Rubber, palm oil, coffee, cocoa, river fish, seafood, etc. are also produced here.

River basin area Zhujiang - 453.69 thousand square meters. km, including 442.10 thousand sq. km are in Chinese territory. Half of the area is occupied by limestone, and karst phenomena are often found here. Among the tourist attractions, we should highlight the ancient Buddhist rocks in Zhaoguang, picturesque mountains and rivers in Guilin and Yangshuo, caves and gorges in Zhaoqing, etc.

The Yellow River is the world's most sandy river

The Yellow River is the second largest river in China, one of the main centers of ancient Chinese civilization, the cradle of the Chinese nation. At the river's source, the water is as clear as a tear. Its middle course passes through the yellow earth plateau. The tributaries of Udinghe, Pihe, and Weihe carry with them a huge amount of yellow earth masses. This is where the name Yellow River comes from, which means “Yellow River”. The Yellow River is a relatively young river. At the early stage of the Quaternary period, within the basin of the current river, there were only lake shells, which were isolated from each other and formed relatively independent inland water systems. With the development of the new movement of the geological structure, the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau continuously rose. Folds and breaks appeared at its edges, on the basis of which a multi-stage relief in the form of a terrace was later formed. Previously existing scattered lakes merged into rivers. And only later, about 100-10 thousand years ago, in the late stage of the Pleistocene era, the current river gradually formed with a completely unimpeded flow from its sources right up to the mouth, where it flows into the sea.

The Yellow River originates on the northern slopes of the Bayan-Khara-Ula ridge of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau. The height of the source above sea level is 4,830 meters. The upstream is considered to be the section from the source to Togtokh County of the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region. The length of the section is 3,472 km. In this area there are deep gorges, areas with high drop heights are also concentrated here, the water is clear and swift. Large reserves of hydro resources have been confirmed. The middle flow is considered to be the section from Togtoh to Mengjin County, Henan Province. This is an area of ​​sandy soils, and the water carries with it a huge amount of coarse sand. The length of the middle course is 1,122 km. The section from Mengjin County to the mouth is considered the downstream. This is the main alluvial area where the main masses of silt and sand accumulate. The length of the lower reaches is 870 km.

The Yellow River flows through the following provinces and regions: Qinghai, Sichuan, Gansu, Ningxia, Inner Mongolia, Shanxi, Henan and Shandong. It flows into Bohai Bay near Dongying, Shandong Province. The total length is 5,464 km. The height of the fall is 4,480 meters. The Yellow River basin is located in the area with coordinates 32°-42° northern latitude and 96°-119° East longitude. The pool area is 795 thousand square meters. km.

The Yellow River flows through the loess plateau. The loess plateau, with its loose soil and depleted flora, has been transformed into many deep gorges and steep cliffs along and across this hilly region and is a unique geological species that is hardly found in other parts of the world. Erosion and some man-made factors have led to severe degradation of water and soil in the area.

Every year, the Yellow River throws a huge amount of sand downstream. The average density of sand masses in water is 37 kg/cubic meter, and in the rainy season it is more than 1,000 kg/cubic meter. That's why it is called the sandiest river in the world. Regular measurements and assessments show that annually the Yellow River transfers 1.6 billion tons of sand from the middle to the lower reaches, as a result of which, geographically, the continent is continuously growing eastward at a rate of 50 square meters. km. per year.

The mountains and rivers in the Yellow River basin are of extraordinary beauty. The basin's population accounts for a quarter of China's total population. Fertile soil, abundant water resources, deposits of coal, oil, natural gas, ores and rich tourism resources make the basin a place of great importance, with enormous potential for future development.

Liaohe - a major river in Northeast China

Liaohe is the largest river in the south of Dongbei - the Chinese Northeast. The first mention of this river is found in the book “Shanhaijing”, written during the Warring States era (475-221 BC). At different times, the river bore different names: Liaoshui, Daliaoshui, Qiulyuhe and others.

Liaohe has two sources: eastern and western. The eastern section of Liaohe (Dongliaohe) originates on the western slopes of the Changbai Mountain ridge near the city of Liaoyuan, Jilin Province. Western Liaohe (Xilaohe) is divided into two sources: southern and northern, Laohahe, originating on the slopes of Mount Guangtoushan Range. Qilaotu of Pingchuan County, Hebei Province and Shara Muren, starting in Heshigten aimag of Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region.

Eastern and Western Liaohe, after merging into Guyushu in Changtu County in the north of Liaoning Province, receive the common name Liaohe. In Liaoning, the river passes by Tieling and turns southwest, eventually flowing into Liaodong Bay. The total length is 1,390 km. The Liaohe Basin is located in a temperate zone with strong seasonal winds. Average annual precipitation is 350-1,000 mm. The average annual flow is 8.9 billion cubic meters. The basin covers about 500 large and small rivers. Among them are 70 rivers with basins of 1,000 square meters. km. and more. The main tributaries of the Liaohe are the Hunhe, Taizihe, Qinghe, Zhaoyanhe, Liuhe, Dongliaohe, Zaolaihe, Laohahe, Shara-Muren and Xingkai. The source of water replenishment is summer rainfall.

The total area of ​​the Liaohe basin is 219 thousand square meters. km. It covers Liaoning Province, Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, Jilin and Hebei Provinces. In the semi-desert steppe of the upper reaches of the Liaohe, residents are mainly engaged in animal husbandry. In the downstream plains, the population cultivates crops such as soybeans, wheat, kaoliang, corn and rice. Rich deposits of minerals such as coal, oil, iron, magnesium ores, diamond, etc. have been explored in the basin. It is one of the most important industrial bases of our country for the production of petroleum, chemical, metallurgical products and for the production of electricity, mechanical products and building materials.

