All works of the first half of the 19th century. Lesson notes on literature of the first half of the 19th century
Lesson 2-2. Topic of the training session: « Literature of the first halfXIXcentury (review). Literary struggle. Romanticism - the leading direction of Russian literature of the 1st halfXIXcentury."
Purpose of the lesson: highlight the main features of Russian literature of the early 19th century, prepare students for the correct perception of works written during this period.
Tasks:
Studying the features of Russian literature of the 19th century;
Formation of communicative, informational, sociocultural competence;
Fostering a sense of patriotism and love for national literature.
Material and technical equipment:
Progress of the training session
1. The teacher's word.
With this lesson we begin a systematic study of the “golden age” of Russian literature - the 19th century. This is truly an unusual literary era. No other period in the development of Russian literature knows so many writers who have become classics: Pushkin, Lermontov, Goncharov, Turgenev, Nekrasov, Dostoevsky, Tolstoy, Chekhov - all these names are certainly familiar to you. And we have yet to get acquainted with the creativity of each of them. But before we begin to study any author, we need to understand what is specific about this literary era. So, let’s try to outline the main features of Russian literature of the 19th century.
XIX century – the “golden age” of Russian literature is the result of its development over many centuries. Developed national literature cannot arise “just like that”; it is prepared by previous eras. You are already familiar with them.
-What eras are these?(This is ancient Russian literature and the 18th century.)
We talked about the fact that the 18th century. can be considered a kind of “preparatory” stage for the breakthrough of Russian literature in the 19th century. This explains the fact that the 18th century. there were no geniuses; this century, it must be admitted, is the century of writers of the second and third rank. The 19th century, on the contrary, is replete with great names (we listed them above).
Again thanks to the 18th century. Russian literature in the 19th century bridged the gap with Western European literature. In general, the difference in the direction of their development is reduced. Russian literature correlates chronologically with Western European literature. In the first half of the 19th century. in Russian literature the same evolution occurs as in Europe: sentimentalism – romanticism – realism.
Features of Russian literature of the first halfXIXcentury
Features of Russian literature of the 19th century. also lies in the fact that its main form of existence is journalism. It is especially important that literary magazines are rapidly developing. Works are published in them, and criticism is also placed there. It must be said that the structure and form of the literary magazine were determined by Karamzin’s publications - “Moscow Journal” and “Bulletin of Europe”. Typically, thick magazines had the following sections: “Political and social news”, “Literature”, “Criticism” and “Mixture”.
A huge number of literary magazines have appeared: "Moscow Telegraph", "Telescope", "Contemporary" and many, many others.
In general, magazines were distributed by subscription. They served as a kind of “arteries” connecting the center with the periphery, the capital and the province. Thanks to this, magazines expanded their readership and created a tradition of “interrupted” reading (large texts were published in parts).
Another important feature of Russian literature of the first half of the 19th century V. is that this literature, which has a center - Pushkin. All literature is connected with him. First, she “works” for him, “prepares the ground”, then Pushkin influences all literature, predicts its development. In the second half of the century the center will no longer exist. The literary process will be determined by two figures - Tolstoy and Dostoevsky. One can assess their role in Russian literature in different ways, but one thing is clear: during this period there was no longer a center. More precisely, the literature of the second half of the 19th century. polycentric.
Periodization of Russian literatureXIXcentury
Teacher's word. If we are talking about the history of literature, be it the 17th or 19th centuries, the question of its periodization arises.
Periodization of literature of the 19th century. can be carried out on different grounds.
Messages from students who worked independently with the textbook material.
Now we will listen to ..., who will talk about periodization according to the chronological principle.
(The most stable and deep-rooted is the chronological principle of periodization. It divided the history of literature into decades. Each decade had a “face”: romantic - in the 20s, folklore - in the 30s, romantic idealism in the 40s s. Positivism and practicalism of the 50-60s. The division of the literary process into decades was supported by the typology of artistic images - the development went from sentimental characters (“poor Liza”) to the romantic images of Zhukovsky, then to Chatsky and Onegin, characters from Gogol’s stories, to Rudin and Bazarov, etc. They talked about people of the 30s, 40s, about Pentecostals and Sixties...)
-Now let's listen to a message about the personal principle of periodization.
(At the beginning of the nineteenth century, the personal principle began to be used. It existed in two versions.
Firstly, periods of literary development were associated with reigns, and it turned out: literature of the Peter the Great, Catherine’s era, then Alexander’s, Nicholas’s. This principle of periodization is alienated from the specifics of literature as an art form, from the movement of its directions, styles and genres. However, it is historically determined. For example, the end of the reign of Nicholas I is also the boundary of two stages of literary development.
Secondly, a personal principle may be based on its dependence on the work of an outstanding poet or writer. As if consolidating the literary movement and opening up the most attractive ways for the development of artistic creativity. Literature follows geniuses. The result was a rather harmonious system, containing many important signs: a change in aesthetic tastes, orientations, and styles. But the boundaries of these periods are arbitrary - one overlaps the other. As a result, the literary process appears to be quite ramified, with several consolidating centers appearing. It is difficult, for example, to determine who defined the literary movement of the 50-60s: Turgenev or Nekrasov? Or Ostrovsky?)
Teacher's word. We see that these bases for periodization do not seem complete enough, so mixed principles began to emerge.
With mixed principles of periodization, both the attitude of literature to reality, to spiritual life, as well as the attitude to the “holistic enlightenment of Europe”, and the position of the writer were taken into account. According to, for example, Kireyevsky, the first period was characterized by an appeal to the public, to the needs of enlightenment, French influence predominated, and the central figure was Karamzin. In the second, an appeal to the ideal foundations of life began to predominate, the main thing was German influence, the central figure was Zhukovsky. The third period is associated with the activities of Pushkin, who at first united both directions of Russian literature, and then moved on to the creation of literature that expresses respect for reality. This was a period of original creativity.
In the 20th century literary criticism tried to combine chronological and personal principles, based on the teachings of Lenin. A division of literature into three stages of the liberation movement arose. But a complete imposition of social phenomena on the literary process is impossible.
The desire to understand the internal laws of literary development determines the appeal to other features literary life– schools, directions, styles. The main directions can be designated as follows (write in notebook):
from sentimentalism to romanticism (1800-1825)
from romanticism to realism (1826 - mid-century)
heyday of realism (1856-1881)
transitional period in the development of Russian realism (80s)
The 90s are already considered in the context of the literary process of the 1900s.)
Sentimentalism- a literary movement that recognized feeling as the main criterion of human personality. Sentimentalism arose in Europe and Russia approximately simultaneously, in the second half of the 18th century, as a counterweight to the rigid classical theory that was dominant at that time.
The main genres of sentimentalism:
story
elegy
novel
letters
trips
memoirs.
Sentimentalism came to Russian literature with translations of the works of Western European sentimentalists. The first sentimental works of Russian literature can be called “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow” by A.N. Radishchev, “Letters of a Russian Traveler” and “Poor Liza” by N.I. Karamzin.
Romanticism originated in Europe in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. as a counterbalance to the previously dominant classicism with its pragmatism and adherence to established laws. Romanticism, in contrast to classicism, promoted deviations from the rules. The prerequisites for romanticism lie in the Great French Revolution of 1789-1794, which overthrew the power of the bourgeoisie, and with it, bourgeois laws and ideals.
Romanticism, like sentimentalism, paid great attention to a person’s personality, his feelings and experiences. The main conflict of romanticism was the confrontation between the individual and society. The inner world of the romantic hero was full of experiences and passions; throughout the entire work, the author forced him to struggle with the world around him, duty and conscience. Romantics depicted feelings in their extreme manifestations: high and passionate love, cruel betrayal, despicable envy, base ambition. But the romantics were interested not only in the inner world of man, but also in the secrets of existence, the essence of all living things, perhaps that is why there is so much mystical and mysterious in their works.
The development of Russian romanticism was greatly influenced by the Great French Revolution and the Patriotic War of 1812. Romanticism in Russia is usually divided into two periods - before and after the Decembrist uprising in 1825. Representatives of the first period (V.A. Zhukovsky, K.N. Batyushkov, A.S. Pushkin during the period of southern exile), believed in the victory of spiritual freedom over everyday life, but after the defeat of the Decembrists, executions and exiles, the romantic hero turns into an outcast and misunderstood by society, and the conflict between the individual and society becomes insoluble. Prominent representatives of the second period were M. Yu. Lermontov, E. A. Baratynsky, D. V. Venevitinov, A. S. Khomyakov, F. I. Tyutchev
Main genres of romanticism:
Elegy
Idyll
Ballad
Novella
Novel
Fantastic story
Aesthetic and theoretical canons of romanticism
The idea of two worlds is a struggle between objective reality and subjective worldview. In realism this concept is absent. The idea of dual worlds has two modifications:
escape into the world of fantasy;
travel, road concept.
Hero Concept:
the romantic hero is always an exceptional person;
the hero is always in conflict with the surrounding reality;
the hero's dissatisfaction, which manifests itself in the lyrical tone;
aesthetic determination towards an unattainable ideal.
Psychological parallelism is the identity of the hero’s internal state with the surrounding nature.
Speech style of a romantic work:
extreme expression;
the principle of contrast at the composition level;
abundance of symbols
Aesthetic categories of romanticism:
rejection of bourgeois reality, its ideology and pragmatism; the romantics denied a value system that was based on stability, hierarchy, a strict value system (home, comfort, Christian morality);
cultivating individuality and artistic worldview; the reality rejected by romanticism was subordinated to subjective worlds based on the creative imagination of the artist.
Realism – a literary movement that objectively reflects the surrounding reality using artistic means available to it. The main technique of realism is the typification of facts of reality, images and characters. Realist writers place their heroes in certain conditions and show how these conditions influenced the personality.
While romantic writers were concerned about the discrepancy between the world around them and their inner worldview, the realist writer was interested in how the world around him influenced the individual.
Depending on the meaningful motives recreated in the work, there are:
critical (social) realism;
realism of characters;
psychological realism;
grotesque realism.
Critical realism focused on the real circumstances that influence a person. Examples of critical realism are the works of Stendhal, O. Balzac, C. Dickens, W. Thackeray, A. S. Pushkin, N. V. Gogol, I. S. Turgenev, F. M. Dostoevsky, L. N. Tolstoy, A. . P. Chekhov.
Realism of characters, on the contrary, showed a strong personality who can fight against circumstances. Psychological realism paid more attention to the inner world and the psychology of heroes. The main representatives of these varieties of realism are F. M. Dostoevsky, L. N. Tolstoy.
IN grotesque realism Deviations from reality are allowed, in some works the deviations border on fantasy, and the greater the grotesque, the more strongly the author criticizes reality. Grotesque realism was developed in the works of Aristophanes, F. Rabelais, J. Swift, E. Hoffmann, in the satirical stories of N.V. Gogol, the works of M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, M.A. Bulgakov.
Teacher's word. So, these are the main features of Russian literature of the 19th century. Without knowing them, it is very difficult to understand the significance of each writer individually and, in general, the significance of this period both in Russian literature and in the world literary process.
Homework.
Grading.
Lesson 2-4. Topic of the training session: “A.S. Pushkin. Life and creativity."
Purpose of the lesson: contribute to the formation of interest in the work of A. S. Pushkin.
Tasks:
Consideration of the periodization of A.A. Pushkin’s work;
Formation of communicative, informational, sociocultural competence;
Fostering a sense of patriotism and love for national culture.
Whiteboard, multimedia equipment, computer.
Progress of the training session
1. The teacher's word.
In Russian literature, like in the sky, there are many stars. Their names are different. But among them there is one that we pronounce with special excitement, trepidation, and pride. This name is A.S. Pushkin.
The work of A.S. Pushkin is the purest moral spring. His poetry makes us purer, richer, kinder. She gives us moments of joyful communication.
Pushkin's entire path to immortality, to life after death, was illuminated by the Divine light of love and goodness. And we, touching his poetry, light up with this fire, this energy, which gives us the strength to live, love, and do good. Let's light this small candle as a symbol of the poetry of the great poet A.S. Pushkin.
And the topic of our lesson is: “The life and work of Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin.” Write down the date and topic of the lesson in your notebooks.
You know about Pushkin, but I hope that today in class you will rediscover Pushkin. But before we talk about it, let's get acquainted with the plan of our lesson, which contains the main periods of the life and work of A.S. Pushkin.
2. In your notebooks, draw a table “The main periods of the life and work of A.S. Pushkin” (as the lesson progresses, the columns of the table will be filled in)
| Period | Years |
| The poet's childhood | |
| Petersburg | |
| Mikhailovskoe | |
| Boldino autumn | |
| Petersburg | |
| Last years of life |
3. Checking advanced homework:
Message on the topic “Childhood”.
Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin was born in Moscow on May 26, 1799. The poet’s father, retired major Sergei Lvovich Pushkin, belonged to an old but impoverished family. Mother, Nadezhda Osipovna, was the granddaughter of Ibrahim Hannibal, a native of Northern Abyssinia, named Abram Petrovich in Russia.
Pushkin grew up thoughtful and absent-minded, which caused bewilderment among his parents. Meanwhile, these features testified to the boy’s early inner concentration, to his complete immersion in his own special, still childish, but already poetic world.
Subsequently, however, everything changed: Pushkin became a lively, playful child, striking his parents with his “ardent disposition, extraordinary memory and, especially, an observant mind beyond his years.”
According to some evidence, in early childhood the poet almost did not speak Russian. His first teachers of the Russian language were his grandmother Marya Alekseevna, who had an excellent command of Russian speech; nanny Arina Rodionovna, storyteller and singer; Uncle Nikita Kozlov, who walked with Pushkin throughout his entire life. Thanks to them, and communication with peasant children, Pushkin learned Russian literacy and acquired the spirit of his native speech. “The legends of deep antiquity,” told by my grandmother and nanny, coexisted with the reading of foreign and domestic literature.
Message on the topic “Lyceum”
In 1811, Pushkin entered the newly opened Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum, where his uncle Vasily Lvovich brought him.
The Lyceum was founded at a dangerous time for Russia: a huge French army stood at the western borders of the country. Soon the Patriotic War of 1812 began. Troops marched through Tsarskoe Selo. The lyceum students saw them off.
During free hours, students and teachers hurried to the Newspaper Room to find out the latest news about the enemy’s movements. Patriotic inspiration brought the lyceum students closer together and spiritualized their friendship. Pushkin wanted to take a direct part in the diverse and vibrant social and literary life. Therefore, he began to feel burdened by being in the lyceum, a closed educational institution. Complaints about forced slavery increasingly emerge in his poems.
This sadness was brightened up to a certain extent by the friendship of the lyceum students. She was nourished by patriotic feelings, as well as games, amusements and general spiritual interests. Pushkin was fond of wrestling, fencing, played rounders, ball and was very angry when he lost. He, however, easily forgot trivial insults, but for a long time remembered serious ones inflicted on him as a person and humiliating his personal dignity. Pushkin was distinguished at the Lyceum by his cheerfulness and mockery. He loved to make fun of the lyceum students, but his jokes never affected the honor and dignity of his comrades. Here, for example, are the lines he dedicated to Delvig, to whom he felt affection:
Give me your hand, Delvig! Why are you sleeping?
Wake up, sleepy sloth!
You are not sitting under the pulpit,
Put to sleep by Latin.
Such jokes did not offend or cause harm - Delvig’s laziness and drowsiness were legendary.
Lyceum students were especially courageous and united in disputes and poetry competitions. It was not for nothing that Pushkin later noted this feature of the “beautiful union” - “it grew together under the canopy of the muses.” Teachers encouraged literary creativity, and soon many poets were discovered in the lyceum. Poems were written by Kuchelbecker, Delvig, Illichevsky, Korsakov and Yakovlev, but everyone recognized Pushkin’s primacy. And, of course, it is no coincidence that it was he who was asked to write a poem and read it at the exam on January 8, 1815 in the presence of noble nobles.
Lyceum students knew that Derzhavin himself was the first poet of the 18th century. – will be among the distinguished guests. In the ode “Memories of Tsarskoe Selo,” Pushkin glorified the victory of Russian weapons in the Patriotic War of 1812. He was attracted by the patriotic theme of the close union of military feats and poetry. The ode also mentioned Derzhavin, who praised Suvorov’s military leadership talent “with the strings of loud lyres.”
The lyceum period - the time of apprenticeship and search for an independent path - was remembered by Pushkin for the patriotic upsurge of 1812, and the close lyceum friendship, and the first emotions of the heart, and freedom-loving dreams, and the beginning of his poetic glory.
Message on the topic “Petersburg”
The lyceum years passed, and with them the youth of Pushkin ended. The poet entered a new era of his life. Prominent Russian writers and poets: Karamzin, Zhukovsky, Batyushkov, Vyazemsky predicted poetic glory for Pushkin. Initially, upon leaving the lyceum, the poet went to Mikhailovskoye, but in August 1817 he returned to St. Petersburg and settled with his parents on the outskirts of the capital. Service in the Collegium of Foreign Affairs, where the young collegiate secretary Alexander Pushkin was enrolled, did not burden him.
Pushkin devoted himself enthusiastically to poetry, art, political feasts, and friendly meetings. Pushkin's circle of acquaintances expanded. The poet felt the fullness of life, enjoyed youth, health, and an abundance of mental strength.
