What are bacteria, fungi, plants and animals. Biomass of the Earth, infographics

The living world of our planet is very diverse. Created for his research the whole system science is biology, and plants, bacteria, fungi, lichens and other species are the subject of its study. Modern science already known, described and classified the following types:

animals - over a million;
plants - about half a million;
mushrooms - several hundred thousand;
bacteria – more than ten thousand.

But at the same time, the number of species that have not yet been described is approximately the same (and in the case of microorganisms, even more).

In biology, there are several classifications of organisms according to various characteristics. Let us dwell on two of them, which will be used further. brief description plants, bacteria, fungi and lichens.

In biology, two groups are distinguished in terms of the relationship of cells to oxygen:

Aerobes. For their life to function, free access to molecular oxygen is necessary. In its absence, they die.
Anaerobes. They live in environments without access to oxygen, which is harmful to them.

In addition, there are facultative anaerobes, capable of switching from one type of respiration to another, and aerotolerant anaerobes, indifferent to the presence or absence of oxygen.

The given classifications are conditional, since sometimes it is quite difficult to classify an organism into one group or another.

Plants

One of the main groups of multicellular organisms are plants. Biology includes trees, shrubs, flowers, grasses, mosses, ferns, horsetails, mosses, etc. Often algae are classified as plants - all or only certain species.

Plant properties

TO characteristic features Plants in biology are usually classified as follows:

cells have a dense (usually cellulose) shell that does not allow solid particles to pass through;
the overwhelming majority are phototrophs capable of photosynthesis, which results in the release of free oxygen;
most often have green due to the pigment contained in the cells (chlorophyll);
lead a predominantly sedentary lifestyle;
growth occurs throughout life;
most often there is a division into underground and above-ground parts.

It cannot be said that all the signs are unique, but nevertheless, they make it possible to understand which group of organisms we are talking about.

About half a million plant species have been described in biology. This number is increasing all the time, as new species are constantly being discovered.

Cultivated plants

Plants, like animals, have been domesticated by humans. In addition, new varieties and new plant species were developed.

The most important of them are the following:

cereals - wheat, rye, barley, oats, millet, sorghum;
pulses – beans, peas, lentils;
sugar - sugar beets and sugar cane;
oilseeds – sunflower, peanuts, olives.

Do not forget about grains, vegetables, fruits, berries and other cultivated plants. This also includes tea, coffee, cocoa, grapes, flowers, tobacco, fodder and industrial varieties of plants.

Meaning

The importance of plants is difficult to overestimate. First of all, this is the enrichment of the atmosphere with oxygen. Plants are active participants in the cycle of substances in nature; they serve as part, and sometimes the basis, of nutrition for many organisms, including humans. The steppes, meadows and forests inhabited by them are the habitat of other representatives of flora and fauna. Plants participate in the formation of soil and protect it from erosion.

Plants are widely used by humans in the following industries:

food industry – berries, fruits, vegetables, edible plants;
light industry - production of fabrics from fibrous plants: cotton, flax, hemp;
woodworking and construction – pulp production, production and use building materials, wooden utensils, matches, furniture;
energy – the use of wood and its derivatives (briquettes from wood shavings and dust, coal, peat) as a source of energy;
chemistry and medicine – rubber, valuable resins, essential oils, dyes, medicinal plants and vitamins.
livestock farming - various grasses as fodder.

Bacteria

Bacteria are single-celled microorganisms ranging in size from 0.5 to 13 microns (0.0005-0.013 mm). Some of them lead a stationary lifestyle, while others can move by wriggling, sliding along the surface, or with the help of flagella located at one or both poles of the cell.

In biology, it is customary to distinguish the following types according to the shape of bacteria:

spherical - cocci and their groups in the form of two cells (diplococci), chains (streptococci), clusters (staphylococci) and other variants;
rod-shaped, including bacilli (dysentery, plague bacilli);
curved - vibrios, spirilla, spirochetes.

Habitat

Bacteria live almost everywhere - in air, water, soil, in dead and living tissues of plants, animals and humans. Their life activity is influenced by the main factors:

Temperature. The optimal range is considered to be from +4 to +40°C.
Oxygen. Among the bacteria there are aerobes, anaerobes, facultative anaerobes, and even aerotolerant anaerobes, such as lactic acid bacteria.
Acidity. For most bacteria, an acidic environment is harmful.
Direct sunlight. Most bacteria die when exposed to direct sunlight.