Heilongjiang is a great international river flowing through the territory of three countries

Heilongjiang (Amur) is located in the northeast of our country. In terms of length, it is second only to the Yangtze and Yellow River and is the third largest river in China. Heilongjiang has two sources - southern and northern. The northern tributary is the Shilka (in the upper reaches - Onon), originating from the eastern foot of Mount Khentei in the northern part of Mongolia. The total length is 1,660 km. The pool area is approximately 200 thousand square meters. km. The southern source of the Heilongjiang is called Argun (in the upper reaches - Hailar), it originates on the western slopes of the Greater Khingan, flows through Lake Hulun-Nur and turns first to the north, then to the northeast. Then Argun begins to pass along the Chinese-Russian border.

The total length is 1,520 km. The pool area is 170 thousand square meters. km. The total length of the Heilongjiang River from its source to the mouth where it flows into the sea is 2,850 km. Its upper course from the village of Logu to the mouth of the Zeya is 905 km. Here the river passes between the mountains and flows through narrow caves and gorges. The water is deep and fast. Its middle course is considered to be the area from the mouth of the Zeya to the mouth of the Ussuri. Its length is 994 km. Here the river flows either through mountainous regions or through plains. The downstream is considered to be the section from the mouth of the Ussuri to the mouth; its length is 930 km. This section of the river flows through Russian territory.

The water system of the Heilongjiang River mainly consists of various large and small tributaries. There are only 209 of them. Among them, the famous ones are Shilka, Zeya, Songhuajiang (Sungari) and Ussuri.

The area of ​​the Heilongjiang basin is 1,840 thousand square meters. km, of which 940 thousand sq. km. are in China. The basin consists of the basins of Ussuri, Songhuajiang, Nenjiang, etc. The Heilongjiang basin is located in a temperate and cold zone. The river receives water replenishment primarily from rain and, secondarily, from melting snow. Recharges from rain make up 75-89% of the annual runoff, snow - only 15-20%. Replenishment from underground sources is only 5-8%.

A significant part of the basin is occupied by forests. The basin provides the country with one third of its timber harvests and timber reserves. The plain along the river has fertile soil, which supports developed agriculture on a large scale. Every year there is a good harvest of wheat and soybeans. The basin also has a complex geological structure. The richest deposits of gold, iron, copper, nickel, cobalt, plutonium, coal, oil and natural gas have already been explored. Rich hydro resources have also been explored. Estimated electricity generation is over 30 million kW. The basin is home to a huge variety of valuable animal species. Among them, 9 species are included in the International Red Book. These are the red wolf, the northeastern tiger, the Far Eastern stork, etc. The water management of the basin is of great importance in the economy of the northeastern region of China.

Huaihe is a great river in the central plain of China

Huaihe is one of the main waterways in eastern China. It is located in the middle of two major rivers of China - the Yangtze and Yellow River. The river originates in the Tongbai Mountains in the south of Henan Province. The upstream is considered to be the area from the source to the confluence of the Honghe River on the border between the provinces of Henan and Anhui. The length of the section is 360 km. The fall height is 178 meters, which is 90% of the total fall height of Huaihe. The pool area is 30 thousand square meters. km. Huaihe River flows through hilly areas. The section from the mouth of the Honghe to Hongjiehu on the border between Anhui and Jiangsu provinces is considered the middle course of the river. Its length is 490 km.

The pool area is 128 thousand square meters. km. The northern bank of the middle reaches of the Huaihe River is part of the Yellow River-Huaihe Plain. The southern coast is occupied by the Jianghuai Hills and the Hoshan Mountains, which serve as a watershed between the Yangtze and Huaihe Valley. In Fengtai, Huaiyuan and Wuhe of Anhui Province, the river forms the so-called. "Three Small Gorges of Huaihe" The area below Hongjiehe is considered the lower reaches of the river. Its length is 150 km. In the lower reaches, small rivers cross each other, and lakes are located all the time.

The Huaihe Basin is located on the central plain, the Great Zhongyuan Plain of China. It covers the provinces of Henan, Anhui, Jiangsu, Shandong and Hubei. In the west, the basin is adjacent to the Tongbaishan and Funyushan mountains. In the east, the basin is limited by the Yellow Sea, in the south by the Dabeshan, Hoshan and Zhangbaling mountains, and by the Lianshan and Imeshan mountains. The total area of ​​the pool is 270 thousand square meters. km.

The Huaihe water system includes several hundred rivers and their tributaries. There are known differences in relief and natural geographical conditions between the northern and southern shores of Huaihe. These differences predetermined the characteristics of the two water systems. The tributaries on the north shore are numerous and shallow. On the southern bank there are short and deep tributaries. On the northern shore, the most famous are Honghe, Yinghe, Wohe, Huihe, Tohe, etc. On the southern coast there are Pihe and Shihe.

The Huaihe Valley is located on a strip transitioning from southern to northern climates. It has a temperate climate with a semi-humid atmosphere. Geographically, Huaihe and Qinglin form a natural dividing line between the South and North of China. The climate is moderate. The frost-free period is more than 200 days a year. Precipitation is average, moderate - 800 mm per year.

The Huaihe Basin is also one of the most important agricultural production bases of our country. The main type of explored underground wealth is coal. The valley is home to many large coal mines, such as Huainan, Huaibei, Pingdingshan, Chaozhuang and Xuzhou.

Haihe - a water system reminiscent of an ancient Chinese fan

The main waterway of Haihe is considered to be the area from the junction of the Ziyahe and Nanyunhe rivers near the Jingang Bridge in the northeastern part of Tianjin to the Haihe locks near Dagukou. Length - 72 km. This is an ancient river bed that crosses Tianjin and serves as the natural axis of this city. On both sides of it there are various monuments and attractions of Tianjin. The Haihe Basin is located in an area with coordinates of 112°-120° east longitude and 35°-43° north latitude. The basin covers 5 provinces, 2 cities and one autonomous region, and more than 260 counties. The basin begins with the loess plateau in the western part of the Taihang Mountain region in the east and ends in the east with Bohai Bay. To the south it is bordered by the northern Yellow River Dam. The basin covers two central cities - Beijing and Tianjin, most of Heibei Province, eastern and northern Shanxi Province, and the northern part of Shandong and Henan Provinces. In addition, it also includes a small part of Liaoning and Inner Mongolia. The total area of ​​the pool is 317.8 thousand square meters. km.