Pushkin became close to the most advanced people of his time and joined the circle of free-thinking youth. He willingly read his poems here, knowing that in this society they would understand the fiery impulses of his rebellious heart. Somewhat later, in 1819, Pushkin began to visit N.V.’s house. Vsevolozhsky, his friend, a theater lover, at whose place the members of the “Green Lamp” circle, closely connected by the secret society “Union of Welfare,” gathered. This included the poet Fyodor Glinka, the future Decembrist Sergei Trubetskoy, Pushkin’s friend, officer Yakov Tolstoy and others. The meetings of the circle were kept secret. They discussed political, economic and social issues.
The love of freedom manifested itself with particular force in the St. Petersburg period in the poem “To Chaadaev” (1818), which was written in the genre of a friendly message, but at the same time filled with deep social content.
Other works of a freedom-loving nature also appeared. Pushkin hated all hypocrisy, hypocrisy, and deliberate religiosity, which flourished at the court of Alexander I. His poems were read aloud, circulated in numerous copies and in oral transmission. Pushkin truly was the poetic voice of the progressive nobles.
A thunderstorm broke out suddenly over Pushkin.
It seemed that nothing could darken either Pushkin’s bright mood or his sparkling gaiety. But then Alexander I reproaches the director of the Lyceum Engelhardt for the fact that the former Tsarskoye Selo student “flooded Russia with outrageous poetry”, and ordered Governor General Miloradovich to arrest the poet. And in April 1820, Miloradovich invited Pushkin to his place and confidentially informed him about the danger. The poet answered the governor that his papers were burned, but that he could restore the poems from memory, and immediately wrote all the freedom-loving poems, except for one epigram. Miloradovich asked the tsar to forgive the young poet, who captivated him with his nobility. But the king was inexorable. Alexander I hesitated where to exile Pushkin - to Siberia or to the Solovetsky Monastery. Friends made a lot of efforts to alleviate the poet’s plight. Everyone was busy - Karamzin, Zhukovsky, and Chaadaev. Finally, the tsar gave in: Pushkin headed to the southern provinces under the command of General I.N. Inzova. On May 6, 1820, he went to southern exile.
In mid-May 1820, Pushkin arrived in Yekaterinoslav (now Dnepropetrovsk). General Inzov greeted him friendly. After the noisy life in St. Petersburg, Pushkin felt boredom in Ekaterinoslav. In addition, he became seriously ill. At this time, the family of the famous hero arrived in Yekaterinoslav Patriotic War 1812 General Raevsky. Her path lay on the Caucasian waters. Inzov agreed to release Pushkin for treatment, and the poet, together with the Raevskys, went south.
In the south, Pushkin created several romantic poems - “The Prisoner of the Caucasus”, “The Robber Brothers”, “The Bakhchisarai Fountain”, worked on “The Gypsies”, which he finished at Mikhailovsky, and began writing a novel in verse “Eugene Onegin”.
Arriving in the fall of 1820 from Crimea to Chisinau to his place of service, Pushkin happily plunged into the atmosphere of political, philosophical and literary disputes.
Pushkin was greeted in Chisinau in a friendly manner. He found here his longtime acquaintance from St. Petersburg, General M.F. Orlov, an honored warrior who accepted the capitulation of Paris in 1814.
P.I. made a particularly great impression on Pushkin. Pestel, participant in the Patriotic War of 1812, founder and head of the Southern Society of Decembrists, subsequently executed along with Ryleev and others. In his diary, the poet wrote on April 9, 1821 about the personality of the future leader of the Southern Society: “... an intelligent man in every sense of the word,” “one of the most original minds I know.” At the same time, Pushkin met with the “first Decembrist” V.F. Raevsky, imprisoned even before the uprising on Senate Square, and even managed to warn him about his arrest.
Message on the topic “Mikhailovskoe”
On August 8, 1824, Pushkin arrived in Mikhailovskoye. He saw a neglected estate, old house, where he was to live for an unknown amount of time. Pushkin was forbidden to leave Mikhailovskoye without permission. Here he was completely alone, far from friends, from culture. In a remote northern village, the poet felt uncomfortable and depressed.
He whiled away the long autumn and winter evenings with Arina Rodionovna, who told him fairy tales and sang the melodies of Russian folk songs.
At first, Pushkin's creativity in Mikhailovsky was imbued with deep sadness. But in the spring of 1825 and especially in the summer, Pushkin’s mood changes: he is cheerful, cheerful, mentally calm and focused. Pushkin wrote to his friend Raevsky in the summer of 1825: “I feel that my spiritual powers have reached full development, I can create.”
Pushkin lived out his last days in Mikhailovsky with difficulty. He felt lonely and stuffy in his northern captivity. There he also learned about the defeat of the Decembrist uprising in St. Petersburg. He waited with tension for detailed news about the end of the investigation and the verdict. His acquaintances and friends were on the list of state criminals, they faced severe punishment, and five of them were executed.
Pushkin will not forget them. He will approve of Kuchelbecker, Pushchin. Quick drawings of five hanged men subsequently appeared on the pages of his manuscripts. He will devote many poetic lines to the Decembrists.
The entire summer of 1826 passed in painful and difficult thoughts. And on September 3, a courier suddenly arrived and gave the poet an order to immediately appear in Pskov. The governor sent Pushkin to Moscow, where Nicholas I was crowned king.
On September 8, 1826, Pushkin entered the Tsar’s office in the Chudov Monastery, the conversation lasted quite a long time, about two hours. Little is known about her. But what has come down to us comes down to the conclusion of an oral agreement between Pushkin and the Tsar. Pushkin promised to refrain from publicly criticizing the government, but did not hide from the tsar his sympathy for the Decembrists. Nicholas I allowed the poet to live in both capitals and volunteered to be the sole censor of his works. Pushkin assumed that the tsar's personal censorship would give him quick access to the press. The Tsar, who was ascending the throne, wanted to win over the poet and Russian society after the brutal reprisal against the Decembrists. Society considered Pushkin's return from exile to be the greatest event in the first years of the reign of the new tsar, but the hope for a change in Pushkin's political views did not materialize: he did not at all intend to become an official poet. True, he was more careful for some time, but he did not change his views.
Message on the topic “Boldino autumn”
In the spring of 1829, Pushkin received consent to marry N.N. Goncharova. In the summer of 1830, the poet came to Boldino to take possession of the estate. He had to stay in Boldin not for a month, as he had intended, but for three: a cholera epidemic began.
The forced stay in Boldin was marked by an unprecedented creative upsurge. Pushkin finished the novel “Eugene Onegin”, wrote “Belkin’s Stories”, “The History of the Village of Goryukhin”, several small dramatic works called “little tragedies” in one of his letters, the folk-lyrical drama “Rusalka”, the poem “The House in Kolomna” , “The Tale of the Priest and His Worker Balda” and several beautiful lyrical poems.
Magazines write about the decline of the poet's talent, shamelessly slander him and even humiliate his human dignity.
The famous informer and agent of the III department F.V. Bulgarin published a feuilleton in 1830 in which he claimed that Pushkin “in his writings did not discover a single high thought, not a single sublime feeling, not a single useful truth...”. That same year, magazines accused the poet of imitating. “Vestnik Evropy” called Pushkin “a great man for small things.”
The persecution has begun. Pushkin accepted the challenge. He could not help but respond to the impudent attacks of journalists. He branded Bulgarin as a mediocre scribbler, a coward and a deserter who fled from the Russian army and served as a police agent for Napoleon. However, the fight was too unequal.
Message on the topic “In St. Petersburg”
In November 1830 Pushkin left Boldino. At the beginning of December he arrived in Moscow, and on February 18, 1831, his wedding took place with Natalya Goncharova. Soon he and his young wife moved to St. Petersburg.
The poet is still full of creative ideas. In 1832 he began writing the novel “Dubrovsky”, and in 1833 - the story “ Queen of Spades" Then, in 1833, he began work on “The Captain’s Daughter” and collected material for “The History of Pugachev.”
In the works of Pushkin in the 1830s. the historical topic took special place. As if connecting modernity and history, the poet sought to comprehend the path of humanity as a natural and unstoppable movement. To become more familiar with the region where Pugachev's uprising broke out, Pushkin went on a trip to Russia in 1833. He visited Kazan and Orenburg, where memories of Pugachev were still alive. During these same years, Pushkin came closer to realizing his long-conceived idea - to write the history of Peter the Great.
Pushkin saw with alarm that his affairs were getting worse. The family grew, life in St. Petersburg was expensive. The poet's financial situation soon became catastrophic. To all this was added a new serious concern: secular gossip around the name of his wife.
Message on the topic “The last years of life”
1834 was a turning point in Pushkin’s life: the poet wrote in his diary that he was moving to open opposition. On the eve of the New Year, he was granted the rank of chamber cadet. The court title offended Pushkin: usually such titles were given to young men, and Pushkin was no longer young. The poet understood that the king, by bringing him closer to the court, was pursuing certain goals. Rumors once again spread in the world that the poet was currying favor with Nicholas I. The circumstances were tragic: the chamber cadets cast a shadow on Pushkin, and the people's poet, which Pushkin had already recognized himself to be, must be pure and immaculate. From that time on, Pushkin spoke contemptuously of Nicholas I, in whom, in his words, “there is a lot of the ensign and little of Peter the Great.” The poet wanted solitude, silence in order to implement great creative ideas. But he is forced to serve to support his family. He was oppressed by his secular surroundings. He could not avoid being in society: his court rank obligated him to attend balls and evenings. In the end, the poet decided to take a desperate step: in the summer of 1834 he submitted his resignation. In response to this, he was banned from working in the archives. The request had to be taken back.
Secular society could not forgive Pushkin for his genius. Pushkin was persecuted with slander and gossip, and this steadily led to a bloody outcome. The poet knew this:
I hear the buzz of slander around me:
Solutions to evil stupidity,
And a whisper of envy and light vanity
The injection is funny and bloody.
He tried to find a way out, again and again making desperate attempts to break out of the tight circle. It was during this period that contemporaries noticed the difficult state of his spirit.
Brilliant works created by Pushkin in the early 30s. , were not understood and appreciated.
Pushkin did not know peace in his family either. The young Frenchman Dantes, adopted by the Dutch envoy Baron Heckern, in the winter of 1836 began to show Natalya Nikolaevna obvious signs of attention. Pushkin was furious: he became gloomy, silent, his appearance was threatening. At the beginning of November, the world inflicted another “irresistible insult” on Pushkin’s heart: the poet received a cynical libel by mail that insulted the honor of him and Natalya Nikolaevna. He sent Dantes a challenge to a duel. Friends managed to prevent a bloody outcome, and Dantes declared his love for Natalya Nikolaevna’s sister Ekaterina and married her.
The world did not side with Pushkin. Everyone blamed the poet and angrily awaited his humiliation. Dantes, although Pushkin’s house was closed to him and his wife, did not change his attitude towards Natalya Nikolaevna. On January 25, Pushkin received a new anonymous letter insulting his wife. Pushkin decided to put an end to all this. On the same day, he wrote an angry and harsh letter to Heckern with the clear intention of insulting the envoy and his adopted son. In response, Dantes challenged Pushkin to a duel.
The duel took place on January 27 (February 8, new style) 1837, several miles from St. Petersburg. Pushkin's second was lyceum comrade Danzas. Dantes shot first. Pushkin fell, but found the strength to fire back a shot that reached the target. According to the memoirs of a contemporary, the poet exclaimed: “Bravo!” However, Dantes was only slightly wounded: the bullet hit the hand with which Dantes was covering his chest.
Bleeding Pushkin was placed in a carriage. On the way home he began to experience severe pain. The wound turned out to be fatal. On January 28, Pushkin said goodbye to his wife, children and close friends. In his dying hour, he asked to forgive his second. His last words were: “Life is over.” On January 29 (February 10), 1837, at 2:45 pm, Pushkin passed away.
“Women, old people, children, students, commoners in sheepskin coats, and others even in rags came to bow to the ashes of their beloved folk poet,” recalled E.N. Karamzina.
The authorities were frightened by popular demonstrations and riots and gave the order to transfer the body for the funeral from St. Isaac's Cathedral to the Konyushennaya Church, and at night they took the coffin to the Svyatogorsk Monastery for burial. The Tsar's order not to arrange “any meeting, no ceremony” was sent to the Pskov governor from the III Department. Pushkin was accompanied on his final journey by his uncle Nikita Kozlov and the poet’s close friend Alexander Ivanovich Turgenev. They were accompanied by a gendarmerie captain.
In the Svyatogorsk Monastery on February 6, 1837 (February 18), Pushkin was buried next to the graves of his grandfather, grandmother and mother.
Summing up the training session.
Homework.
Grading.
Lesson 2-6. Topic of the training session: « The main themes and motives of the poet's lyrics. Poems:“The light of day has gone out”, “The deserted sower of freedom...”, “Imitations of the Koran” (“And the tired traveler grumbled at God...”), “Elegy” (“The faded joy of crazy years...”), “...I again visited..." Poem "The Bronze Horseman".
Purpose of the lesson: introduce students to the poetic world of the poet, show the main motives of A.S. Pushkin’s lyrics.
Tasks:
Development of students' analytical thinking skills;
Improving the skills of analyzing a lyric work ;
Formation of cognitive interest in the work of A.S. Pushkin through acquaintance with his cultural heritage.
Material and technical equipment of the lesson: board, multimedia equipment, computer.
Progress of the training session
His sense of beauty is developed to the highest degree, like no one else. The brighter the inspiration, the more painstaking work must be required to fulfill it. We read poems from Pushkin that are so smooth, so simple, and it seems to us that this is how he developed it into this form. But we can’t see how much work he put into making it so simple and smooth...
L.N. Tolstoy
1. The teacher's word.
During the lesson, students get acquainted with new facts about the life of A.S. Pushkin during the Southern and Mikhailovsky exiles and with the most significant poems of this time. The story about the events of the poet’s life is either presented in a short message from the teacher, or can be assigned to trained students.
The main part of the lesson is devoted to the analysis of poems by Pushkin of the Southern and Mikhailovsky periods.
Questions and assignments for the poem “The daylight has gone out...”
1. What genre can this poem be classified as? Give reasons for your point of view.
2. What features of romanticism appeared in him? (This is an elegiac reflection on the life and fate of a person, an assessment of one’s former hopes and dreams. The image of the lyrical “I” is close to the author, for whom a new time in life has arrived. The text is based on the contrast between the past and the present, between the expectation of freedom and its absence for an involuntary exile etc.)
3. How do the external facts of life and the internal impulses of the soul correlate in the poem? (Real events become the basis for psychological experience, expressed in the form of an elegiac memory.)
4. What meaning does the image of the ocean take on in the poem? (The menacing elements of the ocean are in tune with the soul of the poet.)
5. In what way is nature depicted in the poem? (Nature is not only unusual, but also internally contradictory. For the poet, what is important is not a truthful description of the unusual landscape of the sea, but its power and freedom, spontaneous movement.)
6. What is the composition of the poem based on? (Inversion, contrast, limitless perspective, allegory.)
7. What meaning do emotional-evaluative epithets and verbs in the imperative mood give to the poem?
Questions and assignments for the poem “The Desert Sower of Freedom...”
1. Determine the general emotional mood of the poem.
2. What meaning does the epigraph from the Gospel give to the text?
3. Why do the words of freedom addressed by the sower to the nations not resonate with them? What are the obstacles to achieving freedom?
4. How does the composition of a poem help to comprehend the meaning?
5. What characteristics of the personality of the lyrical “I” does the author give in the first stanza? What words and expressions confirm the sincerity of his thoughts and actions?
6. How are “peaceful peoples” characterized? What does the author’s assessment sound like: condemnation or pity? Give reasons for your position.
7. What attributes of slavery accompany oppressed and unenlightened peoples? What meaning do these images give to the text?
The evolution of the theme of freedom and slavery continues until the final stage of Pushkin’s work and crowns the poet’s “Kamennoostrovsky” cycle with the most profound philosophical content. Pushkin’s thoughts about the inner freedom of the individual, independent of either the tsar or the people, are expressed most clearly in the poem “From Pindemonti.” Both autocratic and parliamentary forms of government are alien to the poet. Therefore, he proclaims the highest values, the crown of internal freedom of the individual, its harmonious connection with nature and the possibility of free creativity.
Questions and assignments for the poem “And the tired traveler grumbled at God...”
1. How can you determine the genre of a poem? Prove that this is a parable.
2. What is the meaning of the miracle of the transformation of the world by the will of God in the poem?
3. How is this motif related to Pushkin’s creative biography? Prove that it is reflected in the poem “The Prophet”.
4. Prove that the poem reflects the bright state of mind characteristic of Pushkin in Mikhailovsky.
5. Individual task. Compare Pushkin’s poem “And the weary traveler grumbled at God...” with Lermontov’s ballad “Three Palms”.
Questions and assignments for the poem “Elegy”
1. What are the compositional features of the poem? What are the relationships between its parts?
2. What meaning does the paired rhyme give to the text?
3. What feelings are colored by the poet’s memories of his youth? What explains the sadness of his memories?
4. Why is the desire to “think and suffer” a vital stimulus for the lyrical “I”?
5. What life events does he consider to be his pleasures? Why? How is this connected with the biography of Pushkin during the Boldino autumn?
6. How do the vocabulary and syntax of a poem help to make the emotions of an individual person universal, to perceive human life in the “existential” aspect?
Another message summarizing the poet’s life and creative path is the poem “It’s time, my friend, it’s time! The heart asks for peace...” The lyrical hero of the poem has been looking for peace of mind and creative solitude all his life, but has not found it either in society or in the world. He accepts the inexorable passage of time and understands the transience of life. Therefore, he dreams of spending the rest of his days in solitude, escaping “to a distant abode of labor and pure bliss.”
