Fungi are a separate kingdom of organisms that combine the characteristics of both animals and plants. Most of the species presented are used in cooking and are not poisonous, but some can cause significant harm to the human body. They reproduce by spores and have their own unique root system. Currently, science knows more than one hundred thousand various types, but it is assumed that the actual number of species is much higher than this figure.

Fungi are a separate kingdom of organisms that combine the characteristics of both animals and plants.

The most common edible fruits are boletus, boletus, saffron milk cap, and boletus. Each type has general signs structures: mycelium, fruiting body. Conventionally, capped organisms can be divided into two types - tubular and lamellar e. They differ in appearance and structure of the lower part of the mushroom cap. The plant got its name thanks to appearance- caps located on thin stems are visible to the naked eye and attract mushroom pickers.

The structure of cap mushrooms

Cap mushrooms consist of two parts - the fruiting body and the root system itself, which is called the mycelium. The exceptions are truffles, morels and stitches, since these species do not have a stump and are connected to the mycelium by the fruiting body itself.

Developed roots can be seen with the naked eye - in the place where the mushroom is collected, after cutting it, you can slightly loosen the soil and see the threads. It is they that nourish the above-ground parts of the body and are the most important part for the normal growth of the plant. You can examine the root system in more detail under a microscope. It is noticeable that it consists of many whitish threads, peculiarly woven together. Each thread consists of oblong-shaped cells located in one row.

The cap mushroom cell has a non-standard structure - it has two nuclei instead of one and completely lacks plastids.

What mushrooms are edible (video)

What does the fruiting body of the cap mushroom consist of and its functions

The fruiting body is the above-ground part of the organism, which consists of a cap and a stump (tube). Fruits, like roots, consist of many threads white formed by oblong cells. However, the density of cells in the cap is much higher, since they are located in two layers (unlike the roots). The top layer is colored according to the type of mushroom with pigments.

Tubular fruits differ from lamellar ones in the appearance of the lower part of the cap. In lamellar ones they are represented by soft stripes (plates) of white color, and in tubular ones they are represented by many microscopic tubes.

Features of life

Mushrooms combine the life characteristics of both plants and animals. There are several similar characteristics with herbaceous plants:

• The cell wall is developed and consists of cells stacked in several rows. This allows the mushroom to avoid mechanical damage. It is also convenient for collection and transportation.
• Mushrooms, like plants, are completely immobile and are in a vegetative state. They are connected to the soil by the root system.
• Reproduction by spores. Like some types of plants, they use them for reproduction - after the spore matures, many cells burst out into the environment, which, when released into humid environment form a root system.
• Adsorption. It's no secret that mushrooms to a greater extent consist of liquid. Like plants, they are able to absorb both beneficial and harmful substances from environment. That is why it is recommended not to collect fruits near roads and industrial facilities.

It also shares several characteristics with animals. For example, the ability to synthesize organic matter from inorganic substances(heterophoricity). The cap also contains chitin, which protects the walls from damage. The same substance is also found in the shells of some insects and the skeleton of arthropods. Fungal cells do not contain plastids and chloroplasts, which provide nutrition sunlight. Just like animals, they can release waste products (urea) into the environment.

Eating methods

Based on the type of nutrition, mushrooms are divided into two types:

• saprotrophs;
• symbionts.

About the propagation of cap mushrooms

Fungi have two types of reproduction - sexual and asexual. Reproduction without sexual characteristics occurs due to individual parts of the mycelium (mycelium) and the cells that make up them. Also, asexual reproduction is represented by spores that are formed in special cells (sporangia). Finding conditions favorable for growth and development, the spore germinates into the soil and forms mycelium.

Sexual reproduction occurs by copulation of two cells of different sexes located at the ends of the hyphae. Moreover, in some species the appearance of organs that are not similar but gametes is observed, while in others outgrowths are formed consisting only of vegetative cells.

Examples of edible cap mushrooms

The most valuable among edible cap mushrooms are champignons, porcini mushrooms, butter mushrooms, boletuses, and milk mushrooms. In this case, in each individual species the formation of a fruiting body and root system occurs in different times year.

Russula

Has dense flesh and a thin, fragile stem. It has a white cap, which can change when the mushroom is cut or at the stage of fruit growth. There are several types: wavy russula, pale green and food.

Champignon

The mushroom has a white color and a medium-sized fruit body. The most common types are forest, garden, field and common champignons. It has a rounded cap with inwardly curved edges, the surface of which can be glossy. The leg can reach up to ten centimeters in length.

Oiler

Refers to the tubular type, and got its name due to the slippery surface of the cap. The cap is hemispherical, colored brown or olive. The skin of the fruit is easily separated from the pulp, and the pulp itself is juicy and yellow in color.

Inedible mushrooms (video)

What poisonous mushrooms are cap mushrooms?