The Haihe Water System is one of the most important water systems on the North China Plain. Haihe has many tributaries - Beiyunhe (including Chaobai and Zhaoyun), Yongding, Daqing, Ziya and Nanyunhe. In addition, there are more than 300 rivers, each of which is 10 km long. and more. The fan-shaped Haihe River includes many water systems of its tributaries. The main ones are three systems: southern, western and northern. The southern system includes the Zhanghe and Weihe, Nanyunhe and Ziyahe, which flow into the Haihe; the western includes Daqinghe; the northern one is called Beisihe differently: these are Yunding, Beiyun, Chaobai and Zhaoyun.

Due to many factors determining the geological structure and natural conditions of the North China region, the relief of the basin is distinguished by obvious elevation in the western, northern and southern parts and lowlands on the eastern side. All rivers flow to the east. This is the main reason for the formation of the fan-shaped water system of Haihe. In addition, important factors are also changes in the course of the Yellow River, which took place in history, as well as active anthropogenic impact.

The Haihe Valley is also characterized by uneven rainfall in different areas. Average annual precipitation is 400-800 mm. During flood years, precipitation reaches 1,300-1,400 mm. Due to significant evaporation, the lack of new replenishment from underground sources, as well as artificial dredging, the average annual drainage of the basin is small. In addition, not only does the volume of the drain change rapidly from year to year, it looks different even within one year. It is for these reasons that the history of these places knows many cases of serious natural disasters. In recent years, Beijing has been threatened with flooding three times, and Tianjin eight times. After the formation of the People's Republic of China, repeated channel cleanups were carried out in the basin's water system, and the danger of natural disasters was largely eliminated.

The basin is famous for its reserves of coal, oil, natural gas and ores. Along Bohai Bay there are vast salt pans covering tens of thousands of hectares. And the Tianjin port at the mouth of Haihe is the largest port in northern China. Today, the Haihe Valley has already become one of the political, economic and cultural centers of China, as well as one of the most important grain-producing and cotton-producing bases in the northern part of China.

Lancangjiang - international waterway

Lancang (Mekong) is born on the northern slopes of the Tangla ridge of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau. The height of the source above sea level is 5,167 meters. The source of the river is in the Yushu Tibet Autonomous Prefecture of Qinghai Province. The river flows from north to south, crossing Qinghai, Tibet, Yunnan, and also passes through the territories of neighboring countries - Myanmar, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia and Vietnam. It flows into the sea near the Vietnamese city of Hu Chi Minh.

The river is the only international river in Southeast Asia, flowing through six countries. The Lancang River (Mekong) is known throughout the world. In terms of length it ranks sixth among the great rivers of the world, and in terms of basin area it ranks 14th.

Lancang has two sources: eastern (Dza-Chu) and western (Ngom-Chu). The upstream is considered to be the section from the source to the Tibetan city of Chamdo. Its length is 564 km. The upper reaches receive water replenishment from melted snow, rain and underground sources. The fall height is 1,850 meters.

After the confluence of tributaries in Chamdo, the river receives the name Lancangjiang. From here the river flows along a wide channel, calmly and evenly. The middle flow is considered to be the section from Chamdo to Gongguo Bridge in Yunnan Province. Its length is 813.7 km. Here the river passes through the high mountainous regions of the Hengduanshan Range, where there are many steep gorges. In this section, the river receives water replenishment from rain and groundwater. The height of the fall is 1,980 meters. The area below the Gungo Bridge is considered downstream. Its length is 724.3 km. Here, low mountains are accompanied by wide gorges and depressions. Water replenishment mainly comes from rains. The height of the fall is 765 meters. Before flowing into the Namloi tributary, the river leaves China, and is then called the Mekong.

The total length of the Chinese section of the river is 2,129 km, of which 448 km. are in Qinghai Province, 465 km. - to Tibet, and 1,216 km. - to Yunnan. The Lancang basin is inhabited by a large number of Chinese minorities. These are the peoples of Dai, Yi, Bai, Nasi, Hui, Tibetans, Lahuts, etc. The basin is renowned for its scenic beauty and rich mineral deposits such as antimony, lead, copper and iron. This is also the area with the richest fauna and flora in China. The fall height in the middle and lower reaches is 2,745 meters, which provides enormous potential for hydropower resources. The picturesque landscape, unique national color and culture of China's national minorities annually attract the interest of an increasing number of tourists from all over the country and the world.

Lakes in China

China is a country with a huge number of lakes. According to estimates by competent organizations, there are more than 2,800 natural (or non-artificial) lakes in China. Each of them has a water surface of 1 square. km. or even more. The total area of ​​the lakes is more than 80 thousand square meters. km. In addition, there are 13 lakes with a surface area of ​​1,000 square meters. km. These lakes cover a total of approximately 29,000 square meters. km.

Lakes in China are located, respectively, in 9 different natural and geographical zones and areas with different climatic conditions: some are in the mountains and plains, others are on continental areas or islands, others are in deserts or swamps, in arid zones or in humid ones. and semi-humid areas. This explains the diversity of lakes in China. Based on the reasons for their formation, lakes are divided into the following categories: tectonic, volcanic, glacial, dammed, karst, wind erosion lakes, river and lagoons. According to the hydrochemical composition, the waters of the lake are divided into salt, salt-water and freshwater.