Questions and assignments for the poem “...I visited again...”
1. What, according to Pushkin, is the “general law” of life?
2. What pictures of nature does the poet paint? What is their charm? Why are there so many of them in the poem? How are they related to the appearance of the lyrical “I”?
3. Analyze the key images of the poem: house, hill, lake, mill, road, three pines; young grove, my grandson, me. What connection is there between them?
4. How are the pictures of the past and present correlated in the poem?
5. How is the image of time and the image of memory created in the poem?
6. How does the poet solve the problem of generational continuity?
7. What meaning does unrhymed, blank verse give to the text?
8. What meaning is revealed when studying poetic transfers in the text?
9. Analyze the poetic vocabulary and syntax of the poem.
Prove that they give the text a philosophical sound.
Teacher's word. One of the main moods of A.S.’s lyrics. Pushkin of the Southern period is the tragedy of the perception of life. The poet's dual romantic worldview was formed from chanting the values of love and freedom and at the same time their ironic denial. However, the poet was able to overcome the “idealless” outlook on life. Therefore, in the romantic works of the Mikhailov period, motifs of the harmony of existence, filled with inspiration and creativity, the miracle of the transformation of the soul, the priority of inner freedom, which cannot be constrained by external laws and isolation from the world, begin to sound.
Poem "The Bronze Horseman"
Teacher's word.Four hundred and sixty-five lines of “The Bronze Horseman” contain the most important, universal problems that will worry humanity for a long time.
Petersburg story by Pushkin “The Bronze Horseman”. Man and history in the work. The role of the introduction to the poem.
“The Bronze Horseman” was created during the second Boldino autumn (1833) in just 25 days. The genre of “poetic story” goes back to Byron’s “oriental stories” and is associated with the desire for everyday descriptive prose, actively created by Pushkin in the 1830s. The poem reflected his philosophical view of solving the problem of man and history.
It is interesting to get acquainted with the various assessments of the poem. V. Bryusov, who studied six of its handwritten versions, writes that Pushkin strives to make Peter “as much as possible as ‘great’”, and Eugene “as much as possible as ‘small’, ‘insignificant’.” ““Great Peter” ... was supposed to become the personification of the power of the autocracy in its extreme manifestation; “Poor Eugene” is the embodiment of the extreme powerlessness of an isolated, insignificant personality” 1. D. Granin, in his essay “Two Faces,” examines the main images “in duality,” as if splitting them and revealing “up” and “bottom” in them. He claims that in the poem “there are two Peters: the living Peter and Peter the Bronze Horseman, an idol on a bronze horse.
Two Eugenes: an ordinary poor official, submissive to fate, dreaming of his simple happiness, and Eugene the mad, rebellious, who raised his hand against the Tsar. Not even to reign - to power.
Two Petersburgs: Petersburg of beautiful palaces, embankments, white nights and the inner, next to it, soullessness of the bureaucratic capital, the cruel city in which Raskolnikov will live.
Two Neva...
Splitting ran through the entire poem, through its entire figurative structure” 2.
The contradiction in the assessments voiced will help schoolchildren begin to reflect on the pages of the poem, finding confirmation of both the first and second points of view.
Questions and tasks for the introduction to the poem “The Bronze Horseman”
1. What is the pathos of the introduction to the poem? Support your thoughts with text.
2. What compositional parts can it be divided into? (1 - the history of the construction of the city; 2 - a hymn to the city on behalf of the poet; 3 - a wish to the city for beauty, resilience and tranquility of the sea elements; 4 - the finale, in which the pathos of the greatness and beauty of the city is reduced by the transition to a “sad story” and a narration about the “terrible time.")
3. What does Pushkin see as Peter’s merit in the construction of St. Petersburg (verses 1-43)? How is the past and present contrasted in the first part of the introduction?
5. Find Old Church Slavonicisms and words of high style in the introduction. What role do they play in the text?
6. How is the main conflict of the poem established in the third part of the introduction (“Beauty, city of Petrov...”)? Why does the author mention “Finnish waves” in his wish for the city to stand unshakably? What characterization of the element does he give? Why does the contrasting breakdown of mood occur in the last lines of the introduction?
Teacher's word. In the introduction to the poem “The Bronze Horseman,” Pushkin poses important philosophical questions. What is the duality of Peter's reforms in Russia? How did his thoughts about the greatness of Russia and the new city come true? What is the downside of these transformations? Why does the elements contradict the reasonable will of Peter? What is the role and place of man in the historical process?
The poet transfers the clash between man and the elements into the social and philosophical plane, already in the introduction outlining the main points of the main conflict of the poem: between the individual and the authorities. Why, according to the author, are Eugene’s dreams of personal happiness and independence not destroyed by the raging elements, and why is his personality crushed by the cruel despotism of the autocracy? This and other questions will be discussed in future lessons.
Topic " little man"and his social protest in the poem "The Bronze Horseman".
When updating the concept of “little man” in the lesson, one should repeat its essence, generalizing the characteristic features of the images of heroes of literary works studied earlier: Samson Vyrin, Akakiy Bashmachkin, heroes of Leskov (“Old Genius”), Dostoevsky (“Poor People”) and Chekhov ( "Yearning").
As an option, it is also possible for a trained student to give a presentation on the topic “The evolution of the image of the “little man” in Russian literature of the 19th century.”
The lesson focuses on reflections on the evolution of the image of Eugene in the poem “The Bronze Horseman”, the reasons for his transformation from a poor official into a madman threatening the Tsar and the autocracy.
Questions and tasks to characterize the image of Eugene
Part one
1. Make a lexical and historical-cultural commentary for the first part of the poem. How does it help her understanding?
2. In what ways is the raging element depicted? What metaphors and comparisons help to imagine the raging elements as a living creature?
3. Compare the description of the Neva at the beginning and in the middle of the introduction with the description of the raging Neva in the first part. Is it possible to agree with D. Granin’s idea that there are “two Neva” in the poem?
4. What information do we learn about Eugene in the first part? What characteristics does the author give him? What does the hero dream about? Can he be considered only a faceless official or is his human appearance attractive? (Young; the name sounds pleasant; lives in Kolomna; shuns the nobles(!)); he was poor; with labor He had to achieve both independence and honor for himself; he serves for only two years; God could have given him more intelligence and money; with Parasha He will be separated for two or three days (that is, for a long time).)
5. What changes in Eugene’s appearance at the height of the flood? Describe his psychological state. What details of appearance highlight it? (Without a hat, his hands clasped in a cross, he sat motionless, terribly pale; he was afraid... not for himself; desperate glances; he seemed bewitched, as if chained to marble, and could not get off.)
6. What philosophical generalizations does Pushkin lead the reader to at the end of the first part? What is human life to the elements? What internal connection is there between the quotes “kings cannot cope with God’s elements” and “life is nothing, like an empty dream, a mockery of heaven over earth”?
7. What is the symbolic meaning that the first part ends with a description of the Bronze Horseman? Through whose eyes do we see the monument to Peter?
Part two
1. What details does the poet emphasize in the picture of the end of the flood? What is the meaning of comparing the Neva with a gang of robbers?
2. How is Eugene depicted in the scene of the search for the flooded house of Parasha? In what ways does the poet depict his mental crisis?
3. For the city of Peter, a flood is not an exception, but a rule, and for Evgeniy it is the collapse of his entire life. Find quotes that prove this point.
4. How long do you think Eugene endured his bereavement until he saw the monument to Peter again? What details highlight the severity of his psychological state? Why is the description of the Bronze Horseman in the middle of the second part given in almost the same words as at the end of the first part?
5. What caused Eugene’s rebellion - mental disorder? despair? understanding of social injustice? noble honor that forced the hero to think like a statesman? Choose arguments to support each point of view.
6. Researcher of Pushkin’s work Yu. M. Nikishov believes that in the scene of the poem, when Eugene threatens the king: “Already you!..”, he is not in a state of madness, but his consciousness has cleared up. Pushkin calls him a madman not because of loss of reason, but for his bold protest against despotism autocratic power 3. Confirm or refute this opinion using the text of the poem.
Teacher's word. The image of Evgeniy carries a double meaning. On the one hand, in the traditional interpretation, he is a nondescript official, on the other hand, he is a personality, a rebel. But is he so unattractive?
In Eugene’s reflections at the beginning of the first part we read, “That he was poor, that through labor / He had to gain himself / Both independence and honor.” Can such aspirations be considered petty and insignificant?! After all, independence and honor are the most important provisions code of ethics Pushkin. Evgeniy is worried about Parasha’s fate, rushes to her, “fears... not for himself.” For him, life and love are inseparable; without love, life is “like an empty dream.” Can such thoughts and actions be considered pathetic? After all, the simple values of human existence are dear to the author, who understands how boundless the grief of their loss is.
Evgeny has such a character trait as patience. Already at the beginning of the poem, he is ready for the internal trials that are inevitable in life. During the period of wandering, he is not burdened by everyday hardships. However, he cannot forgive anyone - neither heavenly nor state power - for the loss of his beloved girlfriend, whom he did not even have time to call his bride.
It is hardly worth looking for only one reason for Eugene’s rebellion. It is important that his protest is not expressed in a state of passion or madness, but is motivated and has objective reasons. Yes, he “laughed” when he didn’t find a familiar house when he realized what had happened. But after a year of homelessness, he remembers what happened. Consciousness returned to him again - “The thoughts became clearer in him.” This is an insight of the highest order. Therefore, Eugene threatens the Bronze Horseman not in pathological delirium, but consciously, but then fear returns to madness again. His strength in the duel with Peter is initially unequal. Therefore his rebellion is mad in a metaphorical sense. His protest can also be called “senseless and merciless.” Pointless, because it is obviously doomed to failure (remember Pushkin’s doubts about the Decembrist movement). Merciless because it brings death and victims. The hero’s rebellion contains the inevitability of a bill that will have to be paid not only by him, but by everyone without exception. Even to those who seem like an unattainable idol. (This will be discussed in the next lesson.)
Summing up the training session.
Homework.
Grading.
Lesson 2-10. Topic of the training session: « M.Yu. Lermontov. Life and work of the poet."
Purpose of the lesson: introduce students to the poetic world of the poet, show the main motives of M.Yu. Lermontov’s lyrics.
Tasks:
repeat the stages of the poet’s biography, provide new facts and summarize information about his life and work;
determine the main motives of Lermontov’s poetry;
trace the features of history and literature in Russia in the period from 1828 to 1841.
Material and technical equipment of the lesson: board, multimedia equipment, computer.
Progress of the training session
“He imitated Pushkin and Byron in poetry and suddenly wrote something where he did not imitate anyone, but everyone has been wanting to imitate him for a whole century. But it is quite obvious that this is impossible, because he has what is called the “hundredth intonation” of an actor. The word obeys him like a snake charmer..."
A.A. Akhmatova “Everything was subject to him”, 1964
In the previous lesson we finished studying the works of A.S. Pushkin, but we will meet his name and works more than once. A.S. Pushkin is a great classical poet, whose work will illuminate the path of each of us throughout our lives. A.S. Pushkin died on January 28, 1837. And almost immediately, angry and tragic lines from the poem echoed throughout the city "Death of a Poet".
This poem belonged to a young man, still little known, but who instantly won over the Russian reader. Russia has found a new brilliant poet - Mikhail Yuryevich Lermontov.
Stages of the life path of M. Yu. Lermontov.
1814-1828 Childhood, adolescence. Youth: the origins of personality.
1828-1830 Study at the Noble boarding school of Moscow University.
1832-1834 School of guards ensigns and cavalry cadets in St. Petersburg.
1834 -1841 Military service.
1841 Duel with Martynov. Death.
M. Yu. Lermontov was born on October 15, 1814 in Moscow. Father - Yuri Petrovich Lermontov held the rank of captain. He came from an old Scottish family. Mother - Marya Mikhailovna came from an old and rich family of Stolypins.
Mikhail spent his childhood on the Tarkhany estate, located in the Penza province. It belonged to the poet’s maternal grandmother Elizaveta Alekseevna Arsenyeva. She was smart, educated, power-hungry, she loved her grandson madly, and Misha responded to her with great sincere love.
Elizaveta Alekseevna was dissatisfied with her daughter’s choice, and quarrels began to arise between Lermontov’s parents. In 1817, when Misha was only 3 years old, his mother died of illness.
Yuri Petrovich went to his Tula estate, three-year-old Misha stayed with his grandmother. Elizaveta Alekseevna did everything to separate father and son. She made him promise not to demand his son for her. If the conditions were violated, the grandmother threatened to deprive her grandson of his inheritance. And the father had to leave his son with his grandmother.
The grandmother managed to give her grandson an excellent education at home; he became fluent in German and French, was good at drawing and sculpting, and studied music (played the flute, piano and violin).
Lermontov grew up as a sickly child, and Elizaveta Alekseevna took him to Caucasian waters, which completely healed the boy. The impressions from these trips remained in Lermontov’s memory for the rest of his life and were reflected in his early work. (“Caucasus”, (1830); “Blue Mountains of the Caucasus, I greet you!”, (1832).)
Although I was destined at the dawn of my days,
O southern mountains, they are torn from you,
To remember them forever, you have to be there once:
Like the sweet song of my homeland,
I love the Caucasus.
In my infancy I lost my mother.
But it seemed that in the pink evening the hour
That steppe repeated a memorable voice to me.
That's why I love the tops of those rocks,
I love the Caucasus.
I was happy with you, mountain gorges;
Five years have flown by: I still miss you.
There I saw a pair of divine eyes;
And the heart babbles, remembering that look:
I love the Caucasus!...
Moscow Noble boarding house.
In 1827, the grandmother brought her grandson to Moscow to continue his education. L. Passed the entrance exams brilliantly and was immediately accepted into the 4th year. At the boarding school, he studied in a literary circle, led by the poet and translator S.E. Raich. L.'s first poem was published in 1830 in the magazine "Antey".
Studying at the University.
In the fall of 1830 he entered Moscow University in the moral and political department. Lermontov's dissatisfaction with the professors' lectures and the professors' dissatisfaction with the student's disrespectful answers and bickering led to his resignation and leaving the university in 1832.
It was necessary to continue his education, and Lermontov hoped to do this at St. Petersburg University, but he would have to start his studies from the first year, since his time at Moscow University was not counted.
On the advice of his relatives, L. chose a military career and in November 1832. enters the School of Guards Ensigns and Cavalry Junkers. The two years spent in barracks drill were, in his words, “terrible.” But even under these conditions, Lermontov secretly continues to write.
In the fall of 1834, he graduated from school with the rank of cornet of the Life Guards Hussar Regiment. In 1835, Lermontov was assigned to serve in a guards regiment, which was located near St. Petersburg.
The beginning of creativity.
1830 – 31 - the pinnacle stage of Lermontov’s youthful creativity. He works unusually intensively: in two years he has tried all poetic genres: elegy, romance, song, dedication, message, etc. He voraciously reads the works of the Decembrist poets, Pushkin, Byron. George Gordon Byron is the greatest English romantic poet, who had a huge influence on many Russian writers and poets of the early 19th century. The poet had an unusually strong influence on Lermontov’s work. However, fascination with this freedom-loving personality was characteristic of the entire generation to which the young poet belonged. For Lermontov, acquaintance with the work and fate of Byron not only helped him to understand the social situation that required the intelligentsia to preserve the ideas of liberalism in the conditions of the ensuing reaction, but also forced him to think about choosing his place in life. A poet-chosen one opposing the “crowd”—that’s how Lermontov sees himself, following his idols Pushkin and Byron. Freedom and liberty become especially significant concepts for the poet. But Lermontov never stoops to merciless imitation.
No, I'm not Byron, I'm different
A still unknown chosen one,
Like him, a wanderer driven by the world,
But only with a Russian soul.
I started earlier, I will finish earlier,
My mind will do a little,
In my soul, like in the ocean,
The cargo of broken hopes lies...
Fame came to Lermontov in the days of the tragic death of Pushkin. The news of the death of A. Pushkin shocked Lermontov and the very next day he wrote the poem “The Death of a Poet,” which immediately made him famous, was copied and learned by heart. The poet, a slave of honor, died... (by heart).
One of the lists of “impermissible poems” was delivered to Nicholas I. Soon L. was arrested and in March 1837, by court verdict, sent to active army to the Caucasus.
In the Caucasus, L., in his words, “was in continuous wandering, sometimes on a crossroad, sometimes on horseback..., traveled the entire length of the Line, from Kizlyar to Taman, crossed mountains, spent the night in an open field, fell asleep to the cry of jackals...” All these impressions later reflected in the poems “Mtsyri”, “Demon” and in the novel “Hero of Our Time”.
They are also captured in numerous sketches and paintings by Lermontov, a gifted painter.
Lermontov in St. Petersburg.
Thanks to the efforts of his grandmother, the Caucasian exile was shortened, and in January 1838 L. returned to St. Petersburg...
In 1840, the poet's secret enemies gave his son French Ambassador de Baranta epigram. Although it was written by Lermontov several years ago and addressed to another person, Barant was assured that the Russian poet had insulted him. There was a quarrel. A duel took place. De Barant fired first and missed. Lermontov, without aiming, shot to the side. The poet defended the honor of the Russian officer, nevertheless he was found guilty and brought to a military court.