Poisonous cap mushrooms can cause irreversible consequences in the human body due to intoxication. When ingested, harmful substances can lead to food poisoning, dehydration and even death. The most popular representatives of poisonous caps are the fly agaric, false honey mushrooms, satanic mushroom, as well as the white grebe, false fox, gall mushroom and russula is caustic.

Some of the poisonous fruits are conditionally edible. This means that before cooking the fruits, additional heat treatment (stewing, boiling or drying) should be carried out.

Remember that even edible mushrooms may become hazardous to health if collected near railroads and other sources of toxic substances.
Fruits must be collected with extreme caution, following all safety regulations. Before entering the forest, it is necessary to brief the group members on the sequence of actions, as well as wear closed clothing that will prevent insect bites.

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Scheme of the structure of a cap mushroom.

Such mushroom standing diagram most fully reflects all the elements of the microscopic structure of all components of the fungus.
The fruiting body of the mushroom, like the mycelium, consists of mushroom threads - hyphae, which, depending on their belonging to a particular part of the mushroom, strictly perform certain functions. For example, the integumentary hyphae covering the cap produce coloring substances from the outside, giving it a certain color. Other hyphae act as transporters - through them water and various nutrients enter the fruiting body from the soil. These hyphae are arranged vertically and fit tightly to each other, forming the mushroom stalk. The stalk carries nutrients to the cap, on which spores mature as they grow. The lower part of the cap of various mushrooms can be tubular (boletus, aspen boletus, boletus, boletus), consisting of many tubes fused together. Look at the diagram of the structure of a mushroom as for different types The hyphae of the fruiting bodies of fungi are located.
The spores of these fungi are formed inside the tubes. Mushrooms such as saffron milk cap, milk mushroom, and champignon have plates on the lower part of the cap, which is why they are called lamellar. Controversy lamellar mushrooms are located on both sides of the plates. There are groups of so-called marsupial mushrooms (morels, strings, truffles), in which spores are formed in the recesses of the tortuous cap; in puffballs, spores form inside the fruiting body.
As the mushroom grows, the spores mature and fall out of the caps. The ripe spores of the raincoat are especially clearly visible; during this period they are called “...s”. If you step on such a raincoat, it will burst, throwing out a cloud of dark dust. This dust is the spores of the puffball. The top of the mushroom cap is covered with a thin skin, which plays a protective role, protecting the fruiting body from adverse effects and moisture evaporation.

The structure of the fungus also includes mycelium with rhizomorphs. It is not difficult to see if you dig up the mushroom and carefully wash the lower part of the stem off the ground. You will see a delicate white cobweb - this will be part of the mycelium. Very often, during the development of the fruiting bodies of real mushrooms and some vegetative structures of the fungus, the hyphae of the mycelium are tightly intertwined and form false tissue. This tissue consists of hyphae, and does not arise as a result of cell division in three directions, and in this way it differs from real tissue. In general, under favorable conditions, the mycelium grows very strongly, as if penetrating the ground with a web. A well-developed mycelium absorbs more nutrients from the soil necessary for the development and growth of the fungus. However, the mycelium not only consumes, but also helps create and absorb nutrients. Fungal mycelium secretes so-called enzymes that decompose the soil substrate and assimilate the products of its decomposition. Thus, the fungus lives and develops at the expense of the mycelium.

A common type of mycelial modification in many groups of fungi is sclerotia (see the diagram of the structure of the fungus). These are dense weaves of mycelium that help the fungus tolerate favorable conditions.
Fungal mycelium sometimes forms rhizomorphs - these are formations consisting of hyphae located in parallel and interconnected, like roots. Rhizomorphs even perform a function similar to plant roots, delivering nutrients from the tree to the body of the mycelium. Such formations can be found in autumn honey fungus and boletus. In these fungi, rhizomorphs reach several meters in length and have the appearance of roots piercing the wood or located under fallen leaves. The hyphae of their outer layer of rhizomorphs are thickened, often dark-colored and perform protective functions; the inner thin-walled hyphae serve to transfer nutrients. That is why cap-basidial fungi are often located far from the symbiont tree with which they are connected by mycelial strands.

Mushrooms do not contain chlorophyll and are not able to synthesize organic matter, although, like all living organisms, they need them. Therefore, mushrooms settle in any environment where the necessary nutrients are available.

Mushrooms are one of the most difficult objects of living nature for taxonomy, especially for creating a natural, phylogenetic system. Scientific ideas information about fungi, their origin and place in the system of the living world changed very often during the entire period of study of these organisms.
Since the most modern ideas in the field of mycology are not stable, authors of the literature on fungi are forced to reflect compromises that cannot be fully reflected in the literature. educational literature. Taxonomy of fungi based on older, traditional ideas is often found in serious scientific literature in mycology.