The vast majority of Chinese lakes receive direct water replenishment from their respective rivers, so the lakes are an integral part of their respective water systems. The geographical location of these lakes greatly depends on the particular area where the lakes receive water replenishment, which is why one of the most important factors is, among others, water regime. Due to certain factors, such as natural and geographical conditions, climatic conditions, external and internal (inland) rivers in our country are not similar to each other and have completely different characteristics.

Based on the characteristics of Chinese rivers, it would be possible to draw a line across the territory of China that would begin from the southern section of the Greater Khingan, then cross the Yinshan mountain range and the eastern section of the Qilian mountain range and end at the Gandhisishan mountain range. To the southeast of this line are lake districts that receive water from external rivers. Because lake water flows out of the lake, salt does not accumulate here, and therefore there are mainly freshwater lakes, which are concentrated on both sides of the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River. The main ones are Poyanghu, Dongtinghu, Taihu, Hongzehu, Hulunhu, etc.

These lakes have enormous natural resources. To the northwest of this line there are lake areas that receive water replenishment from inland rivers. Since these lakes are located far from the seashore, water does not flow out of the lakes; a huge amount of salt accumulates here due to strong evaporation. Water contains a huge amount of salt. The water contains common salt, mirabilite, gypsum, boron ores and other industrial raw materials. The most characteristic of this area is Lake Qinghai (Kukunor), the largest salt lake in China. Lakes in China are mainly located in five large lake regions. This is a lake region in the plains and mountains of Northeast China; lake region on the plains of Eastern China; lake region on the Mongol-Xinjiang plateau; the lake region on the Qinghai-Tibean Plateau and the lake region on the Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau.

Lake region on the plains and mountains of Northeast China. Total area - 3,952 sq. km, which is 5.4% of the total lake area of ​​the country. The area is located on temperate zone, where semi-humid seasonal winds predominate. Lakes receive abundant water replenishment and are usually divided into two categories: a) Lakes that were formed directly as a result of the volcanic movement of the Quaternary era. Characteristic of this are five interconnected lakes in Dedu County, Heilongjiang Province, Jingpohu Lake on the Mudanjiang River, and Tianchi Lake in the Changbai Mountains on the Sino-Korean border. These lakes are distinguished by their large water surface and great depth; b) Numerous large and small lakes in bogs and swamps. They are usually shallow and have a relatively high salt content.

Lake region on the plains of Eastern China. This refers to large and small lakes located on both sides of the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze and Huaihe, the lower reaches of the Yellow River, Haihe, as well as on both sides of the large Beijing-Hangzhou Canal. Total area - 1,847 sq. km, which is 2.94% of the country's lake area. This area is characterized by a high density of lakes. Here are the most famous five freshwater lakes in China - Poyanghu, Dongtinghu, Taihu, Hongzehu and Chaohu.

Mongolian-Xinjiang plateau region of lakes. Total area - 9,106 sq. km, which is 12.2% of the total lake area of ​​the country. The Mongol-Xinjiang lake region is located in inland China. It is far from the sea. The climate is dry, with little precipitation. Due to significant evaporation, water is lost faster than it is supplied, resulting in a constant thickening and increasing salt content.

Qinghai-Tibet plateau lake region. Total area - 37,487 square meters. km, or 50.5% of the total lake area of ​​the country. This is a group of the largest and most numerous inland lakes located on the highest mountainous terrain on Earth. At the same time, this is the area with the most densely located lakes in our country. The lakes here are mainly salty or semi-salty. The water is usually deep. In winter, the lakes freeze for quite a long time.

Yunnan-Guizhou plateau lake region. Total area - 1,077 sq. km. The region occupies approximately 1.4% of the country's total lake area. The lakes here are located mainly in the central and western parts of Yunnan Province. Medium and small freshwater lakes predominate here.

Geographical location

China is located in East Asia, in the east it is washed by the waters of the Pacific Ocean. The area of ​​the territory is 9.6 million square meters. km. China, second only to Russia and Canada, ranks 3rd in the world. In the meridian direction, the territory of China extends for 5.5 thousand km. - from the Heilongjiang (Amur) River near the northern city of Mohe to the coral reefs of Zengmuansha south of the Nanshaqundao archipelago. In the latitudinal direction - 5.2 thousand km. from the confluence of the Heilongjiang and Ussuri rivers to the western spurs of the Pamirs.

The length of the country's land border is 22.8 thousand km. In the east, China borders with the DPRK, in the north with Mongolia, and in the northeast with Russia. China's northwestern neighbors are Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan, while Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, Nepal and Bhutan lie on the country's western and southwestern borders. In the south, China neighbors Myanmar, Laos and Vietnam.

To the east and southeast of the coast of China are the Republic of Korea, Japan, the Philippines, Brunei, Malaysia and Indonesia. The length of the coastline of mainland China is more than 18 thousand km. The coast of China is flat with a large number convenient ice-free harbors. China in the east and south is washed by the waters of the marginal seas of the Pacific Ocean (Yellow, East China and South China Seas), as well as the Bohai Sea, which is inland sea China. The total area of ​​territorial waters is 4.73 million square meters. km.

The territory of China includes 5.4 thousand islands. The largest of them is Taiwan (36 thousand sq. km), the second largest is Hainan (34 thousand sq. km). The Diaoyu and Chiweiyu Islands, located northeast of Taiwan, are the easternmost territories of China. The groups of islands, reefs and shoals in the South China Sea - Dongshaqundao, Xishaqundao, Zhongshaqundao, Nanshaqundao and Nanwei - make up China's southern border.

Relief

The relief of China was formed under the influence of tectonic processes that began several million years ago, caused by the collision of the Hindustan and Eurasian plates. The territory of China resembles a four-step “staircase” descending from west to east, its upper part, the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, rises continuously, its average height exceeds 4,000 m above sea level, often called the “roof of the world.”