On the instructions of Tsar Lermontov was transferred to an infantry regiment that was stationed in the Caucasus and was preparing for military action. The poet was sent almost to certain death. In the summer and autumn of 1840, Lermontov took part in bloody battles. The soldiers loved their brave lieutenant, who was with them in hot affairs, sleeping in a common tent at a rest stop. The command petitioned to award Lermontov with orders and a golden saber with the inscription “For bravery,” but Nicholas I each time crossed out his name from the list of recipients.
At the beginning of February 1841, having received a two-month leave, he came to St. Petersburg, hoping to get a resignation, stay in the capital and engage in literary activities. But this too was denied to him, as was the reward for his courageous actions in the battles in the Caucasus. Moreover, he was ordered to leave the capital within 48 hours and follow to his regiment in the Caucasus.
Teacher's word. Lermontov was haunted by the thought of retirement. He also reports this in letters...
Dear grandmother, I have just arrived in Stavropol and am writing to you; I was traveling with Alexei Arkadyevich, and it took an awfully long time, the road was very bad, now I still don’t know where I’ll go; It seems that first I’ll go to the Shuru fortress, where the regiment is, and from there I’ll try to get to the water. I, thank God, am healthy and calm, if only you were as calm as I am: I only wish for one thing; please stay in St. Petersburg: it will be better for you and for me in all respects.
I still hope, dear grandmother, that I will still be forgiven and I can retire.
Farewell, dear grandmother, I kiss your hands and pray to God that you are healthy and calm, and I ask for your blessing.
I remain the obedient grandson of Lermontov
...The path to the destination lay through Pyatigorsk, where L. stayed. Here a quarrel occurred between Lermontov and his former friend from military school N.S. Martynov. Martynov challenged Lermontov to a duel.
The duel took place on July 15 at the foot of Mount Mashuk. Lermontov was killed. The ambiguity of some of the circumstances of the duel still gives rise to numerous guesses and assumptions.
The funeral took place on July 17. All of Pyatigorsk gathered. At first, Lermontov was buried at the foot of Mashuk, but thanks to the efforts of his grandmother, the poet’s ashes were transported to Tarkhany and buried next to the graves of his mother and grandfather. An oak tree was planted over the poet's grave, as he bequeathed in his poem “I go out alone on the road...”:
Above me so that, forever green,
The dark oak bowed and made noise.
Lermontov, according to Belinsky, is “a poet of a completely different era,” “his poetry is a completely new link in the chain of historical development of our society.” To understand these words, it is necessary to characterize the historical development of Russia in the era of Lermontov, that is, with 1828 to early 1850s. During the first decade after the Decembrist uprising (1825), the main public life Russia was suppressing free thought. It was a time of severe political reaction, the approval of a new censorship charter, reprisals against liberation movement in Europe. At the same time, in the 30-40s. In the 19th century, philosophical, religious-historical and literary discussions flared up in Russian social thought, which were reflected in lively journalism. Religious" Philosophical letters"Chaadaeva told the world the truth about the reasons for the lack of freedom and prosperity in Russia.
Lermontov's work captures the thoughts and moods of the era of the 30s. The poet's work can be divided into two periods: 1828-1836. and 1837-1841 The border is 1837, the year of Pushkin’s death. Already in early lyrics Lermontov begins to sound civic motives and freedom-loving sentiments ("Complaints of a Turk", "Desire"). The defeat of the Decembrist uprising determined the motives of melancholy, depression, and despondency. The romantic moods of Byron had a great influence on the early Lermontov.
IN mature lyrics Lermontov contains ideas related to Russian socio-political thought of this period (Pushkin, Chaadaev, Belinsky). Poems appear - reflections on the fate of his generation, the motives of disappointment and loneliness, the theme of tragic love, philosophical understanding of the poetic vocation and the high purpose of poetry are intensified.
At the same time, criticism of the lack of spirituality of a higher, secular society becomes even sharper; the poet seeks balance and harmony with the world around him, which he finds in understanding the theme of the people and the Motherland.
Thus, main themes and motives of Lermontov's lyrics
- This:
Write in your notebook:
thirst for freedom, liberty, struggle (“Sail”, “Prisoner”, “Captive Knight);
disappointment, loneliness, search for harmony in relations with the outside world (“In a difficult moment of life...”, “Both boring and sad”, “Mountain peaks”, “Cliff”, “Leaf”, “When the yellowing field is worried... ");
love-suffering (“Beggar”, “No, it’s not you I love so passionately...”, “We parted, but your portrait...”); (There was, of course, love in L.’s life. On November 1, 1831, Lermontov again met Varvara Lopukhina, whom he had known since 1828. On December 4, he was at her name day. Their love was mutual, but later arose between them misunderstanding and it seemed to Lopukhina that she had made a mistake in Lermontov. The girl married, but soon repented of this, since she continued to love Lermontov. However, nothing could be corrected.
The poet depicted the history of his complex relationship with Lopukhina in the drama “Two Brothers”, in the unfinished novel “Princess Ligovskaya” and in “Princess Mary” - in all of them Lopukhina was depicted under the name of Vera. He also dedicated many poems to her.)
criticism of autocracy and secular society (“Farewell, unwashed Russia...”, “Death of a Poet”); understanding the fate of one’s generation (“Duma”); the situation of the people and the Motherland (“Motherland”, “Borodino”);
the difficulty of the poetic vocation and the high purpose of poetry (“I want to live! I want sadness...”, “Don’t blame me, Omnipotent...”, “Poet”, “Prophet”);
Lermontov did not live to be twenty-seven years and three months old. Until 1837, he would write more than three hundred poems, thirteen poems (including two early editions of “The Demon”), and three dramas. In just over four years after Pushkin’s death, he created the greatest works of romantic poetry - the final version of “The Demon”, “Mtsyri”, the epic poem “Song of Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich”, the brilliant novel “Hero of Our Time”, which marked the beginning of Russian psychological prose, a collection of poems , which signified an entire period in the history of Russian poetry, and another collection of poetry, which Lermontov did not have a chance to see in print.
Summing up the training session.
Homework.
Grading.
Lesson 2-12. Topic of the training session: “Poems: “Prayer” (“I, Mother of God, now with prayer...”), “Duma”, “How often in a motley crowd...”, “Valerik”, “I go out alone on the road...”, “Dream”. The depth of philosophical issues and the dramatic sound of M.Yu. Lermontov’s lyrics. Motives for loneliness. The depth and penetration of the poet’s spiritual and patriotic lyrics.”
Purpose of the lesson: updating the dialogical position of students when studying the artistic and semantic features of the lyrical works of M. Yu. Lermontov; development of experience in working with a poetic text as a cultural text of a certain historical era.
Tasks:
To form and improve the ability to analyze poems, understand the thoughts, feelings and moods of the lyrical hero;
Develop skill expressive reading;
Instill a love of poetry, the ability to empathize, sympathize; cultivate a high spiritual culture.
Material and technical equipment of the lesson: board, multimedia equipment, computer.
Progress of the training session
Lermontov, who was raised in Orthodoxy, has several poems called “Prayer.” However, his attitude towards God is contradictory. The poem “Prayer” (“Do not blame me, Omnipotent...”) (1829) is the first with this title. This is followed by the comic “Junker Prayer” (1833-1834), then “Prayer” (“I, Mother of God, now with prayer...”) (1837), dedicated to V. Lopukhina, and finally, “Prayer” (“ In a difficult moment of life...” (1839), dedicated to M. Shcherbatova Thematically and logically, the poem “Gratitude” (1840) is adjacent to them.
Questions and tasks for reviewing what you have learned
1. How does the poem “Prayer” (“Don’t blame me, Omnipotent...”) reflect the relationship between the lyrical “I” and God? What does the poet ask him to do?
2. How is ironic pathos created in “The Junker Prayer”?
3. In the poem “Prayer” (“In a difficult moment of life...”) we read: “There is grace-filled power in the consonance of living words.” How to understand these lines?
Questions and assignments for the poem “Prayer” (“I, Mother of God, now with prayer...”)
1. What is the meaning of the fact that the lyrical hero makes a request not to God, but to the Mother of God?
2. Why does the lyrical hero pray not for himself, but for the soul of the “innocent virgin”?
3. What oppositions is the composition of the poem based on?
4. How does the poem reflect the changes in the soul of the lyrical “I”?
5. What, according to the poet, can make a person happy?
6. What meaning is revealed in the fact that all epithets in the poem are used in their direct meanings or as part of set expressions?
7. Individual task. Compare the poem “Prayer” (“I, Mother of God, now with prayer...”) with other “Prayers”. Is it possible to say that from “prayer” to “prayer” the lyrical “I” has fewer and fewer requests to God? Confirm or refute this opinion.
Teacher's word. The theme of life and death - eternal in all literature - is also leading in Lermontov's lyrics and is refracted in a unique way. Many of the poet’s poems are permeated with reflections on life and death. Some of them, for example “Both boring and sad”, “Love of a dead man”, “Epitaph” (“Simple-hearted son of freedom ...”), “1830. May. 16th” (“I’m not afraid of death. Oh no!..”), “The Soldier’s Grave”, “Death” can be heard at the beginning of the lesson, creating a mood of reflection. Many pages of “A Hero of Our Time” are permeated with thoughts about the end of human life, be it the death of Bela, or Pechorin’s thoughts before the duel, or the challenge that Vulich poses to death.
In the information preceding the reading and analysis of the poem “Valerik” (“I am writing to you: by chance! right ...”), it is necessary to inform that the poem was written based on Lermontov’s observations of the military affairs of the detachment of Lieutenant General Galafeev during the campaign in Chechnya . The Valerik River actually exists and flows into the Sunzha River, a right-bank tributary of the Terek. “From July 6 to July 14, 1840, Lermontov took part in battles and, according to legend, kept a journal of the military actions of General Galafeev’s detachment. The coincidence of the text of the “Journal of Military Actions” and Lermontov’s poem gives an idea of how accurately he reproduced the actual situation of the campaign and, at the same time, in what direction the poetic development of the material of his observations went. From a comparison of the text of the poem with the corresponding pages of the “Journal of Military Actions” it is clear that not only the factual basis is the same, but also the style itself, entire sentences of the “Journal” and the lines of the poem. Lermontov was nominated for the Order of Stanislav III degree for his participation in the case of July 11, 1840 under Valerik and the courage shown during this process; Nicholas I did not approve this presentation. The refusal was received after Lermontov’s death” 4.
Questions and assignments for the poem “Valerik”
1. What genre can this poem be classified into: a love letter, a poetic story, a letter?
2. What is the composition of the poem? What genre features are characteristic of the main parts of the text?
3. Describe the key images of the poem, traditional for a love letter: He and She. How are they opposed?
4. What new does Lermontov introduce in his attitude to life and to words?
5. How does the poem depict war? What gives descriptions of the lyrical “I” special authenticity?
6. What meaning do descriptions of pictures of nature bring to the text?
7. Prove that the language of the poem gravitates towards a colloquial style, “prosaic” speech. Support your thoughts with examples. What meaning do these style features give to the text?
8. Analyze the rhyming features of the text. What meaning is created by the irregularity of rhymes?
9. Prove that the love letter and the battle story are filled with philosophical content. What meaning does the irony of its ending reveal?
Questions and assignments for the poem “Dream”
1. What are the features of the composition of this poem?
2. Prove that the lyrical subject and his girlfriend are lonely and separated. What barriers lie between them?
3. What is the meaning of the fact that a dying warrior has a dream about himself, which his girlfriend sees “in his native land”?
4. What is the tragedy of the communication of their souls?
5. In what environment is each hero of the poem located? What is their attitude towards the world around them? How does this reveal the inconsistency and injustice of the world's structure?
6. Individual task. Compare the poem “Dream” (1841) with a poem from 1830-1831. with the same title (“I had a dream: the cool day was fading...”). What is the difference in the content and style of these poems?
Teacher's word. In poems about life and death, which belong to Lermontov’s mature lyricism, this theme is no longer a tribute to the romantic tradition, but is filled with deep philosophical content. The search for harmony with the world by the lyrical “I” turns out to be futile: you cannot escape from yourself, there is no peace of mind either surrounded by nature, or “in a noisy city,” or in battle. The tragedy of the lyrical hero, whose dreams and hopes are doomed, increases, and the dramatic attitude intensifies.
In later lyric poetry, more and more symbolic poems filled with philosophical generalizations appear. The lyrical hero of early Lermontov is close to the poet himself, and in his mature work the poet increasingly expresses the “alien” consciousness, thoughts and feelings of other people. However, their worldview is full of suffering, which allows us to think that the tragedy of life is an immutable law of existence, destined in heaven. Hence the everydayness and prosaic nature of the perception of death, the lack of faith in human memory. Death is for him like a continuation of life. The powers of the immortal soul do not disappear anywhere, but only fall asleep forever. Therefore, communication between human souls becomes possible, even if one of them has already left the body. The eternal question of existence remains unanswered. Where can I find salvation for my soul? Learn to live in an unfair and contradictory world or leave it forever?
At the end of his life, the feeling of tragic loneliness and discord with the world, both social and universal, becomes one of the main motives of Lermontov's lyrics. The main pathos of the poem “How often, surrounded by a motley crowd...” lies in the dramatic contradiction between the poet’s world and the soulless reality surrounding him.
Questions and assignments for the poem “How often, surrounded by a motley crowd...”
1. What two worlds control the feelings of the lyrical “I”?
2. Identify key images of the real world. In what ways does the author draw it? (The external world is like a masquerade: everything in it is deceitful, unnatural. This world is filled with sharp sounds that are unpleasant for the lyrical “I”, and its visual outlines are unclear, foggy; it is seen “as if through a dream.” The masquerade world is devoid of colors, it black and white.)
3. How does verbal vocabulary characterize the real world? (There are few verbs, which indicates the internal static nature of the text, and this does not correspond to the external bustle of the masquerade. Their lexical meaning (flash, touch) creates the feeling of something insignificant, random. Compare: “And we hate, and we love by chance” in “ Duma.")
4. The 1st and 2nd stanzas, depicting the real world, are one sentence, one extremely common syntactic construction. What meaning does this reveal? (This speaks of the undifferentiated, monolithic nature of the ugly and disharmonious external world, it is closed, it is impossible to escape from it.)
5. How does the space of the text change in the 2nd stanza? What meaning does this reveal? (The world seems to be steadily narrowing; the hands of the “urban beauties” touch the hands of the lyrical “I”, and this is precisely what becomes the last straw of his patience. The masquerade world is disgusting, and the lyrical subject has difficulty freeing himself from its shackles, escaping into dreams.)
6. How does the inner world of the lyrical “I”, the dream world, the imaginary world appear? What are his key images and paintings? Why does the description of the imaginary world take up more space in the text than the description of the real world? (The imaginary world is visible clearly, clearly. The lyrical subject feels its details, details (3-4th stanzas). This world is true, living, colorful, and not masquerade; it is full of colors, sounds, smells.)
7. What is the movement in the poetic space of the dream world? (The world seems to come closer to the viewer, its details become visible. This is a world of bright paintings, but it is not holistic, not unified, since it is a world of dreams; it seems to fall apart into fragments, frames of the past, “old times”, “an ancient dream” .)
8. What is the dominant image of the dream world? What are his signs? (The world of dreams and freedom appears in the image of a beautiful woman and is crowned with love; even the word “love” itself is repeated twice.)
9. Why is the dream world so important and necessary for the lyrical subject? (This is a “wonderful kingdom”, it’s good to be alone in it, nothing bothers you there, because the dream world is devoid of “painful doubts and passions.”)
10. What is the compositional and semantic role of the last stanza? Why does the image of a crowd appear in it? What is the conflict between the lyrical self and the crowd? What pathos is imbued with the final lines? How is this mood emphasized by elements of the art form? (The stanza contrasts the crowd and the dream. The crowd reigns, it is the legislator of life, and the dream is timid, insecure, it can be easily frightened off, it is an “uninvited guest.” In the final lines, a mood of anger and protest appears. This is the cry of the soul of a poet who passionately desires “ to confuse the gaiety" of the soulless crowd with "iron verse". It is precisely with one line, powerful as a weapon. But this is still only an impulse. The categorical nature of the moral decision is emphasized by verbs in the form of the infinitive.)
When starting to analyze the poem “I go out alone on the road...”, the pinnacle of Lermontov’s philosophical lyrics, we can invite students to think for themselves about the questions that will become central when interpreting this text. In case of difficulty, you can suggest questions compiled by the teacher.
Questions and assignments for the poem “I go out alone on the road...”
1. How are the natural world and the inner world of the lyrical subject correlated in the poem?
2. What are the key words of the 1st quatrain? What mood is emphasized by the words “alone”, “flint road”, “desert”? What is the point in the fact that the words “road” and “path” are almost next to each other? What is the philosophical meaning of these objective realities?
3. What is the relationship between the external world and the internal world of the lyrical “I” in the 2nd stanza?
4. What mood is conveyed by the exclamatory intonations of the 3rd stanza?
5. What elements of the artistic form of stanzas 1-3 indicate fragmentation, dismemberment, disharmony of the external world and the internal world? What is the role of poetic syntax here?
6. What imaginary world does the lyrical subject create in stanzas 4-5? What are the features of this imagined, ideal world? Why does the poet no longer ask God for death (cf. the poem “Gratitude”), but calls love the highest value?