Currently, the following systematic categories are used to describe the place of mushrooms in wildlife:
Kingdom -» Subkingdom -» Division -» Subdivision -» Class -» Subclass -» Order -» Suborder -» Family -» Subfamily -» Genus -» Subgenus -» Section -» Subsection -» Row(Series) -» Row( Subseries) -» Species -» Subspecies -» Variety -» Subvariety -» Form -» Subform.

For general information purposes, you can familiarize yourself with a simplified

Fungi are ancient heterotrophic organisms that occupy special place V common system wildlife. They can be either microscopically small or reach several meters. They settle on plants, animals, humans or on dead organic matter, on the roots of trees and grasses. Their role in biocenoses is great and varied. In the food chain, they are decomposers - organisms that feed on dead organic remains, subjecting these remains to mineralization into simple organic compounds.

In nature, mushrooms play a positive role: they are food and medicine for animals; forming a fungal root, they help plants absorb water; Being a component of lichens, fungi create a habitat for algae.

Fungi are chlorophyll-free lower organisms that unite about 100,000 species, from small microscopic organisms to such giants as tinder fungi, giant puffball and some others.

In the system organic world mushrooms occupy a special position, representing a separate kingdom, along with the kingdoms of animals and plants. They lack chlorophyll and therefore require ready-made organic matter for nutrition (they belong to heterotrophic organisms). In terms of the presence of urea in the metabolism, chitin in the cell membrane, and a reserve product - glycogen, and not starch - they are close to animals. On the other hand, in their method of nutrition (by absorption, not ingestion of food), and unlimited growth, they resemble plants.

Mushrooms also have characteristics that are unique to them: in almost all mushrooms the vegetative body is a mycelium, or mycelium, consisting of threads - hyphae.

These are thin, thread-like tubes filled with cytoplasm. The threads that make up the mushroom can be tightly or loosely intertwined, branched, fused with each other, forming films like felt or strands visible to the naked eye.

U higher mushrooms hyphae are divided into cells.

Fungal cells can have from one to several nuclei. In addition to nuclei, cells also contain other structural components(mitochondria, lysosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, etc.).

Structure

The body of the vast majority of fungi is built from thin filamentous formations - hyphae. Their combination forms the mycelium (or mycelium).

By branching, the mycelium forms a large surface, which ensures the absorption of water and nutrients. Conventionally, mushrooms are divided into lower and higher. In lower fungi, hyphae do not have transverse partitions and the mycelium is one highly branched cell. In higher fungi, the hyphae are divided into cells.

The cells of most fungi are covered with a hard shell; zoospores and the vegetative body of some protozoal fungi do not have it. The cytoplasm of the fungus contains structural proteins and enzymes, amino acids, carbohydrates, and lipids not associated with cell organelles. Organelles: mitochondria, lysosomes, vacuoles containing storage substances - volutin, lipids, glycogen, fats. There is no starch. A fungal cell has one or more nuclei.

Reproduction

In fungi, vegetative, asexual and sexual reproduction are distinguished.

Vegetative

Reproduction is carried out by parts of the mycelium, special formations - oidia (formed as a result of the disintegration of hyphae into separate short cells, each of which gives rise to a new organism), chlamydospores (formed in approximately the same way, but have a thicker dark-colored shell, tolerate unfavorable conditions well), by budding of mycelium or individual cells.

For asexual vegetative reproduction, no special devices are needed, but not many offspring appear, but few.

With asexual vegetative reproduction, the cells of the filament, no different from their neighbors, grow into a whole organism. Sometimes, animals or environmental movement tear the hypha apart.

Happens when it comes unfavorable conditions the thread itself breaks down into individual cells, each of which can grow into a whole mushroom.

Sometimes growths form on the thread, which grow, fall off and give rise to a new organism.

Often, some cells grow a thick membrane. They can withstand drying out and remain viable for up to ten years or more, and germinate in favorable conditions.

During vegetative propagation, the DNA of the offspring does not differ from the DNA of the parent. This type of reproduction does not require special devices, but the number of offspring is small.

Asexual

During asexual spore reproduction, the fungal filament forms special cells that create spores. These cells look like twigs that are unable to grow and separate spores from themselves, or like large bubbles within which spores form. Such formations are called sporangia.

In asexual reproduction, the DNA of the offspring is no different from the DNA of the parent. Each spore is spent on the formation of less substances than per one offspring during vegetative propagation. Asexually, one individual produces millions of spores, so the fungus has a greater chance of leaving offspring.

Sexual

During sexual reproduction, new combinations of characteristics appear. In this type of reproduction, the DNA of the offspring is formed from the DNA of both parents. In fungi, DNA combining occurs in different ways.

Different ways to ensure DNA unification during sexual reproduction of fungi:

At some point, the nuclei and then the DNA strands of the parents merge, exchange pieces of DNA and separate. The descendant's DNA contains sections received from both parents. Therefore, the descendant is in some ways similar to one parent, and in some ways - like the other. A new combination of traits can reduce or increase the viability of the offspring.