Unfavorable conditions lead to a slowdown or complete stop of the reproduction of bacteria, and can also cause their death. Some bacteria, for example, bacilli that cause tuberculosis, anthrax, are capable of forming spores. This process is well studied by biology and consists in the transition of the cell to a state of rest and the formation of a dense protective shell around it. The spore can tolerate exposure to harmful external factors enough long time– up to tens, and sometimes hundreds of years, without losing viability. In conditions suitable for life, the spore germinates, and from it emerges living cell bacteria.

Properties

Bacteria reproduce by simply dividing the cell into two parts. IN favorable conditions every 15-20 minutes their number can double. In addition, a primitive form of sexual reproduction has been recorded in biology.

Under natural conditions, bacteria perform the following roles:

supply plants with many useful substances, for example, nitrogen;
decompose manure, fertilizers, dead remains of plants and animals;
participate in the processing of fiber, located in the esophagus of animals and humans.

Bacteria are used by humans for the following purposes:

production of vinegar and vitamin C – acetic acid bacteria;
production of fermented milk products, cheeses, pickling of vegetables, production of silage - lactic acid bacteria;
production of antibiotics – streptomycetes.

At the same time, bacteria cause spoilage of products, lead to various diseases of plants and animals, and serve as a source of human diseases such as diphtheria, tonsillitis, dysentery, tuberculosis, plague, cholera and others.

Mushrooms

Modern biology knows about one hundred thousand species of fungi. Their uniqueness lies in the combination of the properties of plants and animals.

Fungi share the following properties with plants:

the presence of a cell membrane;
immobility and growth throughout life;
reproduction by spores;
feeding on organic matter dissolved in water.

Like animals, mushrooms have the following characteristics:

belong to pronounced heterotrophs;
not capable of photosynthesis;
the reserve nutrient is glycogen, not starch;
The cell wall is chitinous, not cellulose.

Properties

The body of the fungus is formed by thin threads (hyphae). Their totality in biology is called mycelium, or mycelium. The growth of the fungus is accompanied by the penetration of hyphae into the nutrient medium, where they grow, forming multiple branches.

In biology, there are several classifications of fungi:

In nature, fungi, by promoting the decomposition of various organic materials, increase soil fertility. Mushrooms are used by humans in the following areas:

food industry – edible mushrooms for cooking, microscopic fungi and yeast for preparing drinks by fermentation and fermentation of food products;
medicine – production of antibiotics and other medicinal drugs;
chemistry – production of chemicals for technical purposes.

At the same time, fungi can cause skin diseases and diseases in humans. internal organs. Poisonous mushrooms and products contaminated with toxins of microscopic fungi lead to serious poisoning, sometimes fatal. Hallucinogenic mushrooms are also harmful. In addition, negative phenomena include plant diseases caused by fungi, destruction of the wood of living trees, and spoilage of products by mold fungi.

Lichens

Biology considers lichens as a community of fungi (90% of the composition) and unicellular algae (10%), and sometimes cyanobacteria. Heterotrophic fungi supply algae with water and minerals absorbed from the soil. Autotrophic algae provide fungi with the organic substances they synthesize.

Properties

The body of the lichen (thallus) can be homomeric, when algae are randomly located between the hyphae of fungi, or heteromeric, that is, have ordered functional layers.

Reproduction of lichens is carried out through algal cells entwined with fungal hyphae, which are formed inside the thallus (soredia) or look like outgrowths on the body of the thallus (isidia). In addition, a piece of dried thallus carried by the wind to a favorable environment can form a new lichen.

This unique structure of lichens allows them to survive in conditions that are unsuitable for the separate existence of fungi and algae. Biology has actually established the ability of lichens to survive for a long time without moisture, to survive at temperatures of –50 and +60°C. Their photosynthesis continues even when negative temperature. Moreover, most lichens die even with slight environmental pollution.

Meaning

Lichens, being the first to colonize lifeless areas, prepare the environment for other organisms. Serve as food for animals, e.g. reindeer, and some species are edible even for humans. Used to produce paints and litmus. Serve as biological indicators of environmental pollution.

Moreover, lichens are the cause of the first stage of rock erosion.

Biology provides answers to the question of the benefits or harm of this or that representative of living nature. But it is a generally accepted fact that there are no “unnecessary” organisms. Removing any member from any ecosystem has a negative impact on the entire environment.