7. What symbolic images did you encounter in the poem? Try to explain their meaning.
Teacher's word. In a society of masks, lies and vulgarity, spirituality cannot grow, such a society is incapable of emotional impulses, it will never leave behind miraculous monuments and is therefore doomed to premature death and oblivion. Human existence only makes sense when it is measured eternal values. This is nature, love, Motherland, life not torn apart by passions. The desire for eternal life, filled with beauty and harmony, is combined with the awareness of the impossibility of achieving “freedom and peace.” Therefore, Lermontov’s lyrical hero is thought of as a personality of a universal scale, equal to the universe, similar to the Creator, which explains the poet’s desire to connect the temporary and the eternal, life and death, the finite and the infinite.
Summing up the training session.
Homework.
Grading.
Lesson 2-14. Topic of the training session: “N.V. Gogol. Information from the biography».
Purpose of the lesson: a review of the life and work of N.V. Gogol, tracing the path of development of the writer.
Tasks:
- introduce students to the works of N.V. Gogol;
Create a mindset for further communication with the author’s texts;
Develop students' communication skills.
Material and technical equipment of the lesson: board, multimedia equipment, computer.
Epigraphs.
Gogol's influence on Russian literature was enormous. Not only all the young talents rushed to the path shown to them, but also some writers who had already gained fame followed the same path, leaving their previous one.
V.G. Belinsky
He told us who we are, what we lack, what we should strive for, what we should abhor and what we should love. And his whole life was a passionate struggle against ignorance and rudeness... it was all animated by one ardent, unchanging goal - the thought of serving the good of his homeland.
N. G. Chernyshevsky
Progress of the training session
Teacher's word. When talking about Gogol, it should be emphasized that the future writer received a strictly religious upbringing, but already in childhood he was imbued with the charm of folklore and history. Studying in Poltava and Nizhyn, he dreams of public service, where he could fight for justice. However, in St. Petersburg, a collapse of illusions and a series of failures await him. The bureaucratic capital values only money, there are not enough means to live, the romantic poem “Hanz Küchelgarten” is met with ridicule from critics, the acting field is denied, service in the Department of Appanages has brought only disappointment. Only the publication in 1830 of the story “Basavryuk, or the Evening on the Eve of Ivan Kupala” introduced him into Pushkin’s circle of writers. Early Gogol is a romantic writer with a strong religious bent. He is convinced that the career of a writer obliges him to fight against a society that depersonalizes souls. The weapon in this fight is laughter, and he himself is a preacher, a prophet, bringing the Word of God to the world. But this word will only be believed when the writer passes through his heart all human suffering. Gogol retained such a high idea of the writer’s mission throughout his life.
Throughout his work, the writer’s main tool in improving modern life is laughter. Gogol masterfully uses different forms of creating the comic. But the funny in his works undergoes its own evolution. From the fun and humor of “Evenings...” the writer rises to irony in stories about modern life in “Mirgorod”. In The Inspector General, satire is already heard in full voice; in a silent scene, laughter and fear merge in a grotesque form. Gogol’s laughter at reality is associated with his moral and religious reflections, which over time occupy an increasing place in the writer’s consciousness and his work.
Main points of the lecture
Nikolai Vasilievich Gogol born on April 1 (March 20, old style) 1809 in the village of Bolshiye Sorochintsy in the Poltava region. The parents of the future writer, Vasily Afanasyevich Gogol-Yanovsky and his wife Maria Ivanovna, were middle-income landowners. On the paternal side, the Gogol family traced its origins to the Cossack colonel Ostap Gogol. Companion of Hetman Petro Doroshenko. On his mother’s side, he had distant family ties with Mazepa, Pavel Polubotok and Semyon Paliy.
Gogol's childhood years were spent on his parents' estate, in the village of Vasilyevka, not far from Dikanka, which Gogol would later glorify with his works. Gogol's father served as a secretary for the royal nobleman D. Troshchinsky, the owner of a neighboring estate in Kibintsy, and wrote comedies that were staged in the home theater. The atmosphere of a lively literary life, the Ukrainian folklore and poetic environment, rich in historical traditions and folk legends, a large library on the estate in Kibintsy - all this has already early childhood formed the future writer's interest in literature, developed his creative imagination and artistic tastes.
Already in childhood, Gogol wrote his first poems, and while studying at the Nizhyn gymnasium, he tried his hand at dramatic and prose genres. Gogol's first published poem "Italy" appeared in 1829 in the St. Petersburg magazine "Son of the Fatherland", but without the author's name. That same year, Gogol published his poem “Hanz Küchelgarten.” The main character of the work is a romantic young man who is oppressed by a passive existence and who strives for active social activities. This first attempt at writing was unsuccessful, and after caustic criticism, Gogol, having bought the entire circulation of the work from bookstores, burned it. However, only two years will pass, and all of Russia will be talking about Gogol’s works.
From the age of nine, Gogol studied at the Poltava district school, then took private lessons from teacher G. Sorochinsky, and then studied at the Nizhyn gymnasium (lyceum). In 1828, training ended. The mood of the young graduate is evidenced by the following lines from his letter to his mother: “... I burned with an unquenchable zeal to make my life necessary for the good of the state, I was seething with the desire to bring at least a small benefit. Injustice, the greatest misfortune in the world, tore my heart more than anything else; I vowed not to lose a single minute of my short life without doing good.”
Assignment for independent work of students (working with a textbook).
♦ The significance of Gogol’s literary activity.
With such idyllic dreams, after graduating from high school, Gogol arrived in St. Petersburg, which quickly refuted his illusions.
Disillusioned with the bureaucratic service, Gogol tried his hand at teaching. Since childhood, he was attracted by stories about the heroic past of his people, so Gogol chose the specialty of a historian. He dreamed of heading the department of history at the newly opened Kiev University and even drew up a teaching plan Ukrainian history, but the vacancy went to another person, and Gogol remains in St. Petersburg.
For some time he worked at the Patriotic Institute (1831 -1835), after which he moved to the university as a lecturer on the history of the Middle Ages. Among his students was the future Russian writer I. S. Turgenev. For his lectures at the university, Gogol received a personalized gift from the empress - a diamond ring. However, he did not like his service at the university, and he soon left it.
Gogol's mature work
Gogol's mature work can be divided into two periods.
The first period dates back to the early 30s of the 19th century. and is characterized by the fact that at this time Gogol wrote works on Ukrainian themes (the so-called Dikan cycle).
The second, from 1835, continues the Ukrainian theme in Gogol’s works (Mirgorod cycle), but, in the vast majority of works, develops Russian themes and, first of all, the theme of St. Petersburg (Petersburg cycle).
Dikan cycle of Gogol's works is a cycle of funny stories on Ukrainian themes under the general title “Evenings on a farm near Dikanka”, published in two parts (collections) in 1831 -1832. They included the stories “Sorochinskaya Fair”, “Evening against Ivan Kupala”, “May Night, or the Drowned Woman”, “The Missing Letter”, “The Night Before Christmas”, “Terrible Revenge”, “Ivan Fedorovich Shponka and His Aunt”, “ An enchanted place.” It was these stories that made Gogol’s literary name.
IN cycle of St. Petersburg stories Gogol creates the image of St. Petersburg. Under his pen, a large capital city appears as a focus of terrible contrasts, social and moral conflicts, a place of humiliation and tragic loneliness of the “little man”, who feels like just an unnoticed cog in the soulless mechanism of a huge state machine, ruins human destinies, cripples souls, destroys noble dreams and the intentions of its citizens.
Abroad.
In 1836-1839, Gogol almost constantly lived abroad, only occasionally visiting Russia. By that time he was already a famous writer, whose works were admired throughout Russia. Staying abroad, on the one hand, according to Gogol himself, gave him creative inspiration (in this regard, he especially singled out Italy, which he called “the homeland of his soul”), and on the other hand, relieved him of the mental depression from which he suffered , starting in the late 30s and which subsequently developed into a chronic nervous disease that neither Russian nor the best foreign doctors could overcome.
In 1843, Gogol’s famous comedy “The Inspector General” saw the light of day. “In “The Inspector General,” Gogol wrote, “I decided to collect in one pile everything bad in Russia... all the injustices happening in those places and in those cases where a person of justice is most needed, and at one time laugh at everything " The Khlestakovism syndrome under the pen of Gogol revolves around the verdict of the sick conscience of the Russian bureaucracy, and the provincial town becomes a kind of micromodel of all of Russia.
N.V. Gogol’s satire reached its highest development in “Dead Souls.”
And in 1847, Gogol wrote a philosophical and journalistic book, “Selected Passages from Correspondence with Friends,” in which he outlined his views on life and literature and, moreover, in an openly didactic, and in some places even disparaging form, resorted to teaching the Russian public, having developed, in his opinion, an ideal model of human moral behavior, obligatory for execution by all layers of Russian society without exception - from the peasant to the tsar. The appearance of this book caused sharp criticism in Russia, even from the closest friends and most devoted fans of the writer’s work.
Gogol spent the last years of his life in Russia. Always a conscientious Christian, Gogol proves his faith almost to the point of fanaticism: he surrounds himself with priests, under their influence he renounces literary creativity, tries to convince his friends and the general public of the exclusivity of his own mission, which consists, perhaps, in the spiritual salvation of the entire Russian society.
Nikolai Vasilyevich Gogol died on March 4 (February 21, old style) 1852.
Summarizing the material covered.
What kind of education did he receive? (Gymnasium of Higher Sciences of Prince A.A. Bezborodko in Nizhyn)
The plots of which works were suggested to Gogol by A.S. Pushkin? (“Inspector”, “ Dead souls»)
What proverb did Gogol take as the epigraph to the comedy “The Inspector General”? (“There’s no point in blaming the mirror if your face is crooked”)
To which of Gogol's heroes do these words belong: a) There were comrades in other lands, but there were no such comrades as in the Russian land! (Taras Bulba); b) Why are you laughing? - You’re laughing at yourself!.. (Governor).
Teacher's word. In order to trace the creative path of N.V. Gogol, I suggest you remember his works. You will work in small groups of 4-5 people.
Reading passages in groups(up to 20 minutes)
Fragments from already known works by N.V. Gogol “Taras Bulba”, “The Night Before Christmas”, “The Overcoat”, “The Inspector General”, “Dead Souls”.
Discussion of what you read, recording every idea and thought.
Discussion questions:
What is special about the passage you read?
Is it possible to open the door to the world of N.V. Gogol with the help of this text?
What surprised or seemed strange in the way the author sees and shows the world?
Teacher's word.Gogol has works in which we encounter humor, irony (“The Night Before Christmas”), the comedy of “what is bad, what is worthy of ridicule” (“The Inspector General”), sad observations of the author (“The Overcoat”), heroic patriotic feelings of the author (“Taras Bulba”), a solemnly accusatory and exciting prophecy about the present and future of Russia (“Dead Souls”). The writer is inseparable from the era. His personal life and work refract modernity and reflect its deep patterns.
Gogol's work introduced so much unusual into Russian literature, prompted so many different interpretations and disputes, that reflections on his works could continue endlessly. He himself spoke about his calling like this: “And for a long time yet I will definitely have the wonderful power to walk hand in hand with my strange heroes, to survey the whole enormous rushing life, to survey it through visible to the world laughter and invisible, unknown to him tears..."
Summing up the training session.
Homework.
Grading.
Lesson 2-16. Topic of the training session: ""Petersburg Tales": "Portrait". Composition. Plot. Heroes. Ideological idea. Motives of personal and social disappointment. Techniques of the comic in the story. Author's position ».
Goals: through analytical study, show a cross-cutting theme - the theme of art, artistic creativity and the two most important problems posed in the story - the purpose and position of the artist in society and the question of the very essence of art.
Lesson type: learning new material.
Lesson type: lesson - conversation.
Visibility: portrait of N.V. Gogol, illustrations for the story, book “Petersburg Tales”.
Material and technical equipment of the lesson: board, multimedia equipment, computer.
Epigraphs for the lesson:
“Save the purity of your soul. He who has talent within himself must be the purest of souls..."
“The artist must be present in his work, like God in the universe: to be omnipresent and invisible.”
Gustav Flaubert.
Advance homework.
Prepare a report on the history of the story.
Work in groups:
a) prepare a message on the topic: “What is art?”
b) prepare a message on the topic: “What is creativity?”
Progress of the training session
Teacher's word. Guys! At all times, Russian writers thought about the role of the artist in society, about the purpose of art in the world. This topic has been controversial and has been addressed in different ways by different authors. It was considered both social (art should reflect the needs of society, solve social problems), and as aesthetic (art is a reflection of the ideal), and as philosophical (art is a reflection of the highest truth, the truth that reveals to the artist in moments of divine inspiration, so he free from the social order of society), both anthropological (art as a reflection of elemental forces in man), and metaphysical (art as an opportunity to break the established limits of human knowledge of the world).
The most significant work for understanding the theme of art is the story “Portrait” by N.V. Gogol, in which it acquires not only social and aesthetic, but also metaphysical significance.
-Tell us about the history of the creation of the story.
The story “Portrait” was first published in the collection “Arabesques” in 1835.
The story began simultaneously with Nevsky Prospekt in 1831. The critic Belinsky wrote a sharply negative review of the first edition of the Tale in 1834: “Portrait” is an unsuccessful attempt by Mr. Gogol in the fantastic genre. Here his talent declines, but even in its decline it remains a talent. The first part of this story is impossible to read without fascination... But its second part is absolutely worthless; Mr. Gogol is not visible in it at all. This is an obvious addition in which the mind worked, and imagination did not take any part.”
Later Gogol significantly reworked the story. In a letter to the publisher of the Sovremennik magazine P.A. He wrote to Pletnev: “I am sending my story “Portrait.” ...You will see that only the outline of the previous story remains, that everything is embroidered on it again.” The second edition of the story was first published in the third book of Sovremennik for 1842.
-Which events: real or fictitious are reflected in the story?
The story reflected the impressions Gogol received from his acquaintance with the life and everyday life of St. Petersburg artists. In the first years of his life in the capital, the writer took painting lessons three times a week at the Academy of Arts. Among the possible prototypes of Gogol's moneylender, researchers name a well-known Asian moneylender in St. Petersburg who lived in Kolomna. Contemporaries, in particular actor P.A. Karatygin, noted his memorable face and expressive eyes: “His bronze face was tattooed with multi-colored paints, his black pupils, like coals, shone on the yellowish whites with blood streaks...”
In the image of the artist, whose brilliant painting struck Chartkov’s imagination, one can discern the features of A.A. Ivanov, who was well known to the writer. His life and work became for Gogol an example of true devotion to art. Perhaps Ivanov became the prototype for another character - the ideal old man of the artist, who is discussed in the second part of the story.
-Art. Explain the meaning of this word.
Art– 1) Creative reflection, reproduction of reality in artistic images. (Art is one of the forms of social consciousness.) 2) Skill, mastery, knowledge of the matter. (Master the art of sewing.) 3) The very thing that requires such skill and mastery. ( Military art)
Art - one of the forms of social consciousness, the most important element of human culture. A specific feature of art is that it reflects reality in artistic images. Art actively influences the thoughts, will and feelings of people and plays a huge role in the life of society.
The uniqueness of the knowledge of reality through the means of art lies in the fact that, by generalizing individual observations, identifying the general and typical, essential in the characteristic, individual, accessible, it contributes to the direct sensory perception of a person.
Art, therefore, is not a simple reproduction of individual things and phenomena; an artistic image is the result of a great generalization.
Great Soviet Encyclopedia. Volume 18, p.
-Let’s give the floor to representatives of the second group who prepared message about the interpretation of the word “creativity”.
Student. Creation - creation of new cultural and material values. Artistic creativity. Folk art. Pushkin's creativity. Creativity of innovators. Dictionary of the Russian language S.I. Ozhegova.
Creation - human activity that creates new material and spiritual values of social significance. Creativity, being the result of the work and efforts of an individual, at the same time always has a social character.
View human activity, which consists in creating works of art, is called artistic creativity. For artistic creativity and its direction, the nature of the artist’s worldview and the artistic method he uses are of great importance. Artistic creativity is manifested in the theme chosen by the artist, in the nature of the interpretation of certain phenomena of life, in the originality of the created artistic means for the most adequate identification of content, in the generalization of the genres of a given type of art. The highest form of expression of artistic creativity is the creation of works that pave new paths in art and literature. Great Soviet Encyclopedia. Volume 42, page 54
Teacher's word. The story contains the following words: “No, a person cannot, with the help of human art alone, produce such a picture: a holy, higher power guided your brush, and the blessing of heaven rested on your work.”
How do you understand these words?
- Gogol was a deeply religious man. His worldview was reflected in the story “Portrait”, where the writer addresses the theme of artistic creativity and Good and Evil in art.
-What is the struggle between Good and Evil, between the light and the devil in the life of the artist Chartkov?
Chartkov is a capable artist, but he wants to become famous as soon as possible.
-What portrait did he buy once?
Portrait of a moneylender.
Vocabulary work.
Moneylender- one who lends money at high interest rates.
Palette – a small board or plate on which the painter mixes paints.
Easel – a stand on which a stretcher with canvas, cardboard or board is placed for the artist to work on.
What was the artist thinking about when he painted a portrait of a moneylender in the guise of a devil for church painting? Read this place in the story.
- “What strength! If I portray him even half as he is now, he will kill all my saints and angels, they will turn pale before him. What devilish power!
Teacher's word. He will kill saints and angels... It is said scary, but true. Art can bring evil and misfortune to the world if it serves evil. Art, which releases an unclean spirit, itself becomes a victim, that is, it turns into a means of serving this spirit, as happened in the story with the master, creator of the demonic portrait, or degenerates into a soulless craft, which affected the fate of the artist Chartkov (in the first edition of the story - Chertkov), seduced by the passion of greed.