Reproduction consists of the fusion of male and female sex gametes, resulting in the formation of a zygote. Fungi are distinguished between iso-, hetero- and oogamy. The reproductive product of lower fungi (oospore) germinates into a sporangium in which spores develop. In ascomycetes (marsupial fungi), as a result of the sexual process, bags (asci) are formed - single-celled structures usually containing 8 ascospores. Bags formed directly from the zygote (in lower ascomycetes) or on ascogenous hyphae developing from the zygote. In the bag, fusion of the zygote nuclei occurs, then meiotic division of the diploid nucleus and the formation of haploid ascospores. The bursa is actively involved in the spread of ascospores.

Basidial fungi are characterized by a sexual process - somatogamy. It consists of the fusion of two cells of vegetative mycelium. The reproductive product is a basidium, on which 4 basidiospores are formed. Basidiospores are haploid; they give rise to haploid mycelium, which is short-lived. By fusion of haploid mycelium, dikaryotic mycelium is formed, on which basidia with basidiospores are formed.

In imperfect fungi, and in some cases in others, the sexual process is replaced by heterokaryosis (heterogeneity) and a parasexual process. Heterokaryosis consists of the transition of genetically heterogeneous nuclei from one segment of mycelium to another through the formation of anastomoses or fusion of hyphae. Nuclear fusion does not occur in this case. The fusion of nuclei after their transition to another cell is called the parasexual process.

The fungal filaments grow by transverse division (the filaments do not divide along the cell). The cytoplasm of neighboring fungal cells forms a single whole - there are holes in the partitions between the cells.

Nutrition

Most mushrooms look like long threads that absorb nutrients over their entire surface. Fungi absorb the necessary substances from living and dead organisms, from soil moisture and water from natural reservoirs.

Fungi release substances that break organic molecules into pieces that the fungus can absorb.

But under certain conditions, it is more beneficial for the body to be a thread (like a mushroom) rather than a lump (cyst) like a bacterium. Let's check if this is true.

Let's follow the bacteria and the growing thread of the fungus. A strong sugar solution is shown in brown, a weak solution is light brown, and sugar-free water is shown in white.

We can conclude: the filamentous organism, growing, may end up in places rich in food. The longer the thread, the greater the supply of substances that saturated cells can spend on the growth of the fungus. All hyphae behave as parts of one whole, and sections of the fungus, once in places rich in food, feed the entire fungus.

Molds

Molds settle on moist remains of plants and, less commonly, animals. One of the most common molds is mucor, or capitate mold. The mycelium of this fungus in the form of the finest white hyphae can be found on stale bread. Mucor hyphae are not separated by septa. Each hypha is one highly branched cell with several nuclei. Some branches of the cell penetrate the substrate and absorb nutrients, others rise upward. At the top of the latter, black round heads are formed - sporangia, in which spores are formed. Ripe spores are spread by air currents or with the help of insects. Once in favorable conditions, the spore grows into a new mycelium (mycelium).

The second representative of mold fungi is penicillium, or blue mold. The mycelium penicillium consists of hyphae divided by transverse partitions into cells. Some hyphae rise upward, and branches resembling brushes are formed at their ends. At the end of these branches, spores are formed, with the help of which penicillium reproduces.

Yeast mushrooms

Yeasts are single-celled, immobile organisms of oval or elongated shape, 8-10 microns in size. True mycelium is not formed. The cell has a nucleus, mitochondria, many substances (organic and inorganic) accumulate in the vacuoles, and redox processes occur in them. Yeast accumulates volutin in cells. Vegetative propagation by budding or division. Sporulation occurs after repeated reproduction by budding or division. It occurs more easily when there is a sharp transition from abundant nutrition to insignificant nutrition, when oxygen is supplied. The number of spores in a cell is paired (usually 4-8). In yeast, the sexual process is also known.

Yeasts, or yeasts, are found on the surface of fruits and on carbohydrate-containing plant residues. Yeast differs from other fungi in that it does not have a mycelium and consists of single, mostly oval cells. In a sugary environment, yeast causes alcoholic fermentation, which results in the release of ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide:

C 6 H 12 O 6 → 2C 2 H 5 OH + 2CO 2 + energy.

This process is enzymatic and occurs with the participation of a complex of enzymes. The released energy is used by yeast cells for vital processes.

Yeast reproduces by budding (some species by division). When budding occurs, a bulge resembling a kidney forms on the cell.

The nucleus of the mother cell divides, and one of the daughter nuclei becomes a bulge. The bulge grows quickly, turns into an independent cell and separates from the mother one. With very rapid budding, the cells do not have time to separate and the result is short, fragile chains.

At least ¾ of all mushrooms are saprophytes. The saprophytic way of eating is associated primarily with foods plant origin(the acidic reaction of the environment and the composition of organic substances of plant origin are more favorable for their life).