The role of an individual organism cannot be judged abstractly, because in nature there are widely developed relationships between various types. Thus, plants often live in symbiosis with fungi, supplying each other necessary substances. The lichens discussed above are also an example of mutually beneficial cooperation.

The main characteristics of living things: SELF-RENEWALING, SELF-REPRODUCTION and SELF-REGULATION.

They define and basic properties of living things:

1) MATERIALITY;

2) STRUCTURED - living organisms have a complex structure;

3) METABOLISM - living organisms obtain energy from environment and use it to maintain their high orderliness;

4) MOVEMENT;

5) HEREDITARY and VARIABILITY - living organisms not only change, but also become more complex; and are also able to transmit to their descendants the information embedded in them, necessary for life, development and reproduction;

6) REPRODUCTION - all living things reproduce;

7) IRRITABILITY - the ability to respond to external irritations;

8) ONTO- and PHYLOGENESIS;

9) DISCRETE;

10) INTEGRITY.

Generalizing and somewhat simplifying what has been said about the specifics of living things, we can say that all living organisms eat, breathe, grow, reproduce and spread in nature, and inanimate bodies do not eat, do not breathe, do not grow and do not reproduce.

Kingdom of Viruses.

Their peculiarities : small size; absence cellular structure; simple chemical composition; the impossibility of existing outside the host's body.

Form viruses: rod-shaped, filiform, spherical, cuboid, club-shaped.

Mature virus particles - virions- consist of two main components: DNA or RNA and protein.

Viruses are the causative agents of many plant and animal diseases. In past centuries viral infections were in the nature of epidemics, capturing vast territories.

For example, in Europe, 10-12 million people fell ill with smallpox and 1.5 million people died. Of particular note is measles. Today, more than 2 million children die from measles every year.

Viral diseases cause enormous damage agriculture. The foot and mouth disease virus is very dangerous for animals. Appearance , the most probable hypothesis seems to be one that interprets viruses as a result of the degradation of cellular organisms. There is another opinion that viruses can be considered as groups of genes that have escaped the control of the cell genome.

Kingdom Bacteria .

Age The most ancient bacteria are at least 3-3.5 billion years old. Many bacteria, according to scientists, appeared relatively recently. They emerge from the ice of the Arctic and Antarctica, penetrate oil wells, live in the water of hot springs, the temperature of which reaches 92°C, abundantly inhabit all types of soils and water bodies, and rise with air currents to a height of 85 km.

Bacteria in Greek means rod. Bacteria were discovered by the Dutchman A. Leeuwenhoek in 1675, but only Louis Pasteur for the first time showed the role of bacteria in the process of fermentation and other transformations of substances in nature. There are 5,000 species of bacteria.

FEATURES OF THEIR STRUCTURE:

§ small dimensions (0.0001 mm);

§ a typical prokaryotic cell, there is no separate nucleus, mitochondria, plastids, Golgi complex, nucleolus, chromosomes, etc.;

§ special structure and composition of membrane structures and cell walls;

§ The shape of the cells can be spherical, rod-shaped and convoluted.

Among bacteria, according to the source of energy used, they are distinguished PHOTOTROPHES and CHEMOTROPHS.

Photosynthetic bacteria use light energy to synthesize organic substances. Chemosynthetic bacteria use energy released during the oxidation of some substances to synthesize organic substances. inorganic substances environment.

AUTOTROPHIC - able to synthesize from inorganic compounds organic matter of your body.

HETEROTROPHIC - unable to synthesize organic substances from inorganic ones, therefore they require the supply of ready-made organic substances from the outside in the form of food.

SAPROPHYTES are bacteria that settle on dead, remains of plants and animals.

Kingdom of Mushrooms.

The kingdom of Mushrooms has 100,000 species, diverse in structure and lifestyle. Mushrooms is a separate group of cellular nuclear heterotrophic organisms that are similar to both animals and plants.

Signs of similarity between mushrooms and animals: the nature of metabolism associated with the formation of urea; heterotrophic type of nutrition; chitin content in the cell wall; formation of a reserve product - glycogen.

Signs of similarity between mushrooms and plants: nutrition by absorption; unlimited growth; the presence of a cell wall in the cells; reproduction with spores.

STRUCTURE OF MUSHROOMS

The body of the mushroom consists of special intertwining threads - hyphae (mycelium). cap mushroom consists of a mycelium and a fruiting body. And the fruit part is made from a cap and a stump.