- What do we learn about this artist at the beginning of the story?
He is poor, unknown, hungry, but very capable.
-What did the painting professor warn Chartkov about?
Reading a passage. “Look, brother, you have talent, it would be a sin if you ruin it. But you're impatient. Be careful that you don’t turn out to be a fashionable painter.”
-What two options does Chartkov think about when he sees the money found in the portrait frame?
He thinks that he can calmly work for three years for himself, in no hurry, not for sale, and be a glorious artist. But another voice was heard within him, one that wanted to “dress in a fashionable tailcoat, break the fast after a long fast, go that same hour to the theater, to the pastry shop...”
-The first way is Good, the second is evil. What path did the artist choose?
He chose evil. He dressed up, “bought perfume and lipstick,” advertised himself in the newspaper and began painting paintings and portraits for sale.
-What kind of painter did he become, pleasing the undiscriminating public, painting “portraits for money”?
Chartkov became a fashionable painter.
-How does Gogol say that he began to lose his talent and skill?
Reading the passage “...His brush grew cold and dull, and he insensitively enclosed himself in monotonous, definite, long-worn forms.
The monotonous, cold, always tidy and, so to speak, buttoned-up faces of officials, military and civilians provided little field for the brush: she forgot the magnificent draperies, and strong movements and passions ... "
-Did the artist himself understand this?
Many of his acquaintances could not understand “how a talent could disappear in him, the signs of which had already seemed bright in him from the very beginning, and they tried in vain to figure out how a talent could fade away in a person... but the intoxicated artist did not hear these rumors.”
-What picture did he see at the Academy of Arts, where he was once invited?
He saw a work by a Russian artist who studied painting in Italy.
(Demonstration of a reproduction of Ivanov’s painting “The Appearance of Christ to the People”)
-What does Chartkov understand now, although he is completely possessed by a passion for gold?
Reading quote: “Glory cannot give pleasure to those who stole it and did not deserve it; it produces constant awe only in those worthy of it. And therefore all his feelings and impulses were turned to gold.”
Teacher. How did the artist feel when he realized that he had lost his talent?
Reading quote: “The bandage suddenly fell off his eyes. God! And to destroy so mercilessly the best years of his youth, to destroy, to extinguish the spark of fire... He was overcome by terrible envy, envy to the point of rage...”
Envy is one of the deadly sins. Chartkov “was overcome by terrible envy, envy to the point of rage. Bile appeared on his face when he saw a work that bore the stamp of talent.”
-What intention was born in his soul? Did he manage to carry it out?
Reading quote: “He began to buy up all the best that art produced. Having bought the painting at a high price, he carefully brought it to his room and, with the fury of a tiger, rushed at it, tore it, tore it, cut it into pieces and trampled it with his feet, accompanied by laughter of pleasure.”
-What literary parallel does Gogol draw, personifying Chartkov with a terrible demon?
With Pushkin's work "Mozart and Salieri". Gogol further says, “Blasphemy against the world and denial were depicted naturally in its features. It seemed that he embodied that terrible demon that Pushkin ideally portrayed. His lips uttered nothing except a poisonous word and eternal reproach. Like some kind of harpy, he came across on the way, and everyone, even his acquaintances, seeing him from afar, tried to dodge and avoid such a meeting, saying that it was enough to poison the whole day.”
-How did Chartkov end his life?
He began to experience “a severe fever, combined with consumption itself... All the signs of hopeless madness were added to this... Finally, his life turned into the last, already silent, burst of suffering.”
Teacher. How did people respond to the portrait of the moneylender?
He went to the monastery to repent and pray.
-What picture did he paint at the end of his life?
Icon "Nativity of Christ".
Read expressively the description of the picture painted by the artist, the author of the portrait of the moneylender in the image of the devil in Gogol’s story “Portrait” in order to atone for your sin.
Reading quote: “The object he took was the Nativity of Jesus. For a whole year he sat behind him, without leaving his cell, barely feeding himself with raw food, praying incessantly.
After a year, the painting was ready. It was truly a miracle of the brush. You need to know that neither the brothers nor the abbot had much knowledge in painting, but everyone was amazed at the extraordinary holiness of the figures. The feeling of divine humility and meekness in the face of the Most Pure Mother, bending over the baby, deep intelligence in the eyes of the divine Baby, as if already seeing something in the distance, the solemn silence of the kings amazed by the divine miracle, who threw themselves at his feet, and, finally, Holy, inexpressible silence , embracing the whole picture - all this appeared in such a consistent strength and power of beauty that the impression was magical.”
Teacher's word. Gogol believed that truth in spiritual art is the result of prayerful and ascetic experience. We find confirmation in the “Portrait”, in the place where the fate of the creator of the demonic portrait is told, who went to a monastery and then purified his soul through a long monastic feat in order to be worthy of painting the icon image “The Nativity of Christ”. That is why one of Gogol’s heroes, expressing the author’s thoughts, exclaims: “No, it is impossible for a person to produce such a picture with the help of human art alone, a holy, higher power guided your brush, and the blessing of heaven rested on your work.”
-What parting words did this artist give to his son? Pay attention to the lesson epigraph on the board.
Reading quote: “I have been waiting for you, my son. You have a path ahead of you along which your life will flow from now on. Your path is clear, do not stray from it. You have talent; talent is the most precious gift of God - do not destroy it... Save the purity of your soul. He who has talent within himself must have the purest soul of all. Much will be forgiven to another, but it will not be forgiven to him. A man who has left his house in light holiday clothes has only to be sprinkled with one spot of dirt from under a wheel, and the whole people have already surrounded him, and point their fingers at him, and talk about his slovenliness, while the same people do not notice the multitude stains on others passing by, dressed in everyday clothes. For stains are not noticeable on everyday clothes.”
-Are these ideals worthy of a person?
Yes. In the words of a father to his son there is a spiritual dependence on external circumstances, a preference for spiritual values. True art serves Good.
- Guys! I would like to end our conversation with the words of I.F. Annensky: “The theme of art was deeply personal and hard-won for Gogol. It is no coincidence that Gogol invested himself in the story “Portrait” more than in any other of his works.”
Summing up the training session.
Homework.
Grading.
8. Main trends in the development of Russian literature in 1810-1830.
Characteristics of Russian literature of the 19th century.
The French Revolution of 1789-1794 is rightly considered the starting point of the new historical era. New mentalities gave rise to profound changes in the structure of Russian literature. The focus was on the inner world of man and his complex relationship with the outside world: the people, the country, history, and one’s destiny. Increased interest in human emotional experiences led to the emergence of the phenomenon of the lyrical hero, who radically changed the poetics of classicism, violated stable genres, mixed styles, and deformed the boundaries between poetry and prose, literature and reality.
Literature has new tasks. Literature faced the need to develop poetic forms “that would be traditional and national, on the one hand, and capable of expressing individual feelings on the other.”
The main ideas of the spiritual quest of Russian literature of this period, as defined by Yu.M. Lotman, there were ideas of personality and nationality. The 19th century began with the awareness of the individual and the people as two different and opposing, irreconcilable principles; a person’s personal aspirations and his natural basis contradict each other.
Features of the development of Russian literature in the 1810-1830s.
Advanced Russian literature of the 10-30s of the 19th century developed in the fight against serfdom and autocracy, continuing the liberation traditions of the great Radishchev.
With the development of the revolutionary movement of the Decembrists, with the advent of Pushkin, Russian literature entered a new period in its history, which Belinsky rightly called Pushkin period. The patriotic and liberation ideas characteristic of previous advanced Russian literature were raised to a new, high level. The best Russian writers “following Radishchev” (Griboedov, Pushkin) sang of freedom, patriotic devotion to the homeland and people, angrily denounced the despotism of the autocracy, boldly revealed the essence of the serfdom system and advocated for its destruction.
The powerful rise of national consciousness caused by 1812 and the development of the liberation movement was the stimulus for further democratization of literature. Along with the images the best people from nobles, began to appear more and more often in fiction images of people from the lower social classes who embodied the remarkable features of the Russian national character. The pinnacle of this process is the creation by Pushkin in the 30s image of the leader of the peasant uprising Emelyan Pugachev.
The process itself statements of realism in Russian literature of the 20-30s was very complex and took place in a struggle that took on acute forms. The beginning of the Pushkin period was marked by the emergence and development of progressive romanticism in literature, inspired by poets and writers of the Decembrist circle and led by Pushkin. The principles of realism inherent in Pushkin’s work were developed by his great successors - Gogol and Lermontov, and then raised to an even higher level by revolutionary democrats and strengthened in the fight against all kinds of reactionary trends by a whole galaxy of advanced Russian writers.
The main directions of Russian literature of the first half of the 10th centuryIHv.
For Russian literature of the first half of the 19th century. characterized by rapid changes in artistic directions. The dominant aesthetic principles managed to transform several times during the life of one generation. The final chord of development classicism a play appeared in Russian literature A. S. Griboedova “Woe from Wit”(1823), in which the traditions of classical comedy of the 18th century. are combined, like those of D.I. Fonvizin, with the features of emerging realism. At the beginning of the century, a romanticism- a movement in literature and art, which is characterized by a special interest in an extraordinary personality, a lonely Hero, opposing himself and the world of his soul to the surrounding world. Vasily Andreevich Zhukovsky is considered the creator of Russian romanticism(1783–1852), a poet whose works full of melancholy, folk motifs and mystical images (ballads “Lyudmila” 1808, “Svetlana” 1812) became examples of the style of new literature. The early works of Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin (1799–1837) and Mikhail Yuryevich Lermontov (1814–1841) cannot be called anything other than romantic. Pushkin is one of those writers whose creative path was marked by turning to various artistic directions. As has already been said, the early Pushkin is a romantic; in his works one can even detect some influence of sentimentalism. At the same time, he is considered the founder of Russian realism. In addition to Onegin, outstanding examples of realism in the works of A. S. Pushkin are the historical drama Boris Godunov, the stories The Captain's Daughter, and Dubrovsky.
Lermontov's early works are mainly love lyrics. However, over time, his poetry, along with the theme of tragic, unhappy love, includes civil themes. He became famous for his poem “On the Death of a Poet,” dedicated to the death of A. S. Pushkin. It was followed by “Motherland” and “Borodino”. Like his great predecessor, M. Yu. Lermontov combined romanticism and realism in his work. The poetry of romantic loneliness and opposition to the world is reflected in the poems “Mtsyri” and “Demon”. The novel “A Hero of Our Time” is considered the pinnacle of Lermontov’s realism. The dramaturgy of M. Yu. Lermontov is represented by the play “Masquerade”, written in 1835.
The further development of literature was associated with the strengthening positions of realism. An important milestone in this process was creativity Nikolai Vasilievich Gogol(1809–1852). He is considered the first writer of the so-called “natural school” in Russian literature, that is, the movement that is now commonly called “critical realism.” These include colorful sketches of the life of Little Russian landowners in the stories “Mirgorod”, and filled with fantastic and fairy-tale motifs of Ukrainian folklore “Evenings on a farm near Dikanka”, and the mystical “Petersburg Stories” in which the grotesque, fantasy (“Nose”) are combined with a piercingly realistic image the life of a “little man” (“The Overcoat”), crushed by life.
Of particular importance, which acquired in the first half of the 19th century. literature, led to the emergence literary criticism as an independent genre. The highest achievements in this field are associated with the name Vissarion Grigorievich Belinsky(1811–1848), the significance of whose work goes far beyond narrow literary issues. Largely thanks to V. G. Belinsky, literary criticism in Russia became a space for ideological struggle, a forum at which the most important issues in the life of society were discussed, a platform from which advanced ideas went to the masses.
Literary movement 1800-1830s
The changes in public consciousness were significant: spiritual values rapidly moved from the sphere of autocracy to the sphere of a specific private person. They ceased to act as abstract demands located outside of man, as was the case in philosophy and literature of the 18th century, but became the property of the individual, who felt the interests of the state as their own interests. The abstract concept of the state, personified in autocracy, was becoming a thing of the past. The coloring of public concepts with personal feelings and the filling of the personal world with public emotions have become a sign of the times.
All this predetermined the victory of romantic sentiments in life and in literature. At the same time, the ideas of the Enlightenment that had not disappeared from Russian reality were interpreted romantically.
Romanticism in Russia went through several stages of development:
1810s - the emergence and formation of psychological trends; leading poets Zhukovsky and Batyushkov;
1820s - the emergence and formation of a civil, or social, movement in the poetry of F.N. Glinka, P.A. Katenina, K.F. Ryleeva, V.K. Kuchelbecker, A. A. Bestuzhev-Marlinsky; the maturity of psychological romanticism, in which the main figures were A.S. Pushkin, E.A. Baratynsky, P.A. Vyazemsky, N.M. Languages;
1830s - the emergence of a philosophical movement in the poetry of Baratynsky, poets of wisdom, Tyutchev, in the prose of V.F. Odoevsky; the penetration of romanticism into prose and its widespread dissemination in the genre of stories; the flourishing of romanticism in Lermontov’s work and signs of crisis: the dominance of epigonic (imitative) poetry, Benediktov’s lyrics, “Caucasian” (“eastern”) stories by A.A. Bestuzhev-Marlinsky;
1840s - the decline of romanticism, its displacement from the foreground of literature; From an active subject of the literary process, romanticism is increasingly turning into its object, becoming the subject of artistic depiction and analysis.
The division of romanticism into various movements occurred according to the following criteria:
To psychological current Russian romanticism belongs to the romantics who professed the ideas of self-education and self-improvement of the individual as the surest way to transform reality and man;
To current of civil or social, Romanticism includes the romantics, who believed that a person is brought up primarily in social, public life, and, therefore, he is intended for civic activity;
To philosophical trend Russian romanticism includes romantics who believed that man’s place in the world is predetermined from above, his lot is destined in heaven and depends entirely on the general laws of the universe, and not at all on social and psychological reasons. Between there are no impenetrable boundaries between these movements, and the differences are relative: poets of different movements not only polemicize, but also interact with each other.
Initially, romanticism wins in the poetry of Zhukovsky and Batyushkov, which was due to:
Karamzin reform of the literary language;
By crossing the poetic principles of “sentimental” literature with the principles of “light poetry”;
Discussions on the problems of literary language, which opened and cleared the way for romanticism.
The nineteenth century in Russian literature is the most significant for Russia. In this century, A.S. began to show his creativity. Pushkin, M.Yu. Lermontov, N.V. Gogol, I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy, A.N. Ostrovsky. All their works are unlike anything else and carry makes a lot of sense in yourself. Even to this day, their works are shown in schools.
All works are usually divided into two periods: the first half of the nineteenth century and the second. This is noticeable in the problems of the work and the visual means used.
What are the features of Russian literature in the nineteenth century?
The first is that A.N Ostrovsky is generally considered a reformer who brought many innovations to dramatic works. He was the first to touch upon the most exciting topics of that time. Not afraid to write about problems lower class. Also, A.N. Ostrovsky was the first to show the moral state of the soul of the heroes.
Secondly, both I.S. Turgenev is famous for his novel Fathers and Sons. He touched on the eternal themes of love, compassion, friendship and the theme of the relationship between the old generation and the new.
And, of course, this is F.M. Dostoevsky. His themes in his works are extensive. Faith in God, the problem of little people in the world, the humanity of people - he touches on all this in his works.
Thanks to the writers of the nineteenth century, today's youth can learn kindness and the most sincere feelings through the works of great people. The world was lucky that these talented people were born and lived in the nineteenth century, who gave all of humanity new food for thought, discovered new problematic topics, taught compassion for one’s neighbor and pointed out the mistakes of people: their callousness, deceit, envy, renunciation of God, humiliation of another person and their selfish motives.
Several interesting essays
- Essay based on Lermontov's poem Mtsyri, grade 8
Among all Russian poets, Mikhail Yuryevich Lermontov occupies a special place in Russian literature. The poet has a special one, rejecting all the pettiness of human everyday life and everyday life.
- Who can be called a layman? Final essay
Who is a commoner? It is difficult to answer the question posed, but we will try to figure it out. Firstly, the word is not everyday and remembering it is not an easy task. Previously this word had one meaning, now it has another.
Every person on earth dreams of a place where he feels good and comfortable. And I know him. This is my favorite house. You feel protected in it. I like it when relatives, acquaintances, and friends gather in our house.
What could be more beautiful than a summer walk in the forest? After all, many artists, poets and poems dedicate their paintings to this. Only at this time of year the forest is beautiful in its own way and it seems that it has its own secret.
What is the beauty of a person’s soul? This nutrition is given to everyone who first senses this phrase or quickly reads it in the book. Its original beauty is visible with an unbroken eye, just as we have taught people in the first place
The beginning of the 19th century was a unique time for Russian literature. In literary salons and on the pages of magazines there was a struggle between supporters of various literary movements: classicism and sentimentalism, the educational movement and the emerging romanticism.
In the first years of the 19th century, the dominant position in Russian literature was occupied by sentimentalism, inextricably linked with the names of Karamzin and his followers. And in 1803, a book entitled “Discussions on the old and new syllable of the Russian language” was published, the author of which A. S. Shishkov very strongly criticized the “new syllable” of the sentimentalists. The followers of the Karamzin reform of the literary language give the classicist Shishkov a sharp rebuke. A long-term controversy begins, in which all the literary forces of that time were involved to one degree or another.