Symbiont fungi are associated primarily with higher plants, bryophytes, algae, and less often with animals. An example would be lichens and mycorrhiza. Mycorrhiza is the coexistence of a fungus with the roots of a higher plant. The fungus helps the plant to absorb hard-to-reach humus substances, promotes the absorption of mineral nutrition elements, helps with carbohydrate metabolism with its enzymes, activates the enzymes of higher plants, and binds free nitrogen. From a higher plant, the fungus apparently receives nitrogen-free compounds, oxygen and root secretions, which promote the germination of spores. Mycorrhiza is very common among higher plants, it was not found only in sedges, cruciferous and aquatic plants.

Ecological groups of fungi

Soil mushrooms

Soil fungi are involved in the mineralization of organic matter, the formation of humus, etc. This group includes fungi that enter the soil only during certain periods of life, and fungi of the rhizosphere of plants that live in the zone of their root system.

Specialized soil fungi:

• coprophylls- mushrooms that live on soils rich in humus (dung heaps, places where animal droppings accumulate);
• keratinophylls- fungi that live on hair, horns, hooves;
• xylophytes- fungi that decompose wood, among them there are destroyers of living and dead wood.

House mushrooms

House mushrooms are destroyers of wooden parts of buildings.

Aquatic mushrooms

These include the group of mycorrhizal symbiont fungi.

Fungi growing on industrial materials (metal, paper and products made from them)

Cap mushrooms

Cap mushrooms settle on forest soil rich in humus and obtain water, mineral salts and some organic substances from it. They get some of their organic matter (carbohydrates) from trees.

Mycelium - main part each mushroom. Fruiting bodies develop on it. The cap and stem consist of mycelium threads tightly adjacent to each other. In the stem, all the threads are the same, and in the cap they form two layers - the upper one, covered with skin, colored with different pigments, and the lower one.

In some mushrooms, the bottom layer consists of numerous tubes. Such mushrooms are called tubular. In others, the lower layer of the cap consists of radially arranged plates. Such mushrooms are called lamellar. Spores form on the plates and on the walls of the tubes, with the help of which the fungi reproduce.

The hyphae of the mycelium entwine the roots of trees, penetrate them and spread between the cells. A cohabitation that is beneficial for both plants is established between the mycelium and plant roots. The fungus supplies plants with water and mineral salts; By replacing root hairs on the roots, the tree gives up some of its carbohydrates to it. Only with such a close connection of the mycelium with certain tree species is the formation of fruiting bodies in cap mushrooms possible.

Education dispute

Special cells called spores form in the tubes or on the plates of the cap. Ripe small and light spores spill out and are picked up and carried by the wind. They are spread by insects and slugs, as well as squirrels and hares that eat mushrooms. Spores are not digested digestive organs These animals are thrown out along with their droppings.

In moist, humus-rich soil, fungal spores germinate and mycelium threads develop from them. A mycelium arising from a single spore can form new fruiting bodies only in rare cases. In most species of fungi, fruiting bodies develop on myceliums formed by fused cells of filaments originating from different spores. Therefore, the cells of such a mycelium are binuclear. The mycelium grows slowly, and only after accumulating reserves of nutrients does it form fruiting bodies.

Most species of these fungi are saprophytes. They develop on humus soil, dead plant debris, and some on manure. The vegetative body consists of hyphae that form a mycelium located underground. During development, umbrella-like fruiting bodies grow on the mycelium. The stump and cap consist of dense bundles of mycelium threads.

In some mushrooms, on the underside of the cap, plates diverge radially from the center to the periphery, on which the basidia develop, and in them the spores are hymenophores. Such mushrooms are called lamellar. Some types of fungi have a veil (a film of infertile hyphae) that protects the hymenophores. When the fruiting body ripens, the covering breaks and remains in the form of a fringe along the edges of the cap or a ring on the stem.

In some mushrooms the hymenophore has a tubular shape. This tubular mushrooms. Their fruiting bodies are fleshy, rot quickly, are easily damaged by insect larvae, and eaten by slugs. Cap mushrooms reproduce by spores and parts of mycelium (mycelium).

Chemical composition of mushrooms

IN fresh mushrooms water makes up 84-94% of the total mass.

Mushroom proteins are absorbed only 54-85% - worse than proteins from other plant products. Absorption is hampered by poor protein solubility. Fats and carbohydrates are absorbed very well. Chemical composition depends on the age of the mushroom, its condition, type, growing conditions, etc.

The role of mushrooms in nature

Many mushrooms grow together with the roots of trees and grasses. Their cooperation is mutually beneficial. Plants provide sugar and proteins to fungi, and fungi destroy dead plant remains in the soil and absorb water with minerals dissolved in it over the entire surface of the hyphae. Roots fused with fungi are called mycorrhiza. Most trees and grasses form mycorrhizae.