On the western border of the highland are the Great Himalayas with the main peak Chomolungma (8844.43 m above sea level) - the highest peak in the world. The second stage consists of the Inner Mongolia highlands, the Loess Plateau and the Yunnan-Guizhou Highlands with the Tarim Basin located here, as well as the Dzungarian and Sichuan basins. The average altitude of the area is 2,000-1,000 m above sea level.

From the eastern edge of the second stage - the eastern spurs of the Greater Khingan (Daxinganling), the Taihangshan, Wushan and Xuefengshan mountains - the third stage of the staircase extends to the east, its height decreases to 1,000-500 m above sea level. Here, from north to south, the Northeast, North China Plains and the Middle and Lower Yangtze Plains are located, framed by small mountains and hills. The fourth stage is vast areas of the continental shelf up to 200 m deep.

Climate

Most of China's territory is located in the northern temperate climate zone, characterized primarily by pronounced seasons and monsoon rains. From September to April, harsh winter winds from Siberia and Mongolia create a dry and cold climate and large temperature differences between north and south.

From April to September, warm and humid summer monsoons come from the eastern and southern seas, at this time it is hot and rainy, the temperature difference between north and south is insignificant. The territory of China includes 6 climatic zones: equatorial, tropical, subtropical, warm-temperate, temperate and cold-temperate. The amount of precipitation gradually decreases from the southeast to the northwest, and there is big difference in the average annual precipitation in all regions of the country, in the southeast - 1,500 mm, in the northwest - only 200 mm.

Rivers and lakes

China has a large number of rivers. The basins of more than one and a half thousand rivers exceed 1,000 square meters. km. The sources of the main rivers are located on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, from where their waters flow to the plains. Large differences in altitude create favorable conditions for the use of hydropower resources, the reserves of which amount to 680 million kW and rank first in the world.

The rivers of China form systems with external and internal flows. The total drainage area of ​​landlocked rivers covers 64% of the country's territory. These include the Yangtze, Yellow River, Heilongjiang, Zhujiang, Liaohe, Haihe, Huaihe, etc., flowing from west to east and flowing into Pacific Ocean; the Yalutsangpo River originates in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau and flows into Indian Ocean, in its bed there is the largest canyon in the world with a length of 504.6 km. and with a unique depth of 6.009 m. The Ercis (Irtysh) River flows through Xinjiang to the north and flows into the Northern Arctic Ocean. Rivers with internal flow flow into lakes or are lost in deserts. Their drainage area covers 36% of the country's territory. The longest of them is Tarim in Xinjiang - 2,179 km.

The largest river in China is the Yangtze, whose length (6,300 km) is second only to the Nile and the Amazon. The upper course of the Yangtze runs through high mountains and deep valleys. It conceals rich water resources. The Yangtze is the main and most convenient shipping route of the country, running from west to east. It is naturally adapted for navigation; it is not for nothing that in China the Yangtze is called the “golden transport artery.” The middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze are characterized by a warm and humid climate, abundant rainfall and soil fertility, which creates ideal conditions for the development of agriculture. This is where the main breadbasket of the country is located.

The second largest river in China is the Yellow River (5,464 km). The Yellow River basin is rich in fertile fields, lush pastures, and the depths contain huge deposits of minerals. The banks of the Yellow River are the cradle of the Chinese nation, from here the origins of ancient Chinese culture can be traced. Heilongjiang (Amur) is the largest river in northern China. The total length is 4,350 km, of which 3,101 km. on the territory of China. The Pearl River is 2,214 km long. - the deepest in Southern China. In addition to natural waterways, China has the famous man-made Grand Canal, which connects the Haihe, Yellow River, Huaihe, Yangtze and Qiantang River systems. It was laid in the 5th century BC, stretches from north to south from Beijing to the city of Hangzhou (Zhejiang Province) for 1,801 km, it is the oldest and longest artificial canal in the world.

There are many lakes in China. Most of them are located on the plains of the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze and the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. Plain lakes are usually freshwater, the largest of which are Poyanghu, Dongtinghu, Taihu and Hongzehu. The largest freshwater lake in China, Poyang Lake, is located in the north of Jiangxi province; the surface of the lake is 3,583 square meters. km. The lakes on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau are mostly salty, these are Qinghaihu (Kukunor), Namuhu (Namtso), Qilinhu (Selling), etc. The largest salt lake in the country is Qinghaihu (northeast of the Qinghai province), its area is 4,583 sq. km.

Land resources and minerals

China is extremely rich in land resources and minerals. There are huge areas of various types of soil, arable land, forests and steppes, deserts, etc. Arable land is concentrated in the east of China, steppes are located mainly in the west and north, forests are in the remote northeastern and southwestern regions.

Currently, the area of ​​cultivated land in China is 130.04 million hectares. The main agricultural regions are the Northeast and North China Plains, the Middle and Lower Yangtze Plains, the Pearl River Delta and the Sichuan Basin. North-Eastern Plain with an area of ​​350 thousand square meters. km. is the largest in the country; wheat, corn, soybeans, kaoliang, sugar beets and bast crops are cultivated on its fertile black soils.

The North China Plain is formed by thick sediments, where brown soils predominate. Rich harvests of wheat, corn, millet, cotton and other crops are harvested here. The plains of the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze are low and flat, there are many lakes in an intricate interweaving of rivers and rivulets. It is an ideal location for growing many crops, including tea; Freshwater fish species are bred in reservoirs. This area is rightly called the “land of rice and fish.” Violet soils predominate in the Sichuan Basin. In a warm and humid climate, good harvests of jellied rice, rapeseed and sugar cane are harvested here all year round. In the Pearl River Delta, two or three bountiful harvest rice per year.