Why did polemics on a special literary issue acquire such public significance? First of all, because behind the discussions about the style there were more global problems: how to portray a person of modern times, who should be a positive and who should be a negative hero, what freedom is and what patriotism is. After all, these are not just words - this is an understanding of life, and therefore its reflection in literature.
Classicists with their very clear principles and rules, they introduced into the literary process such important qualities of the hero as honor, dignity, patriotism, without blurring space and time, thereby bringing the hero closer to reality. They showed it in “truthful language”, conveying sublime civic content. These features will remain in the literature of the 19th century, despite the fact that classicism itself will leave the stage of literary life. When you read “Woe from Wit” by A. S. Griboyedov, see for yourself.
Close to the classicists educators, for which political and philosophical themes were undoubtedly leading, most often turned to the ode genre. But under their pen, the ode from the classic genre turned into a lyrical one. Because the most important task of the poet-educator is to show his civic position, to express the feelings that take possession of him. In the 19th century, the poetry of the Romantic Decembrists would be inextricably linked with educational ideas.
There seemed to be a certain affinity between the Enlightenmentists and the Sentimentalists. However, this was not the case. Enlightenmentists also reproach the sentimentalists for “feigned sensitivity,” “false compassion,” “loving sighs,” “passionate exclamations,” as did the classicists.
Sentimentalists, despite excessive (from a modern point of view) melancholy and sensitivity, they show sincere interest in a person’s personality and character. They begin to be interested in an ordinary, simple person, his inner world. Appears new hero- a real person, interesting to others. And with him the everyday comes to the pages of works of art, everyday life. It is Karamzin who first makes an attempt to reveal this topic. His novel "A Knight of Our Time" opens a gallery of such heroes.
Romantic lyrics- These are mainly lyrics of moods. Romantics deny vulgar everyday life; they are interested in the mental and emotional nature of the individual, its aspiration towards the mysterious infinity of a vague ideal. The innovation of the romantics in the artistic cognition of reality consisted in polemics with the fundamental ideas of Enlightenment aesthetics, the assertion that art is an imitation of nature. The Romantics defended the thesis of the transformative role of art. The romantic poet thinks of himself as a creator creating his own new world, because the old way of life does not suit him. Reality, full of insoluble contradictions, was subjected to severe criticism by the romantics. The world of emotional unrest is seen by poets as enigmatic and mysterious, expressing a dream about the ideal of beauty, about moral and ethical harmony.
In Russia, romanticism acquires a pronounced national identity. Remember the romantic poems and poems of A. S. Pushkin and M. Yu. Lermontov, the early works of N. V. Gogol.
Romanticism in Russia is not only a new literary movement. Romantic writers not only create works, they are the “creators” of their own biography, which will ultimately become their “moral story.” In the future, the idea of the inextricable connection between art and self-education, the artist’s lifestyle and his work will become stronger and established in Russian culture. Gogol will reflect on this on the pages of his romantic story “Portrait”.
You see how intricately intertwined styles and views, artistic means, philosophical ideas and life...
As a result of the interaction of all these areas in Russia, a realism as a new stage in the knowledge of man and his life in literature. A. S. Pushkin is rightfully considered the founder of this trend. We can say that the beginning of the 19th century was the era of the emergence and formation of two leading literary methods in Russia: romanticism and realism.
The literature of this period had another feature. This is the unconditional predominance of poetry over prose.
Once Pushkin, while still a young poet, admired the poems of one young man and showed them to his friend and teacher K. N. Batyushkov. He read and returned the manuscript to Pushkin, indifferently remarking: “Who doesn’t write smooth poetry now!”
This story speaks volumes. The ability to write poetry was then a necessary part of noble culture. And against this background, the appearance of Pushkin was not accidental; it was prepared by the general high level of culture, including poetic culture.
Pushkin had predecessors who prepared his poetry, and contemporary poets - friends and rivals. All of them represented the golden age of Russian poetry—the so-called 10-30s of the 19th century. Pushkin- starting point. Around him we distinguish three generations of Russian poets - the older, the middle (to which Alexander Sergeevich himself belonged) and the younger. This division is conditional, and of course simplifies the real picture.
Let's start with the older generation. Ivan Andreevich Krylov(1769-1844) belonged to the 18th century by birth and upbringing. However, he began to write the fables that made him famous only in the 19th century, and although his talent manifested itself only in this genre, Krylov became the herald of a new poetry, accessible to the reader by language, which opened up to him the world of folk wisdom. I. A. Krylov stood at the origins of Russian realism.
It should be noted that the main problem of poetry at all times, and at the beginning of the 19th century too, is the problem of language. The content of poetry is unchanged, but the form... Revolutions and reforms in poetry are always linguistic. Such a “revolution” occurred in the work of Pushkin’s poetic teachers - V. A. Zhukovsky and K. N. Batyushkov.
With works Vasily Andreevich Zhukovsky(1783-1852) you have already met. You probably remember his “The Tale of Tsar Berendey...”, the ballad “Svetlana”, but perhaps you don’t know that many of the works of foreign poetry you read were translated by this lyricist. Zhukovsky is a great translator. He got used to the text he was translating so much that the result was an original work. This happened with many of the ballads he translated. However, the poet’s own poetic creativity was of great importance in Russian literature. He abandoned the ponderous, outdated, pompous language of poetry of the 18th century, immersed the reader in the world of emotional experiences, created a new image of a poet, sensitive to the beauty of nature, melancholic, prone to gentle sadness and reflections on the transience of human life.
Zhukovsky is the founder of Russian romanticism, one of the creators of the so-called “light poetry”. “Easy” not in the sense of frivolous, but in contrast to the previous, solemn poetry, created as if for palace halls. Zhukovsky's favorite genres are elegy and song, addressed to a close circle of friends, created in silence and solitude. Their contents are deeply personal dreams and memories. Instead of pompous thunder, there is a melodious, musical sound of the verse, which expresses the poet’s feelings more powerfully than written words. It is not for nothing that Pushkin, in his famous poem “I remember a wonderful moment...” used the image created by Zhukovsky - “the genius of pure beauty.”
Another poet of the older generation of the golden age of poetry - Konstantin Nikolaevich Batyushkov(1787-1855). His favorite genre is a friendly message that celebrates the simple joys of life.
Pushkin highly valued the lyrics of the legendary Denis Vasilievich Davydov(1784-1839) - hero of the Patriotic War of 1812, organizer of partisan detachments. The poems of this author glorify the romance of military life and hussar life. Not considering himself a true poet, Davydov disdained poetic conventions, and this only made his poems gain in liveliness and spontaneity.
As for the middle generation, Pushkin valued it above others Evgeny Abramovich Baratynsky(Boratynsky) (1800-1844). He called his work “the poetry of thought.” This is a philosophical lyric. The hero of Baratynsky's poems is disappointed in life, sees in it a chain of meaningless suffering, and even love does not become salvation.
Lyceum friend of Pushkin Delvig gained popularity with songs “in the Russian spirit” (his romance “The Nightingale” to the music of A. Alyabyev is widely known). Languages became famous for the image he created of a student - a merry fellow and a freethinker, a kind of Russian vagante. Vyazemsky possessed a merciless irony that permeated his poems, which were mundane in theme and at the same time deep in thought.
At the same time, another tradition of Russian poetry continued to exist and develop - civil. It was connected with names Kondraty Fedorovich Ryleev (1795—1826), Alexander Alexandrovich Bestuzhev (1797—1837), Wilhelm Karlovich Kuchelbecker(life years - 1797-1846) and many other poets. They saw in poetry a means of struggle for political freedom, and in the poet - not a “pet of the muses”, a “son of laziness” who avoids public life, but a stern citizen calling for a battle for the bright ideals of justice.
The words of these poets did not diverge from their deeds: they were all participants in the uprising on Senate Square in 1825, convicted (and Ryleev executed) in the “December 14 Case.” “Bitter is the fate of poets of all tribes; Fate will execute Russia the hardest of all...” - this is how V. K. Kuchelbecker began his poem. It was the last one he wrote with his own hand: years in prison had deprived him of his sight.
Meanwhile, a new generation of poets was emerging. The first poems were written by the young Lermontov. A society arose in Moscow wise men- lovers of philosophy who interpreted German philosophy in the Russian manner. These were the future founders of Slavophilism Stepan Petrovich Shevyrev (1806—1861), Alexey Stepanovich Khomyakov(1804-1860) and others. The most gifted poet of this circle was the one who died early Dmitry Vladimirovich Venevitinov(1805—1827).
And one more interesting phenomenon of this period. Many of the poets we named turned in one way or another to folk poetic traditions, to folklore. But since they were nobles, their works “in the Russian spirit” were still perceived as stylization, as something secondary compared to the main line of their poetry. And in the 30s of the 19th century, a poet appeared who, both by origin and by the spirit of his work, was a representative of the people. This Alexey Vasilievich Koltsov(1809-1842). He spoke in the voice of a Russian peasant, and there was no artificiality, no play in this, it was his own voice, suddenly standing out from the nameless choir of Russian folk poetry.
Russian literature of the first half of the 19th century was so multifaceted.
The social significance and role of literature in shaping the advanced worldview of the people of that era were truly enormous. Belinsky pointed out that “the title of poet, the title of writer” has long been held in high esteem; it “... has long eclipsed the tinsel of epaulettes and multi-colored uniforms.” Although tsarism in every possible way constrained the work of the best writers of the country, it could not stop their influence, because the works of the best Russian writers and poets reflected the life of the people in its unvarnished form and raised acute social problems.
The works of writers and poets who belonged to the democratic trend in Russian literature were fundamentally different in content from the works of writers of the noble and reactionary camps.
Conservative writers followed the path of distracting the people and their best representatives from depicting the actual situation that then existed in Russia. Willingly or unwillingly, they idealized serfdom, landowners, and autocracy. Not being able to depict life in a realistic spirit, they, naturally, could not create large works that constitute the pride of Russian literature. Embellishing life, they most often clung to old literary canons and forms.
In the works the most prominent representatives Russian literature of the democratic direction of the first half of the 19th century. real life was depicted, the ulcers of serfdom and the cruelty of landowners were revealed, sympathy for the oppressed and disadvantaged was awakened, the difficult situation of the peasantry was depicted, their aspirations and aspirations were shown, and liberation ideas were preached.
The realistic content of works of art, naturally, should have influenced changes in the techniques and forms of literary creativity. Hence, in Russian literature in the first half of the 19th century there was a rapid change in literary trends.
In a short period of time, Russian literature goes from classicism to sentimentalism and romanticism and completes its development with the victory of realism.
Classicism as a literary movement was dominant in Russia in the 18th century. He then had his largest representative in the person of Derzhavin. But also in early XIX centuries, a number of writers sought to preserve such forms of works characteristic of classicism as odes, tragedies, etc.
Among the writers who took the position of classicism was the playwright Ozerov. V. A. Ozerov wrote five tragedies, among which the greatest success was the tragedies “Oedipus in Athens” and “Dmitry Donskoy”. In them, Ozerov developed the theme of patriotism. From the point of view of form, he “preserved the style of classicism completely in his works, but introduced into the content new aspects characteristic of sentimentalism and romanticism. Ozerov was very popular at that time. But Pushkin pointed out that with the appearance of true criticism, his glory would inevitably fade, which is what actually happened. Belinsky wrote about Ozerov in “Literary Dreams”: “Now no one will deny Ozerov’s poetic talent, but at the same time, hardly anyone will read him, much less admire him.”
I. A. Krylov began his literary activity in the spirit of classicism. At that time, in his comedies, plays and some fables, he preserved the external forms and canons of classicism, but even then the realism that he later developed made its way through them.
These were the positions of the most talented writers who created their works in the spirit of classicism.
But besides them, the positions of classicism were defended at that time by a number of mostly mediocre writers and writers, grouped around Admiral Shishkov, the Minister of Education and the founder (1811) of a literary society called “Conversation of Lovers of the Russian Word.” Shishkov and the Shishkovists took reactionary positions. They not only defended the canons of classicism, but were also sharp opponents of the creation of a Russian folk literary language. Instead of reforming the Russian literary language, making it understandable and accessible to the people, they tried in every possible way to fence it off with a wall from living spoken folk speech.
They stood for the preservation of archaisms, Church Slavonic figures of speech, and the language of chronicles in the Russian literary language and were irreconcilable opponents of the rapprochement of the literary language with the folk one.
Shishkov published the essay “Rules of Versification”, in which he develops his ideas in the form of a dialogue between two persons - “A” and “B”. Both individuals argue that there should be no reform of the literary Russian language, that the literary language in no case should approach the folk and modern language. It must be based on the language of the chronicles and scripture. Shishkov, in the person of one of his interlocutors, states the following: “The sacred books would provide us with selected words, brief expressions, the beauty and decency of allegories, the height of thought and the power of language. From our chronicles and other similar works they would again appropriate for themselves a lot of good and downright Russian things.”
The Shishkovists defended not only archaisms in the Russian language and literature, but they, as representatives of the reactionary movement, believed that literature should not depict the life of ordinary people, the people. It should only describe gods, kings, generals and heroes. But they cannot and should not speak on stage like ordinary people. “But if I see them acting, speaking, like my neighbor and my neighbors whom I left at home, then I immediately notice that the one who wanted to charm me did not know how to somehow set about it, and in the attire of kings I recognize the bourgeoisie - the people of the street.” - wrote Shishkov. Based on this, Shishkov and the Shishkovists demanded pompous literary language and declared that literary works should be written in an obscure, outdated syllable. Hence they suggested writing: not “pretty much”, but “pretty much”, not “thirteen”, but “thirteen”, saying not “cue”, but “sharopekh”, not “billiard”, but “sharokat”, not “prose” , but “talk”, not “doorman”, but “messenger”, not “ticket”, but “badge”, etc.
Ignoring the basic laws of Russian word formation, Shishkov proposed creating new words such as “horse-like”, “cow-like”. This was a gross violation of the rules of word formation, since the comparative degree can only be formed from qualitative, and not relative, adjectives.
Such positions were opposed by supporters of sentimentalism led by Karamzin, as well as by the representative of romanticism Zhukovsky. Karamzin began the fight for the reform of the Russian language. Representatives of this trend founded their own literary society called “Arzamas” (1815-1818), the head of which was Karamzin and which included V. A. Zhukovsky, A. S. Pushkin and some other people. There is no doubt that the positions of the Karamzinists in the field of reform of the Russian language were progressive, since they considered it necessary to bring the literary language closer to the living one. colloquial speech, considered it necessary to introduce new words, and Karamzin, in particular, introduced such new words for that time as “industry”, “future”, “humanity”, “public”, etc.
But at the same time, Karamzin and the Karamzinists could not complete the reform of the Russian literary language. When speaking about the rapprochement of the literary language with the spoken language, they did not mean folk speech, but the salon language of aristocratic circles. Hence, they often wrote their works in pretentious language, introduced words that did not take root, and needlessly littered the Russian literary language with foreign words. The Karamzinists' passion for pretentious language and foreign words was noticed by the Shishkovists. The bigwigs sometimes made fun of this quite successfully weak point sentimentalists.
Only the great Russian writer Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin was able to complete the reform of the Russian literary language, make it popular and completely accessible to the masses.
A. S. Pushkin, the founder of the direction of critical realism in Russian literature, created the literary language that we use to this day. This shows what a gigantic revolution he made in the literary language. Of course, this revolution was partly prepared by the work of Karamzin, Zhukovsky, Griboedov, and Krylov. But basically, the Russian literary language found its full expression only in the works of A. S. Pushkin, and then Lermontov, Gogol and other great Russian writers of the realistic direction.
The changes introduced by sentimentalism (compared to classicism) in Russian literature were not limited only to the reform of the Russian literary language. They also touched upon issues of content.
The progressive side of sentimentalism was that representatives of this trend began to take the heroes of their works not kings, gods, military leaders, but ordinary people. Thus, Karamzin’s “Poor Liza” describes the fate of the family of a wealthy peasant. The weak, reactionary side of sentimentalism was the idealization of reality, the reluctance to see landlord oppression, and the idealization of serfdom. In 1798, in his work “Rural Idyll” Karamzin wrote:
How can we not sing - we are happy,
We praise the master-father.
Our speeches are ugly
But hearts are sensitive.
It is clear that the image of the serf-owner landowner, the oppressor of the peasants, who carried out savage reprisals against his peasants, in the role of their father had nothing in common with the actual situation. This was a reactionary idealization of the serf system and serfdom. And here the sentimentalists took entirely reactionary positions. The weak side of sentimentalism was also excessive sensitivity. Karamzin keeps exclaiming: “Poor Liza! Oh!". His followers abused this to an even greater extent.
All this showed that the sentimentalists were far from depicting real life, they embellished it.
And it is not for nothing that the opponents of sentimentalism, noticing this weak side of it, attacked it. Ridiculing the excessive sensitivity of sentimentalists, Yakovlev wittily wrote:
Under this stone lies Erast Chertopolokhov,
He died on Wednesday from tears, love and sighs.
Romanticism, which replaced sentimentalism and existed alongside and with it, was heterogeneous. Conservative romanticism was represented by Zhukovsky. Zhukovsky's romanticism was close to sentimentalism. Zhukovsky’s translations also did not depict real life, but rather religious and mystical subjects prevailed. His ballads depict devils and witches, dead people and cemeteries, vampires and spirits. In this spirit, Zhukovsky wrote “Lyudmila”, “Aeolian Harp”, “Smalgolm Castle”. He also wrote on themes of folk legends (“Svetlana”). But Zhukovsky also had works such as “The Singer in the Camp of Russian Warriors,” which reflected the War of 1812 and had a current meaning.