Fungi play the role of destroyers in ecosystems. They destroy dead wood and leaves, plant roots and animal carcasses. They convert all dead remains into carbon dioxide, water and mineral salts - something that plants can absorb. As they feed, the mushrooms gain weight and become food for animals and other mushrooms.

Mushrooms are in a special position. They have unusual characteristics that characterize them as unique, peculiar, but very important and useful organisms for nature and humans. We will try to consider the features of the structure and vital activity of mushrooms in the article in order to understand what makes them unique.

Characteristic

The kingdom of mushrooms includes more than 100 species. Moreover, among them you can find a wide variety of forms according to the method of nutrition:

A special class of basidiomycetes, or cap mushrooms, plays a major role in human life. After all, the vast majority of them are edible species, used by humans as a valuable nutritional product for many millennia.

WITH biological point vision special attention It is the structure of the fungus that deserves it, which has a number of related features with both plant and animal organisms. Although outwardly it is closer to the plant kingdom. IN general view The structure of the fungus is quite simple: if the organism is unicellular, then it consists of noncellular mycelium and hyphae with sporangia and spores. If we are talking about the highest representative, then the structural parts are as follows:

• mycelium (mycelium) - underground part;
• hyphae intertwined in the aerial part in the form of a fruiting body;
• leg;
• hat

There are also those that are something between lower and higher mushrooms in structure and lifestyle.

Classification

Modern taxonomy has 7 main classes, combined into three divisions. The structure and vital activity of mushrooms of each of them have their own characteristics and properties. Let's take a closer look at them.

Phycomycetes

Eumycetes

• Ascomycetes are valuable mushrooms in medical practice. The structure of the body implies the presence of mycelium, multicellular, septate and quite highly developed. These mushrooms also got their name (marsupials) for the peculiar sacs, depressions or asci in which sexual spores - ascospores - mature. The structure contains hyphae, at the ends of which conidia are formed, which take part in reproduction. Representatives: yeast, penicillium, aspergillus and others. They are valued because many species are capable of producing antibiotics.
• Deuteromycetes, or The most representatives are the genus Candida, which causes diseases of the same name in humans and animals. Affects tissues and organs. They do not have real mycelium, only a pseudostructure. They reproduce by forming chlamydospores.
• Basidiomycetes, or cap forms. The structure of this class of mushroom will be discussed in more detail below.

Similarities with other organisms

The structure of cells of plants, animals, and fungi has a number of common features. That is why it has not yet been finally decided whether the organisms in question should be separated into a separate kingdom or combined with plants or animals.

The thing is that there are a number of signs in which mushrooms are similar to representatives of the flora:

1. Capacity for unlimited growth throughout life.
2. Fungal cells have dense cell walls, just like plants.
3. The methods of reproduction are similar: with the help of spores and parts of the mycelium, that is, vegetatively.
4. Inability to move in space.
5. Absorption of nutrients by absorption.

However, in contrast to those who, based on these characteristics, are plants, a number of facts should be cited that indicate no less similarity between these organisms and animals:

1. The cell wall contains a polysaccharide - chitin. Although the same substance forms the exoskeleton of crustaceans and some insects.
2. Traces of uric acid were found in fungal waste products.
3. The reserve nutrient in these organisms is glycogen, just like in humans.
4. According to the method of absorption of nutrients, these are heterotrophic organisms, since chlorophyll is not found in their cells.

Thus, it is obvious that mushrooms are a separate kingdom, with their own specific characteristics.

Fungal cell structure

The similarities and differences with other living organisms listed above are also reflected in the structure at a smaller, cellular level. So, it has a number of the following features:

1. On the outside, it is separated by a cell wall, like in plants. However, the substances that make up this structure show that the similarity is more with animals. Components: chitin (cellulose in some species), glycan, polysaccharides, monosaccharides, heteropolymers. Over time, this structure can ossify, accumulating calcium oxolate salts, then externally the mycelium and body will be solid, resembling a plant stem. In some cases, the cell wall is covered with mucus on the outside.
2. Next is the plasma membrane of a standard structure - a fluid-mosaic formation consisting of a bilipid layer with permeating and embedded proteins for various purposes. The functions of the membrane are the same as in higher organisms - ensuring active and passive transport into and out of the cell.
3. Under the plasmalemma there is a protoplast, which includes a vacuole, a nucleus with nucleoli, cytoplasm with hyaloplasm and organelles.
4. Vacuoles with cell sap are unconditionally similar to. During life, the number and size of these structures changes. In an adult cell there is one large wall vacuole filled with a solution containing polyphosphates, carbohydrates, and nutrient organic molecules.
5. The nucleus and nucleolus are most often found in single copies. They are located closer to the center of the cell and serve for storage and transmission hereditary information in the form of nucleic acid molecules (DNA, RNA). It is interesting that when dividing by mitosis, the nuclei double, but are not immediately divided into two cells by a transverse constriction. Therefore, for some time, binuclear and trinuclear formations can be found in the structure of the fungus.
6. Cytoplasm is the hyaloplasm and organelles of the cell. Carbohydrates are dissolved in a liquid medium, glycogen inclusions are located, microfilaments grow, and the cell cytoskeleton is formed. Organelles include mitochondria, ribosomes, and dictyosomes. Speaking about the structural features of the fungus, it is worth mentioning losomesomes. These are translucent bodies, the role of which has not yet been clarified.