Characteristic feature fungi is their heterotrophy : some fungi settle on the dead remains of plants and animals; some feed on living things; some enter into symbiosis with plants.

Reproduce fungi asexually and sexually. Asexual reproduction is carried out vegetatively and by spores. The forms of sexual reproduction in fungi are varied and are divided into three groups: gametogamy, gametangiogamy, and somatogamy.

ROLE OF MUSHROOMS. Fungi are the main group of decomposers in ecosystems. They participate in soil formation, act as orderlies, and serve as food and medicine for animals.

The main characteristics of living things: SELF-RENEWALING, SELF-REPRODUCTION and SELF-REGULATION.

They define and basic properties of living things:

1) MATERIALITY;

2) STRUCTURED - living organisms have a complex structure;

3) METABOLISM - living organisms receive energy from the environment and use it to maintain their high orderliness;

4) MOVEMENT;

6) REPRODUCTION - all living things reproduce;

7) IRRITABILITY - the ability to respond to external irritations;

8) ONTO- and PHYLOGENESIS;

9) DISCRETE;

10) INTEGRITY.

Generalizing and somewhat simplifying what has been said about the specifics of living things, we can say that all living organisms eat, breathe, grow, reproduce and spread in nature, while inanimate bodies do not feed, do not breathe, do not grow and do not reproduce.

Kingdom of Viruses.

Their peculiarities : small size; lack of cellular structure; simple chemical composition; the impossibility of existing outside the host's body.

Form viruses: rod-shaped, filiform, spherical, cuboid, club-shaped.

Mature virus particles - virions- consist of two main components: DNA or RNA and protein.

Viruses are the causative agents of many plant and animal diseases. In past centuries, viral infections were epidemic in nature, covering vast territories.

For example, in Europe, 10-12 million people fell ill with smallpox and 1.5 million people died. Of particular note is measles. Today, more than 2 million children die from measles every year.

Viral diseases cause enormous damage to agriculture. The foot and mouth disease virus is very dangerous for animals. Appearance , the most probable hypothesis seems to be one that interprets viruses as a result of the degradation of cellular organisms. There is another opinion that viruses can be considered as groups of genes that have escaped the control of the cell genome.

Kingdom Bacteria .

FEATURES OF THEIR STRUCTURE:

§ small dimensions (0.0001 mm);

§ a typical prokaryotic cell, there is no separate nucleus, mitochondria, plastids, Golgi complex, nucleolus, chromosomes, etc.;

§ special structure and composition of membrane structures and cell walls;

§ The shape of the cells can be spherical, rod-shaped and convoluted.

Among bacteria, according to the source of energy used, they are distinguished PHOTOTROPHES and CHEMOTROPHS.

Photosynthetic bacteria use light energy to synthesize organic substances. Chemosynthetic bacteria use energy released during the oxidation of any inorganic substances in the environment to synthesize organic substances.

AUTOTROPHIC - capable of synthesizing organic substances of their body from inorganic compounds.

HETEROTROPHIC - unable to synthesize organic substances from inorganic ones, therefore they require the supply of ready-made organic substances from the outside in the form of food.

SAPROPHYTES are bacteria that settle on dead, remains of plants and animals.

Kingdom of Mushrooms.

Signs of similarity between mushrooms and animals: the nature of metabolism associated with the formation of urea; heterotrophic type of nutrition; the content of chitin in the cell wall; the formation of a reserve product - glycogen.

Signs of similarity between mushrooms and plants: nutrition by absorption; unlimited growth; presence of a cell wall in cells; reproduction with spores.

STRUCTURE OF MUSHROOMS

The body of the mushroom consists of special intertwining threads - hyphae (mycelium). The cap mushroom consists of a mycelium and a fruiting body. And the fruit part is made from a cap and a stump.

A characteristic feature of fungi is their heterotrophy : some fungi settle on the dead remains of plants and animals; some feed on living things; some enter into symbiosis with plants.

ROLE OF MUSHROOMS. Fungi are the main group of decomposers in ecosystems. They participate in soil formation, act as orderlies, and serve as food and medicine for animals.

Currently, more than 2.5 million species of living organisms have been described on Earth. However, the real number of species on Earth is several times greater, since many species of microorganisms, insects, etc. are not taken into account. In addition, it is believed that modern species composition- this is only about 5% of the species diversity of life during its existence on Earth.
Systematics, classification and taxonomy are used to organize such diversity of living organisms.