The forest area in China is 174.91 million hectares. The largest forest tracts are located in the Greater and Lesser Khingan regions, in the Changbai Mountains in the northeast, where the main types of tree species are cedar, larch, birch, oak, Manchurian ash, elm and poplar. Southwestern China ranks second in forest reserves. It is rich in valuable wood species, including spruce, fir, Yunnan pine, pompelmus, sandalwood, camphor and mahogany, as well as nanmu wood. Xishuangbanna is a unique place in the south of Yunnan province. The local impenetrable tropical jungle, in which more than 5 thousand species of flora grow, is rightly called the “plant kingdom.”

The area of ​​natural pastures in China is about 400 million hectares. In the steppe zone, extending over 3,000 km. from the northeast to the southwest of the country, a large number of cattle breeding and livestock bases have been created. The leader in the vastness of natural pastures is Inner Mongolia, famous for its elite breeds of livestock. The hallmark of local livestock farming is the Sanhe bull and horse, as well as the Mongolian sheep. Xinjiang is an important breeding base for the famous Yili horse and Xinjiang fine-wool sheep.

China ranks one of the first in the world in terms of total area of ​​arable land, pastures and forests, but due to its huge population, these figures in per capita terms are reduced to a minimum. This primarily applies to the area of ​​arable land - this figure is only a third of the world average per capita.

China is rich in mineral resources. Here, as they say, “almost the entire periodic table is presented.” Geologists have confirmed the presence of industrial reserves of 158 minerals. In terms of their total reserves, China ranks third in the world. China is among the world leaders in reserves of a number of major minerals - coal, iron, copper, aluminum, antimony, molybdenum, manganese, tin, lead, zinc and mercury. Coal reserves in China are estimated at 332.6 billion tons. The richest coal deposits are located in Xinjiang, Shanxi Province and Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region. Iron ore reserves amount to 21.6 billion tons, the most significant deposits are located in the north, northeast and southwest of the country. China is rich in oil, natural gas, oil shale, phosphorus and sulfur. The main oil fields have been explored in the northwestern, northeastern and northern regions, as well as on the continental shelf off the eastern coasts. In terms of reserves of rare earth metals, China surpasses all countries of the world combined.

Flora and fauna

In terms of diversity of wild animal species, China ranks one of the first in the world. It is home to more than 6,266 species of vertebrates, including 2,404 species of land vertebrates and 3,862 species of fish, representing about 10% of the vertebrate species living on Earth. The giant panda, golden monkey, South China tiger, brown hen, Manchurian crane, red-footed ibis, white dolphin, Chinese alligator and other rare fauna are endemic to China. The giant panda with fluffy black and white fur belongs to the large mammals, feeds on young bamboo shoots, its weight reaches 135 kg. Currently, there are only just over 1,700 giant pandas left on the planet, they have become... international symbol protection of wild animals. The Manchurian crane is a symbol of longevity in East Asia. Its height reaches 1.2 m, the colors of the plumage are originally combined white and black, and on the head there is bare skin of bright red color. The white dolphin is one of two freshwater species cetaceans. It was first discovered in the Yangtze in 1980 and attracted great interest from ichthyologists in different countries.

China has an exceptionally rich flora; there are 32 thousand species of higher plants alone. Among them are almost all plants characteristic of the cold, temperate and tropical zones of the Northern Hemisphere, more than 7 thousand species of tree-like plants, including 2.8 thousand species of trees. Unique species unique to China include Metasequoia glyptostrobovidae, Glyptostrobus chinensis, Chinese argyrophylla, cunningamia, false larch, Taiwanese fluusiana, Fujian cypress, Davidia, Eucommia, "Xishu". Metasequoia glyptostroboid as a relict plant is included in the list of the rarest plants in the world. False larch grows in the mountainous regions of the Yangtze basin, on its short branches there are bunches of leaves that resemble coppers, they are green in summer and yellow in autumn. False larch, along with other 4 rare species of trees, is widely used in landscape gardening. In China, there are more than 2 thousand species of edible plants and over 3 thousand species of medicinal plants. The most valuable of them are Changbaishan ginseng, Tibetan safflower, Ningxia lycium and Ginura pinnateris, growing in Yunnan and Guizhou. The Chinese flora is rich in flowers and ornamental plants; the most beautiful is considered to be the peony, which originally grows here and is called the “king of flowers” ​​by the Chinese. The tree peony has especially large, bright and lush flowers; it is recognized as one of national symbols China.

South China Karst

China is one of the countries with the largest carbonate rocks in the world, and it is in southern China that the most typical and diverse karst formations have formed. South China karst centered in Guizhou province, covering an area of ​​approximately 600,000 sq. km., considered the largest single karst formation in the world, it includes the eastern part of Yunnan Province, most of Guizhou, and partially includes Chongqing, Sichuan, Hunan, Hubei and Guangdong. With a high plateau (average altitude 2,000-2,200 m above sea level) in the northwest and a lowland plain (average altitude 100-120 m above sea level) in the southeast, its topography features a giant slope descending from the northwest to the southeast.

The Chinese government has nominated the South China Karst for the title of World Natural Heritage Site. The South China karst includes three areas - Chongqing Wulong Karst (gorge), Guizhou Libo Karst (conical formations) and Karst " Stone forest» Yunnan Province (sharp rocks). Their total area is 476 square meters. km., area of ​​buffer zones - 984 sq. km.

From different perspectives, these karst areas reflect the unique natural features of South China's topography, highlighting its special and representative karst topography, karst ecosystems and biodiversity, and unique natural beauty.

From a geological point of view, the South China Karst region is located on the southwestern edge of the Yangtze massif. During most of the Paleozoic and early Mesozoic periods (Cambrian to Triassic), the region was covered by ocean. Thousands of meters of dense carbonate sediments formed, especially in the late Paleozoic era. Due to the movement of the earth, starting in the late Triassic period, this area began to rise, came out of the water and began to develop karst forms.