Thus, the fungal cell has common features both animal and plant. However, it also includes highly specific components.

Single-celled fungi: mucor

Probably everyone has seen representatives of this genus. White fluffy mold that appears on food, vegetables and fruits, stale plant and animal tissues is fungi of the genus Mucor of the Zygomycetes class.

Externally, when viewed with the naked eye, they look like a fluffy rug. Over time, it darkens and becomes bluish and gray. This occurs when the spores in the sporangia mature, when the mold has become an adult and is preparing to reproduce.

The mucor mold fungus has a fairly simple structure. Firstly, it is all one large cellular structure, and it is precisely unicellular. Just mycelium - multinucleate, but without partitions, highly branched. It gives the impression of a multicellular organism, but this is not the case.

The hyphae of this fungus grow vertically upward and at the end form a sporangium, usually spherical in shape, in which spores mature. Another name for mucors is capitate molds. It was given to them precisely because of this structure and location of spore-bearing structures.

After maturation, the smallest cells spill out from the bursting sporangium and begin to independently germinate into new uniform. There is also a sexual process - it is also produced by the mold fungus mucor. The structure of the necessary organs consists of translucent threads of the same or different orders that connect to form a zygote. It subsequently gives rise to a new hypha with sporangium, which is an independent organism.

This structure of the mushroom does not make it at all harmful to humans. Of course, some forms can cause mucormycosis in animals and humans, but the positive significance of representatives of this class is also great. For example, they are producers of valuable medicinal product- ramycin. Also, the possession of high enzymatic activity makes it possible to use them as yeast starters in the production of certain types of alcohols, cheeses, and so on.

Multicellular fungi: basidiomycetes

The structural features of the cap mushroom are that it is multicellular, perfect, having certain parts of the body that are its distinctive features. So, each such representative has an above-ground and underground part.

Appearance

The external structure of the mushroom consists of the formation of a cap various shapes, a fruit leg of unequal massiveness and length, and an underground part - mycorrhiza, consisting of mycelium and hyphae together with tree roots.

Probably everyone who has ever walked through the forest could see colorful, delicate mushroom caps peeking out from the interweaving of foliage and forest floor. White, red, orange, yellow, brown, small and large, aromatic and fleshy, tasty and very nutritious - these organisms have become a part of people's lives and make up certain part the diet of most of them.

From the outside, you can only see the fruiting body itself, but the structural features of the cap mushroom can only be understood with a more subtle analysis, section and microscopy.

Body structure

Stump, cap, mycelium (mycelium) - these are the main structural parts of such representatives. The structure of the fruiting body of the mushroom varies. Or rather, their sizes and colors differ from each other, as well as some features of the cap. Inside, both the stem and the cap are a dense interweaving of mushroom hyphae in different combinations.

Thus, the leg contains several hundred thousand tiny threads, closely woven into general structure. In the lower part it smoothly turns into mycelium, hidden underground. If you cut the mushroom very carefully, you can see these thin white thread-like outgrowths stretching from the ground and growing into the stump.

In the upper part, immediately below the cap, the stem of the mushroom has a veil or its remains when reduced in some species. This feature makes it possible to distinguish poisonous species and edible, as well as systematize and classify them.

The upper part of the leg is crowned with a cap. This is what makes it special. The structure of the cap mushroom makes it possible to distinguish edible forms from poisonous ones. So, there are two types of hats:

• Lamellar - represents small plates on the inside in which spores are located and mature. Examples of organisms: moths, russula, saffron milk caps.
• Tubular - formed by tubes visible to the naked eye. Spores for reproduction also develop on these structures. Examples: boletus, porcini mushrooms, boletus, chanterelles.

This structure of the cap and sporangium is called the hymenophore. The outside of the cap is covered with a thin and delicate layer of skin, which also consists of hyphae on the inside. It just has different colors, by which one can judge the type of mushroom.

Mycelium structure

The mycelium is a very important part that mushrooms form. The body structure is hyphae, as we have already mentioned. But mycelium is elongated multinucleated cells, devoid of any pigments.

It is the mycelium that enters into symbiosis with the roots of trees and carries minerals and water through the mycelial growths to the tree. In return, the fungus receives organic substances from the plant, which makes it a heterotroph in its feeding method.

The structure of the cap mushroom implies reproduction by spores. However, when the mycelium enters normal conditions(good humidity, temperature) can itself give rise to new fruiting bodies. Therefore, the mycelium is boldly called the organ of vegetative propagation.