Taxonomy - a branch of biology that deals with the description, designation and classification of existing and extinct organisms into taxa.
Classification - distribution of the entire set of living organisms according to a certain system of hierarchically subordinate groups - taxa.
Taxonomy - a section of taxonomy that develops theoretical foundations classifications. A taxon is a group of organisms artificially identified by man, related by one degree or another of relatedness, and at the same time sufficiently isolated that it can be assigned a certain taxonomic category of one rank or another.

IN modern classification There is the following hierarchy of taxa:

kingdom;
department (type in animal taxonomy);
Class;
order (order in the taxonomy of animals);
family;

In addition, intermediate taxa are distinguished: super- and subkingdoms, super- and subdivisions, super- and subclasses, etc.

The taxonomy of living organisms is constantly changing and updating. Currently it looks like this:

Non-cellular forms

Kingdom Viruses

Cellular forms

Kingdom of Prokaryota:

kingdom Bacteria ( Bacteria, Bacteriobionta),
kingdom Archaebacteria ( Archaebacteria, Archaebacteriobionta),
kingdom Prokaryotic algae

department Blue-green algae, or Cyanea ( Cyanobionta);
department Prochlorophyte algae, or Prochlorophytes ( Prochlororhyta).

Superkingdom Eukaryotes (Eycariota)

Kingdom of Plants ( Vegetabilia, Phitobiota or Plantae):

sub-kingdom of Bagryanka ( Rhodobionta);
sub-kingdom Real algae ( Phycobionta);
subkingdom Higher plants ( Embryobionta);

Kingdom of Mushrooms ( Fungi, Mycobionta, Mycetalia or Mycota):

sub-kingdom Lower mushrooms(unicellular) ( Myxobionta);
subkingdom Higher fungi (multicellular) ( Mycobionta);

kingdom Animals ( Animalia, Zoobionta)

subkingdom Protozoa, or Unicellular ( Protozoa, Protozoobionta);
subkingdom Multicellular ( Metazoa, Metazoobionta).

A number of scientists distinguish in the superkingdom of Prokaryotes one kingdom of Drobyanka, which includes three subkingdoms: Bacteria, Archaebacteria and Cyanobacteria.

Viruses, bacteria, fungi, lichens

Kingdom of viruses

Viruses exist in two forms: at rest(extracellular), when their properties as living systems are not manifested, and intracellular when viruses reproduce. Simple viruses(for example, tobacco mosaic virus) consist of a nucleic acid molecule and a protein shell - capsid.

Some more complex viruses (influenza, herpes, etc.), in addition to capsid proteins and nucleic acid, may contain a lipoprotein membrane, carbohydrates and a number of enzymes. Proteins protect nucleic acid and determine the enzymatic and antigenic properties of viruses. The shape of the capsid can be rod-shaped, filamentous, spherical, etc.

Depending on the nucleic acid present in the virus, RNA-containing and DNA-containing viruses are distinguished. Nucleic acid contains genetic information, usually about the structure of capsid proteins. It can be linear or circular, in the form of single- or double-stranded DNA, single- or double-stranded RNA.

Virus, disease-causing AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome) affects the blood cells that provide the body's immunity. As a result, an AIDS patient can die from any infection. AIDS viruses can enter the human body during sexual intercourse, during injections or operations if sterilization conditions are not followed. Prevention of AIDS consists of avoiding casual sex, using condoms, and using disposable syringes.

Bacteria

All prokaryotes belong to the same kingdom Drobyanka. It contains bacteria and blue-green algae.

The structure and activity of bacteria.

Prokaryotic cells do not have a nucleus, the area where DNA is located in the cytoplasm is called a nucleoid, the only DNA molecule is closed in a ring and is not associated with proteins, the cells are smaller than eukaryotic ones, the cell wall contains a glycopeptide - murein, a mucous layer is located on top of the cell wall, which performs a protective function, there are no membrane organelles (chloroplasts, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex), their functions are performed by invaginations plasma membrane(mesosomes), ribosomes are small, microtubules are absent, therefore the cytoplasm is motionless, there are no centrioles and spindles, cilia and flagella have a special structure. Cell division is carried out by constriction (there is no mitosis or meiosis). This is preceded by DNA replication, then the two copies move apart, carried away by the growing cell membrane.