Due to the formation of the Himalayas since the late Tertiary period, there has been a rapid rise in this region, which is reflected in the present sloping topography. As a result of a long and complex geological evolution, karst formations unique in their diversity were formed in this region, including the most typical karst formations in the world - tower karst (Fenglin), sharp-rock karst (Stone Forest) and cone karst (Fengcun), as well as unusual karst phenomena such as Tiankeng (giant karst well) and Difeng (deep karst crack). In addition, there are numerous underground cave systems and rich cave deposits. All this makes this area the world's “museum of continental tropical-subtropical karst” due to its incomparable richness and uniqueness.

In the territory of the South China Karst, dense carbonate layers deposited during the Cambrian to Triassic period contain the most important fossils for world science, which are the most important evidence of life on Earth.

The nominated area is distinguished by great biological diversity; it contains large numbers of rare, endangered and characteristic species of plants and animals. The karst areas of Chongqing and Guizhou are home to more than 6,000 species of higher plants, including D. involucrate, C. argyrophyll, Cycasguizhouensis, Taxuschinensis, and others rare species. This karst formation is home to not only a variety of animals - birds, amphibians, fish and cave animals - but also many endangered and characteristic species of animals, such as Presbytisfrancoisi, Neofelisnebulosa, Aqilachrysaetos, Moschusberezovskit, etc. The nominated area is a nature reserve for many endangered animal and plant species.

The rich and unique karst formations of the nominated area have a unique natural beauty. Many of the areas have been traditional landmarks for hundreds of years. The Tiankengs in Chongqing, the Stone Forest in Yunnan and the waterfalls in Guizhou are natural wonders known throughout the world.

Karst Chongqing Wulong

Wulong Karst is located in the lower reaches of the Wujiang River southeast of Chongqing. It consists of three karst systems—Sanqiao Natural Bridges, Furong Jiang Karst, and Houping Tiankengs—which are located in the north, southeast, and northeast of Wulong County, respectively. It consists of gorges, natural bridges, tiankengs, caves, underground currents, sometimes reaching the surface, developed in carbonate rocks.

The platform of this area is characterized by two mountain plains with an elevation of 1,800-2,000 m and 1,200-1,500 m deep gorges. Three karst systems are located on the banks, in the interfluves and in the upper reaches of the tributaries of the Wujiang River, respectively. They form a connected community that develops in harmony with each other.

January 2006 - Wulong Karst applied for the title of World Natural Heritage as part of the South China Karst.

Karst Guizhou Libo

Libo Karst, nominated for the title of World Natural Heritage under the South China Karst application, is located in Libo County, Bui and Miao Autonomous Prefecture of South Guizhou, Guizhou Province. Its average height above sea level is 747 m with a range from 385 to 1,109 m.

It is a typical example of conical karst in the transition zone between the Guizhou Plateau and the Guangxi Lowland. Its outstanding qualities are ensured by the full spectrum of gradual transition from plateau karst to lowland karst. Conical karst contains a rich diversity of biological species, this special karst forest ecosystem is home to many species of endangered fauna.

90% of the population of the nominated area are national minorities with a rich culture. Exotic culture of the local peoples of Shui, Yao, Bui and others is unique and vibrant. The boundaries of the nominated site are established on the basis of the geomorphological development and distribution of karst, the karst forest ecosystem and the habitat of rare and endangered species.

The Libo karst consists of a main zone of 29,518 hectares and a buffer zone of 43,498 hectares. Main zone National Nature Reserve Maolan covers 21,684 hectares, occupying 73.46% of the Libo cone zone.

Criteria that meet the requirements of the World Natural Heritage:

An outstanding example representing major stages of the Earth's evolutionary history, including evidence of life, significant ongoing geological processes in landform development, or significant geomorphic or physiographic properties; Is an outstanding example representing significant ongoing ecological and biological processes in the evolution and development of terrestrial, coastal, freshwater and marine ecosystems and plant and animal communities; Contains the most important and significant natural habitat conditions for conservation biological diversity in the area, including those containing endangered species of outstanding scientific or conservation value.

Stone Forest Karst in Yunnan Province

Stone Forest National Park is located in Shilin Autonomous Region and Yunnan Province, 80 km away. southeast of Kunming city. It covers an area of ​​350 sq. km. and includes the Main Stone Forest, Naigu Stone Forest, Changhu Lake, Great Waterfall, etc.

Over 300 million years, as a result of the movement of the earth's crust, this area turned from sea to land, from the lower reaches to a plateau. Primordial carbonate rock, formed in the ocean, miraculously turned into a “stone forest”. During its evolution, the Stone Forest was covered with volcanic lava and lake water. Therefore, the formation of the Stone Forest can truly be called a legendary geological phenomenon on a global scale.

The stone forest has the richest morphological properties. Thanks to unique geological evolution, numerous clusters of rock forest formations, formed during different geological periods, coexist in a diverse topography, each with unique features. There are pointed rocks, columnar and mushroom-shaped groups, and pagoda-shaped groups. Since almost all typical pointed karst formations can be defined as a stone forest, the park is known throughout the world as the “Stone Forest Museum”.

Walking through the stone forest, visitors admire the masterpieces created by nature; the bizarre shapes fascinate them. The delightful, unusual and fractured landscape creates countless intertwined labyrinths.

These include the Main Stone Forest, the Small Stone Forest and the Naigu Stone Forest, which consist of various rock formations. Here you can find animals, plants and even human figures. Some resemble elephants, some resemble scraps or rags, but there is no doubt that they are all completely unique.

The underground stone forest in Zhiyun Cave is an underground stone forest distributed over several caves and covering a total area of ​​about 3 square meters. km. "Mysterious Wind Cave" consists of Penfeng Cave, Hongxi Spring and an underground river. From August to November, a vortex, lasting 2-3 minutes, bursts out of the cave every 30 minutes. The elongated Changhu Lake is a karst lake 3 km long. and only 300 meters wide. The lake has underwater stalactites and stalagmites and a small island in the center. The source of the Dade Waterfall is the Ba River, a tributary of the Nanpan River. During the rainy season up to 150 cubic meters. m. of water per sq. inches fall from a height of 88 meters.