Controversy

These tiny structures, which in large mass are powder different colors, are the main source of procreation of the genus of fungi. Spilling out from the sporangia on the cap, they are picked up by the wind and spread over long distances. Many animals that eat mushrooms cannot digest their spores, so they are excreted into the environment with excrement. Here, future cap species get a chance to live if the spore takes root and germinates. Most types of fungi are identified by the shape, size and color of these cells, correlating them with one class or another.

In conclusion, I would like to say that representatives of the mushroom kingdom are very important organisms, affecting entire ecosystems that are part of food chains, causing irreparable harm living beings, but also giving us an antidote to many diseases.

Introduction

About 100 thousand species of various mushrooms grow on earth. The vast majority of them belong to small organisms, the structure of which can only be seen through a microscope. Mushrooms with more or less large fruiting bodies, on globe there are about 7 thousand. species. Some scientists believe that half of them can be classified as edible mushrooms.

Edible mushrooms are a valuable food product, rich in vitamins, enzymes, and extractives. In the woods Russian Federation More than 300 species of edible mushrooms grow. When used properly, these natural resources you can get a lot of tasty and nutritious food products - pickles, marinades, dried mushrooms and canned food.

Mushrooms play an important role in the life of the forest. Together with bacteria and other microorganisms, they decompose and mineralize dead plant debris, turning them into substances available for plant nutrition. If there were no mushrooms, annually fallen leaves, needles, and branches would accumulate in huge quantities and prevent the regeneration of the forest.

Biological features of cap mushrooms

Most edible mushrooms are saprophytes and symbionts. What people call mushrooms and eat are only part of the fungal organism, the so-called fruiting body (caps and legs). The most essential part of the mushroom is the mycelium, or mycelium, on which the fruiting bodies are formed.

The structure of cap mushrooms

The mycelium consists of very thin branching web-like threads (hyphae). It is rarely seen on the soil surface. Usually it is hidden inside the nutrient substrate (soil, wood, etc.). Individual hyphae are so small that they cannot be seen with the naked eye. They are noticeable only in clusters in the form of a fluffy felt coating.

The mycelium has existed for tens and even hundreds of years (for example, in the winter honey fungus). It tolerates such unfavorable conditions as severe frost and drought. With the onset of favorable conditions, it awakens and continues its development. As the mycelium grows, it secretes special substances - an enzyme, under the influence of which the substrate decomposes. Mycelium hyphae absorb nutrients from the environment with their entire surface, thus playing the role of roots. When the surface of the mycelium, growing, greatly increases, it is able to absorb more nutrients from the environment. The period of formation of fruiting bodies - sporulation organs - begins.

The fruiting bodies of mushrooms vary in shape and size. For example, in cap mushrooms they consist of a cap and a stalk; in other species they can be: hoof-shaped, spherical, scaly, branched, tuberous, etc.

In a cap mushroom, the main part of the fruiting body is the cap. It contains organs that produce spores, through which fungi reproduce. In a young mushroom, the cap is often round, ovoid, and bell-shaped. With age, the cap straightens and changes shape, becoming plano-convex, flat or funnel-shaped, i.e. characteristic of this type of fungus.

The top of the cap is covered with skin (cuticle). It protects the mushroom from unfavorable conditions. The color of the skin can be varied: red, gray, brown, etc. It may vary depending on the age of the mushroom, time of year, weather and soil conditions.

There is pulp under the skin in the cap. Its thickness depends on the type of mushroom. The color of the pulp can be whitish, whitish-yellow, and in some mushrooms it changes when exposed to air: it turns blue, red, gray, etc. The pulp of different types of mushrooms has a specific taste and smell.

Below the pulp in the cap mushroom there is a spore-bearing layer - the hymenium. It spreads over the surface of special projections - hymenophores. In tubular mushrooms, the hymenophore consists of tubes or cells; in other species it may consist of plates, veins, folds, papillae or spines. In tubular mushrooms, an important feature is the color of the tubes, the shape, color and size of their holes.

The structure of mushroom stems can also be varied. The predominant shape of the leg is cylindrical and obverse-club-shaped. On the outside, it usually has coverings similar to the skin of a cap. Inside, the leg can be dense or hollow, and the cavity can be lined with loose spongy pulp.

In the spore-bearing layer of the fruiting bodies, spores develop - very small single-celled formations. Disputes take various forms. The size of spores is measured in microns. Their number in the fruiting body amounts to millions and even billions. In mushrooms of the same species, the color of the spores is usually the same: yellow, white, brown, etc. Therefore, by the color of the spores, you can determine what species the mushroom belongs to. Disputes remain viable long time, in some cases - 20 years or more. They serve for the settlement and reproduction of fungi. Distribution of spores occurs through wind, water, insects and animals. Once in favorable conditions, the spores germinate, form mycelium and give rise to a new fungus.