There are three groups of bacteria: archaebacteria, eubacteria and cyanobacteria.

Archaebacteria- ancient bacteria (methane-producing, etc., about 40 species are known in total). Have common features structures of prokaryotes, but differ significantly in a number of physiological and biochemical properties from eubacteria. Eubacteria- true bacteria, a later form in evolutionary terms. Cyanobacteria (cyanobacteria, blue-green algae)- phototrophic prokaryotic organisms that carry out photosynthesis like higher plants and algae with the release of molecular oxygen.

Based on the shape of the cells, the following groups of bacteria are distinguished: spherical - cocci, rod-shaped - bacilli, arched - vibrios, spiral - spirilla and spirochetes. Many bacteria are capable of independent movement due to flagella or cell contraction. Bacteria are single-celled organisms. Some are capable of forming colonies, but the cells in them exist independently of each other.

Under unfavorable conditions, some bacteria are capable of forming spores due to the formation of a dense shell around a DNA molecule with a portion of the cytoplasm. Bacterial spores do not serve for reproduction, as in plants and fungi, but to protect the body from exposure unfavorable conditions(droughts, heating, etc.).

In relation to oxygen, bacteria are divided into aerobes(necessarily requiring oxygen), anaerobes(dying in the presence of oxygen) and optional forms.

Based on the way they feed, bacteria are divided into autotrophic(use as a carbon source carbon dioxide) And heterotrophic(use organic substances). Autotrophs, in turn, are divided into phototrophs(use energy sunlight) And chemotrophs(use the energy of oxidation of inorganic substances). Phototrophs include cyanobacteria(blue-green algae), which carry out photosynthesis, like plants, releasing oxygen, and green and purple bacteria which carry out photosynthesis without releasing oxygen. Chemotrophs oxidize inorganic substances ( nitrifying bacteria, nitrogen-fixing bacteria, iron bacteria, sulfur bacteria, etc.).

Reproduction of bacteria.

Bacteria reproduce asexually - cell division(prokaryotes do not have mitosis and meiosis) with the help of constrictions or septa, less often by budding. These processes are preceded by the doubling of the circular DNA molecule.

In addition, bacteria are characterized by a sexual process - conjugation. During conjugation through a special channel formed between two cells, a DNA fragment of one cell is transferred to another cell, that is, it changes hereditary information contained in the DNA of both cells. Since the number of bacteria does not increase, for correctness the concept of “sexual process” is used, but not “sexual reproduction”.

The role of bacteria in nature and significance for humans

Thanks to their very diverse metabolism, bacteria can exist in the most different conditions environment: in water, air, soil, living organisms. The role of bacteria in the formation of oil, coal, peat, natural gas, in soil formation, in the cycles of nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur and other elements in nature. Saprotrophic bacteria participate in the decomposition of the organic remains of plants and animals and in their mineralization to CO 2, H 2 O, H 2 S, NH 3 and other inorganic substances. Together with mushrooms, they are decomposers. Nodule bacteria(nitrogen-fixing) form a symbiosis with leguminous plants and participate in the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen into mineral compounds available to plants. Plants themselves do not have this ability.

Man uses bacteria in microbiological synthesis, in wastewater treatment plants, to obtain a number of drugs (streptomycin), in everyday life and food industry(production of fermented milk products, winemaking).

kingdom mushrooms

General characteristics of mushrooms. Mushrooms are classified into a special kingdom, numbering about 100 thousand species.

Differences between fungi and plants:

heterotrophic mode of nutrition
storage nutrient glycogen
presence of chitin in cell walls

Differences between mushrooms and animals:

unlimited growth
absorption of food by suction
reproduction using spores
presence of a cell wall
lack of ability to move actively
The structure of mushrooms is varied - from single-celled forms to complex cap forms

Lichens

The structure of lichens. Lichens number more than 20 thousand species. These are symbiotic organisms formed by a fungus and an algae. Moreover, lichens are a morphologically and physiologically integral organism. The body of the lichen consists of intertwined fungal hyphae, between which are located algae (green or blue-green). Algae synthesize organic substances, and fungi absorb water and mineral salts. Depending on the body structure ( thalli ) there are three groups of lichens: scale , or cortical(the thallus has the appearance of plaques or crusts, tightly merging with the substrate); leaf-shaped (in the form of plates attached to the substrate by bundles of hyphae); bushy (in the form of stems or ribbons, usually branched and fused with the substrate only at the base). Lichens grow extremely slowly - only a few millimeters per year.