Every year on the 24th or 25th of the sixth month lunar calendar The people of Sanya gather in the Stone Forest for the "Torch Festival". Visitors are invited to admire the folk dances and wrestling competitions of Sani's youth.

One of the distinctive features of China is the abundance of rivers. There are about 5,000 of them in the country.

Short and long, small and large, with a calm disposition and violent character - they are all as different as the country itself. The river branches are located very unevenly. The west of China suffers from a shortage of rivers, while the eastern part abounds in them, and this is where the largest ones are located.

Yangtze

The Yangtze is the country's largest river, 6,300 km long. Being the third largest in the world, it is second only to the Amazon and the Nile. Its source is located in the snow-capped Geladandong Mountains. It flows through the territory of eleven provinces, making its way through fields and foothills, hills, mountains and gorges. No other river in China can boast of such a variety of landscapes, so its second name “river of contrasts” is fully justified.

The Yangtze is not only famous for its beauty, but is also the “golden transport artery” of the country. It is navigable along almost its entire length. The river conventionally divides the Celestial Empire into two parts: northern and southern China. The largest metropolises - Wuhan, Nanjing - are located along the banks of the Yangtze.

Zhujiang

The Pearl River, as the Pearl River is also called, flows through eight provinces. The river received its unusual name due to the island located on it. The shores, polished by water, became surprisingly smooth, reminiscent of the surface of a pearl.

Zhujiang is of particular interest to tourists and guests of the Celestial Empire due to the extraordinary beauty of its numerous bridges, which are illuminated at night. In addition, along the banks of this river there are a large number of cultural monuments and sights of China.

Yellow River

The country's second largest river, the Yellow River, with a length of 5,464 km, originates on the Tibetan Plateau. Its name translates as “Yellow River”. This is no coincidence, because the abundance of suspensions gives it this color. In the summer, when the Yellow River is at its fullest, it carries a huge amount of silt. Sediment is deposited downstream, causing the riverbed to rise above the surrounding area. The result is frequent floods, for which the river received the second name “Mountain of China”.

The Yellow River flows through the Great Chinese Plain, which makes navigation possible in some parts of it. However, recently, due to environmental problems, the Yellow River has become shallow for most of the year, making navigation possible only for small vessels.

Liaohe

Being one of the largest in the northern part of China, Liaohe has two sources at once: one is located in the west, the other in the east. The very first mentions of this river date back to 475-221 BC. In one of the provinces named after Liaohe, it is called the “mother river”. Just like the Yellow River, this river carries a lot of loess - fertile soil of a yellow hue.

Heilujiang

This water artery flows along the border of Russia and China. But if for the Chinese people it is known as Heilujiang, then our population calls it Amur. Bending around the territory of the Celestial Empire from the east, the river flows into the Sea of ​​Okhotsk. With a length of 4,370 km, Heilujiang ranks 11th in terms of length among all the rivers on the planet.

It flows through the most picturesque places. Virgin forests, lush green grass and water areas amaze with their grandeur and beauty. If you admire the Amur from a bird's eye view, it is easy to notice that the river has the shape of a black dragon. This is what the Chinese used as the basis for its name.

Heilujiang is navigable along its entire length, making it an important waterway.

Hangang

The Hangang (another name is the Han Shui River) is considered to be one of the most important tributaries of the Yangtze. The total length of the river is 1532 km. According to some historians, the name of this river formed the basis of the name of the royal Han dynasty and the Han kingdom.

The waterways of the Celestial Empire are one of its attractions. The world-famous Yangtze and Yellow River, or other less popular rivers, are unique in nature. The special flavor of the area and amazing river landscapes will not leave even the most experienced travelers indifferent.

China do attractive country for tourism - an abundance of attractions, interesting culture, a story dating back to antiquity. China has many picturesque mountains, rivers, waterfalls and gorges.

One of the largest rivers in China is the Yangtze, which is 6,300 kilometers long. It originates in the snow-capped mountains of Geladandong and flows through eleven provinces. It is called the river of contrasts. It flows first through the fields, then through the foothills, turning into mountains and gorges, giving way to hills.

In length it is second only to the Nile and the Amazon. The Three Gorges Dam, one of the world's largest hydroelectric dams, was built on this river. It flows through deep valleys and high mountains. The river contains rich hydro resources.

The Yangtze is the main and most convenient shipping route of the country, which runs from west to east. It is called the “golden transport artery”; it seems that nature itself has adapted it for navigation.

The warm and humid climate, abundant rainfall and fertile soil are excellent conditions for the development of agriculture. The main breadbasket of the country is located here.

The Yangtze River has long been famous for its beauty. There are many legends about local attractions. This is the main thoroughfare of China, the most abundant and longest river in Eurasia. The Yangtze River divides northern and southern China into two parts. The largest cities in China are located on the Yangtze - Nanjing, Wuhan, Chongqing. The city of Shanghai is located in the river delta.

Yellow River

When talking about the two main rivers of China, it should be said that the second largest river of the state, with a length of 5464 kilometers, is the Yellow River, originating on the Tibetan Plateau. Translated, it means “yellow river.” It rushes like a stormy stream to the east, down from the plateau through gorges, further through the highlands of Gansu province.

Especially in summer it carries a huge amount of silt, when the river is at its deepest. Floods often occur, for which the river is called “the grief of China.” Then it goes out onto the North China Plain. When leaving the gorge it flows into Bohai Bay. Nowadays, many waterworks have been built in the upper reaches of this river. Where the river loses speed, Chinese civilization was born.