Reproduction of lichens carried out either sexually (due to the fungal component) or asexually (formation of spores or breaking off pieces of the thallus).
The meaning of lichens. Due to their "dual" nature, lichens are very hardy. This is explained by the possibility of both autotrophic and heterotrophic nutrition, as well as the ability to fall into a state of suspended animation, in which the body is severely dehydrated. In this state, lichens can tolerate the effects of various unfavorable environmental factors (severe overheating or hypothermia, almost complete absence moisture, etc.). Biological features allow lichens to colonize the most unfavorable habitats. They are often the pioneers of settling a particular area of land, destroy rocks and form the primary soil layer, which is then colonized by other organisms.
At the same time, lichens are very sensitive to environmental pollution by various chemicals, which allows them to be used as bioindicators environmental conditions.
Lichens are used to obtain medicines, litmus, tannins and dyes. Reindeer moss (reindeer moss) is the main food for reindeer. Some peoples eat lichens for food. Since the growth of lichens is very slow, measures to protect it are necessary: regulation of deer grazing, orderly movement of vehicles, etc.

The composition and distribution of the biosphere by mass is quite interesting and significant issue in biology. Although an accurate census of all living organisms on Earth is literally impossible. It’s hard to imagine information like this: meet the bacteria Alice 43 by 10 to the 30th power, lives in a swamp near Ust-Kamenogorsk, sorry, while they were doing the census, Alice died, leaving 23 billion descendants. However, scientists were able to determine the biomass of the kingdoms of living organisms on the planet, as well as determine what influence humans had on its distribution. Although it’s too early to talk about super accuracy, the #infographics are very interesting.
Results
Calculations were made in gigatons of carbon, because carbon compounds are the basis for all living things and make up about 17.5% of animals and plants, while this mass does not depend on the water content in them. 1 Gt C is equal to 10 to the 15th power of grams of carbon. According to scientists, the biomass of all kingdoms of life on the planet is 550 Gt of carbon. The lion's share of biomass is plants, about 450 Gt C, followed by bacteria 70 Gt C, fungi 12 Gt C, archaea 7 Gt C, protists 4 Gt C, animals 2 Gt C and viruses 0.2 Gt C.
Scientists also note that marine biomass, unlike terrestrial biomass, contains more consumers than producers. This refers to the food structure of the community, which is divided into consumers, producers and decomposers. Producers are organisms that create organic substances from inorganic ones, such as photosynthesis. Consumers consume the products of producers, but do not decompose them into inorganic substances, like decomposers. And decomposers are bacteria and fungi that decompose the remains of living beings into simple or inorganic substances. By the way, the error in counting bacteria in the results obtained is quite large.
It is also worth noting that, according to the data obtained, the underground biomass turned out to be less than aboveground, contrary to many statements of scientists. Which is understandable due to some gaps in our knowledge on at the moment, especially in the underworld. But the mass of leaves is 6.5 times less than the entire mass of roots. Plant biomass includes ≈70% of tree stems and trunks, which are largely metabolically inert.
The following chart shows average data for the animal kingdom. Marine arthropods have the largest carbon mass (1 Gt C), followed by fish (0.7 Gt C), then mollusks, nematodes or roundworms and terrestrial arthropods, 0.2 Gt C each. Although terrestrial arthropods are significantly more represented in terms of species than marine ones, their mass is 5 times less. Marine arthropods have individual species, such as arctic krill, whose mass is only 4 times less than all terrestrial arthropods. This type of krill can be put on a par with termites, whose mass is also 0.05 Gt C, slightly less than that of humans. Next come cnidarians - these are aquatic multicellular inhabitants that have stinging cells for hunting and protection; their mass is 0.1 Gt C. The same is the mass of all livestock on the planet, which consists mainly of cattle and pigs. But people occupy only 0.06 Gt C, which is almost two times less than livestock and 11.6 times less than fish. However, humans have 8.5 times more carbon mass than all wild mammals and 30 times more than wild birds. And domestic birds, among which chickens predominate, are 2.5 times more numerous than all wild birds.
The influence of humanity on the biosphere.
Distribution of biomass across environments and nutritional regimes for individual organisms.
General food chain, trophic levels.