Along with conservative romanticism, revolutionary romanticism developed in Russia, expressed in the works of the Decembrist poets, characteristic to a certain extent of Griboyedov and Pushkin, especially in the early period of his literary activity. In revolutionary romanticism, the motives of accusatory civic poetry were strongly manifested. The beginning of the accusatory trend in literature was laid by Radishchev. In his ode “Liberty”, in “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow” and other works, he denounced serfdom and autocracy. This accusatory democratic orientation, although far from being as consistent as that of Radishchev, continued at the beginning of the 19th century. in the works of Pnin, Popugaev, Born.
They paved the way for the Decembrists in terms of the accusatory orientation of literature. Among the Decembrists, the motives of civil, accusatory poetry are predominant. In the works of the Decembrist poets - Ryleev, Kuchelbecker, Odoevsky, Bestuzhev (Marlinsky) and others - romanticism takes on a pronounced revolutionary character; it differs sharply from the conservative romanticism of Zhukovsky. The literature of the Decembrist poets was freedom-loving in nature. She castigated Arakcheevism, serfdom, sang of liberty, freedom, love of the fatherland, the desire for the common good, the struggle for the liberation of the country from autocratic power, from serfdom, etc. The poetry of the Decembrist poets reflected their revolutionary views.
Critical realism replaced sentimentalism and romanticism.
Critical realism meant a transition to depicting life in the works of writers in a realistic spirit, with all its complex contradictions and struggles. However, the writers - the founders of realism - did not simply copy the life of their time in a naturalistic spirit, but in most cases expressed their critical attitude towards it; they depicted in their works the most important, significant moments of life, took from it the most typical phenomena; They had a negative attitude towards the social ills of the era of serfdom, towards the reactionary regime, and with their works, willingly or unwillingly, they awakened progressive social thought. The works of writers of this movement often became the banner of the revolutionary struggle.
The direct predecessors of Pushkin as the founder of realism in Russian literature were in the first half of the 19th century. I. A. Krylov and A. S. Griboedov. Even Fonvizin, in his work “The Minor,” introduced realism into Russian literature. In Krylov and Griboyedov this tendency towards realism is more strongly developed.
I. A. Krylov (1769-1844) embarked on the path of literary activity early. At the age of fifteen he wrote his comic opera “The Coffee House,” in which he exposes serfdom. Then he wrote his other works: “Philomena,” which never saw the light of day, “Mad Family,” “The Writer in the Hallway,” “Pranksters” and others. He first published the satirical magazine “Mail of Spirits,” which was published from 1789 to 1799, then, together with other authors, the magazine “Spectator,” in which serfdom was sharply criticized; For this, the magazine was closed, and Krylov was placed under surveillance. Krylov became more careful in his statements and works.
At the beginning of the 19th century. I. A. Krylov writes his comedies in the classical spirit: “Podchipa” (1800), “Fashion Shop” (1806), “Lesson for Daughters” (1806-1817), in which he ridicules gallomania. These plays clearly demonstrate the contradiction between realistic content and the formal canons of classicism. Krylov gravitated toward realism and therefore ridiculed sentimentalists who embellished life. “Our rural residents are smoldering in the smoke, and you have to be a terrible hunter of novels to weave a hut for some Ivan from myrtle and rose bushes,” he declared. I. A. Krylov's comedies were successful, but they were not what brought him fame and recognition.
I. A. Krylov found himself, his style, in fables. In this genre of creativity, Krylov showed realism and nationalism, and he became a true folk poet and writer.
Assessing the work of I. A. Krylov, V. G. Belinsky wrote: “Krylov’s poetry is the poetry of common sense, worldly wisdom, and for it, rather than for any other poetry, one can find ready-made content in Russian life.”
Realism in Krylov's fables was reflected in their accusatory focus and clarity of language. Krylov castigates serfdom, arbitrariness and hypocrisy (“Elephant in the Voivodeship,” “Fish Dances”). He exposes parasitism (“The Dragonfly and the Ant”), boasting (“The Good Fox,” “Tit”), ignorance (“The Rooster and the Grain of Pearl”) and other negative phenomena. However, Krylov no longer risks speaking directly and sharply about the paths of transformation, as he did at the beginning of his literary activity and as reflected in his fable “Horse and Rider.”
I. A. Krylov wrote for the people, his works were understandable to everyone, and from them it was possible to draw conclusions that went much further than what the author could say openly.
The realism of I. A. Krylov in his last works was nourished by the powerful influence that A. S. Pushkin had on literature. Belinsky points out: “... Krylov wrote his most popular fables already in the era of Pushkin’s activity and, consequently, the new movement that the latter gave to Russian poetry.”
The second major predecessor of A. S. Pushkin as the creator of the direction of critical realism in literature was A. S. Griboyedov.
A. S. Griboedov (1795-1829) created his famous work “Woe from Wit,” which, like Krylov’s work, was a step forward towards the formation of critical realism in Russian literature.
In the comedy “Woe from Wit,” Russian literature rose to a higher level compared to sentimentalism and romanticism. The artistic qualities of “Woe from Wit” were significant; Pushkin said that half of the comedy’s verses would become proverbs. “Woe from Wit” was adjacent to the accusatory literature of the Decembrists. Chatsky denounces the serf system and its typical representatives (Skalozub, Famusov and other serf-owning nobles).
Belinsky wrote about Griboyedov’s comedy “Woe from Wit” this way: “The faces created by Griboyedov are not invented, but taken from life in full height, drawn from the bottom of real life; they do not have their virtues and vices written on their foreheads, but they are branded with the seal of their insignificance.”
For a number of years, Griboyedov’s brilliant comedy was not staged, it was banned, and only after Griboedov’s death did the tsarist authorities allow it to be staged, although they then crossed out much of it. However, despite these censorship perversions, the comedy “Woe from Wit” retained its anti-serfdom and accusatory character. Griboedov’s “Woe from Wit” was a direct precursor to the work of the great Russian poet A. S. Pushkin.
A. S. Pushkin (1799-1837) was the founder of the new great Russian literature, the creator of the realistic movement and the Russian literary language. Pushkin was a great Russian national writer.
N.V. Gogol wrote about Pushkin: “At the name of Pushkin, the thought of a Russian national poet immediately dawns... In him, Russian nature, Russian soul, Russian language, Russian character were reflected in the same purity... in which the landscape is reflected on a convex optical glass surfaces. His very life is completely Russian.”
But at the same time, A.S. Pushkin was not only a great Russian poet, but also a brilliant poet of world literature, to the development of which he made, along with the great poets and writers of other countries, his invaluable contribution.
A.S. Pushkin passionately loved his homeland, the Russian people. He declared: “I swear on my honor, I would not want to change my fatherland for anything in the world.” He called for giving all your strength to serving your homeland:
While we are burning with freedom,
While hearts are alive for honor, -
My friend, let's dedicate it to the fatherland
Souls have wonderful impulses.
Having given all his talent and genius to serving his homeland, A.S. Pushkin did a truly gigantic job; he was the founder of new Russian literature, the creator of the direction of critical realism in it.
Belinsky wrote: “The Karamzin period of our literature was followed by Pushkin’s...”; “Pushkin ruled solely by the power of his talent and the fact that he was the son of his century; Karamzin’s dominion has recently been based on blind respect for his authority.”
The work of A. S. Pushkin led to the fact that the sentimentalism of Karamzin and the conservative romanticism of Zhukovsky left the stage. In literature, the main place belonged at this time, thanks to Pushkin, to active, revolutionary romanticism and realism. Revolutionary or, in the words of A. M. Gorky, “active” romanticism was characteristic of the works of many Decembrist poets. In the West, Byron was a brilliant representative of this trend.
In the early works of A. S. Pushkin, which have a realistic basis, written in folk literary language, one can feel, along with realism, a manifestation of romanticism, for example, in “Prisoner of the Caucasus”, “Gypsies”, “Bakhchisarai Fountain” and some others.
Attempts to declare these works an imitation of Pushkin’s work by Byron are absolutely unfounded. Belinsky also pointed out: “It is unfair to say that he imitated Chenier, Byron and others.” Already these works of A. S. Pushkin, written by him in exile in the south of Russia, attracted to him the attention of all the best people in the country, all that was advanced in it.
But the main thing that was characteristic of the work of A. S. Pushkin was his works, written entirely in a realistic spirit; Among them, “Eugene Onegin”, “Boris Godunov”, “The Captain’s Daughter”, “Poltava”, “The Bronze Horseman”, etc. occupy a particularly important place.
Belinsky called “Eugene Onegin” and “Boris Godunov” “diamonds of Russian literature.” And these “diamonds” of Russian literature were spat upon at one time by reactionary criticism. Agent III of the literature department Bulgarin, in his magazine “Northern Bee,” published an offensive review of the seventh chapter of Eugene Onegin, where he wrote: “Not a single thought in this watery chapter, not a single feeling.” And Metropolitan Filaret saw an insult to the shrine in Pushkin’s verse “and a flock of jackdaws on crosses” and demanded on this basis, as censor Nikitenko says, that the publication of “Eugene Onegin” be banned. Even Benckendorff was forced to maneuver, and the censor wrote in his explanation that it was no longer the author’s fault that the jackdaws were sitting on crosses, but the chief of police who allowed this to happen.
This attitude towards Pushkin was not accidental, for his work reflected advanced revolutionary sentiments and views close to the Decembrists.
Pushkin's poetry was freedom-loving in nature. In the ode “Liberty,” the poet speaks of the inevitability of the collapse of autocracy. In the poem “I erected a monument to myself not made by hands,” he wrote:
And for a long time I will be so kind to the people,
That I awakened good feelings with my lyre,
That in my cruel age I glorified freedom
And he called for mercy for the fallen.
In the poem “Village,” the poet sharply condemned serfdom:
Here the nobility is wild, without feeling, without law,
Appropriated by a violent vine
And labor, and property, and the time of the farmer.
With drooping head, submitting to the whips,
Here skinny slavery drags along the reins
An unforgiving owner.
In A.S. Pushkin we find epigrams on Arakcheev, the obscurantist Archimandrite Photius, the reactionary Sturdza and others. His poems praising freedom were the banner of the Decembrists.
Decembrist Yakushkin wrote: “All his published works - “Village”, “Dagger”, “Four Lines to Arakcheev”, “Message to Pyotr Chaadaev” and many others - were not only known to everyone, but at that time there was no literate an ensign in the army who did not know them by heart.” And his famous message to the Decembrists in Siberia testified not only to his ideological connection with them, but also to his belief that the Decembrists’ struggle would not be in vain. Nicholas I's attempt to make Pushkin a court poet failed.
For his progressive and revolutionary views, A.S. Pushkin was subjected to fierce persecution by reactionary representatives of the ruling class, who did not take into account the fact that he was a genius of Russian literature, and sought his death in every way.
This persecution by the royal court and its entourage led to the murder in 1837 of the great Russian poet in a duel by the adventurer Dantes.
The deliberate nature of the persecution of Pushkin is clearly emphasized in a letter from Alexander Karamzin to his brother Andrei. These letters were discovered in the Urals during Soviet times; they contain correspondence of the Karamzin family. Alexander Karamzin writes about Pushkin’s murderers - Dantes and Heeckeren - like this: “These people had one goal - to pollute Pushkin’s honor.” Pushkin could not tolerate this, challenged Dantes, the adopted son of the Dutch envoy, to a duel, and was killed.
This reprisal against the genius of Russian literature caused an angry protest among his contemporaries towards the killer.
In one of the anonymous letters to gr. Orlov wrote that “deprivation of all ranks, exile to eternal times in the garrison soldiers of Dantes cannot satisfy the Russians for the deliberate, deliberate murder of Pushkin.”
Pushkin's death shocked the best people of that time. The report of the gendarmerie department wrote that at Pushkin’s funeral “the gathering of visitors around the body was extraordinary.” Total number more than 50 thousand people visited Pushkin’s apartment. Therefore, Pushkin's body was taken secretly to the village for burial.
Reflecting the thoughts of all progressive people, Odoevsky placed in the literary appendix to “The Russian Invalid” the following short obituary dedicated to the memory of the great poet.
“The sun of our poetry has set. Pushkin died in the prime of his life, in the middle of his great career! ...There is no power to talk about this anymore, and there is no need; every Russian heart knows the full price of this irreparable loss, and every Russian heart will be torn to pieces. Pushkin! Our poet! Our joy, our national glory! Don’t we really have Pushkin?.. It’s impossible to get used to this thought.”
And for printing this obituary, the publisher Kraevsky received a reprimand from the Minister of Education Uvarov, transmitted to him through the trustee of the educational district Dondukov-Korsakov. Dondukov-Korsakov told Kraevsky: “I must tell you that the minister (Sergei Semenovich Uvarov) is extremely, extremely dissatisfied with you. Why this publication about Pushkin? What are these black frames around the news of the death of a non-official person who does not occupy any position in the public service? Was Pushkin a commander, a military leader, a minister, statesman?.. Writing poetry does not mean, as Sergei Semenovich put it, going through a great field.”
Here all the stupidity of representatives of the ruling class, reactionary circles close to the tsar and reflecting his views is clearly revealed.
Gogol, having learned about the death of Pushkin, wrote: “No worse news could have been received from Russia.” Outraged by the murder of the great poet, M. Yu. Lermontov came out with his poem dedicated to the memory of Pushkin.
M. Yu. Lermontov (1814-1841) continued the work of Pushkin. Lermontov emphasized his continuity in relation to Pushkin with the poem “The Death of a Poet,” in which he sharply castigated Pushkin’s executioners. As a young man, in 1830, M. Yu. Lermontov welcomed the revolution and expressed faith in the fall of autocracy in Russia. In 1830, in the poem “Novgorod,” he wrote: “Our tyrant will perish, as all tyrants perished.” In his early work, related to the development of the revolution of 1830 in France, Lermontov comes out on the side of the revolution, against the king:
And a terrible battle broke out,
And the banner of liberty, like a spirit,
Walks over the proud crowd.
And one sound filled my ears,
And blood splashed in Paris.
Oh, what will you pay, tyrant,
For this righteous blood,
For the blood of people, for the blood of citizens?
With all his creativity, all his poetry, Lermontov expresses his desire for freedom.
Lermontov depicts in his works (“Poet”, “Duma”, “Mtsyri”, “Song about Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich”, etc.) freedom-loving people who often die (“Mtsyri”), but protest against reality. And it’s not for nothing that Dobrolyubov wrote: “I especially like Lermontov. I not only like his poems, but I sympathize with him and share his beliefs. It seems to me sometimes that I myself could say the same thing, although not in the same way - not so strongly, truly and gracefully.” In terms of talent, he was a worthy successor to A.S. Pushkin. Emphasizing the unusually strongly expressed artistic side in Lermontov’s work “Mtsyri,” Belinsky wrote: “One can say without exaggeration that the poet took flowers from the rainbow, rays from the sun, shine from lightning, roar from thunder, roar from the winds - that all nature itself carried and gave him material when he wrote this poem.”
In his famous work “Hero of Our Time,” Lermontov continues “Eugene Onegin” in his own way. In the works of M. Yu. Lermontov, realism is intertwined with active revolutionary romanticism. For his freedom-loving creativity, protest against the death of Pushkin and condemnation of his executioners, M. Yu. Lermontov was exiled to the Caucasus, where, like Pushkin, he was persecuted and in 1841 was killed in a duel near Pyatigorsk by officer Martynov.
The promising poet A. Polezhaev ended his life in a soldier's hospital. V. G. Belinsky wrote about him: “The distinctive character of Polezhaev’s poetry is the extraordinary power of feeling. Had it appeared at another time, under more favorable circumstances, with science and moral development, Polezhaev’s talent would have brought rich fruits, left behind remarkable works and would have taken a prominent place in the history of Russian literature.” But this did not happen. Polezhaev wrote a number of works: “Evening Dawn”, “Chains”, “The Living Dead”, “Song of the Dying Swimmer”, “Song of the Captive Iroquois” and others. He translated Lamartine. Polezhaev also wrote a parody of Pushkin’s poem “Eugene Onegin” called “Sashka”. In this poem, without mincing words, he touched a lot, including the autocratic, reactionary regime of Nicholas I, for which he was demoted to soldier.
Polezhaev’s fate can be expressed in his own poetry:
Didn't bloom and faded
In the morning of cloudy days,
What I loved, I found in it
The death of your life.
In the first half of the 19th century. Poets who come from the people also enter the arena of literary activity, among whom the most prominent place is occupied by A.V. Koltsov, the son of a wealthy cattle dealer. Koltsov’s work reflected the life of the peasantry. V. G. Belinsky spoke warmly about Koltsov; he said that many of Koltsov’s songs would be sung “throughout the entire expanse of boundless Rus'.”
Of particular importance for the first half of the 19th century. and the affirmation of critical realism in the field of prose was the work of the great Russian writer N.V. Gogol.
N.V. Gogol (1809-1852) was born in Sorochintsy, Poltava province, and studied at the Nizhyn Lyceum. The first work he wrote, Hans Küchelgarten, was unsuccessful, and he himself destroyed it. But this did not discourage N.V. Gogol. He later said that this failure taught him a lot and forced him to take literary issues seriously. “How I thank the highest right hand,” he wrote, “for the troubles and failures that I had to experience. This time was the best educator for me.” After this, N.V. Gogol changed many professions until he finally found himself. He was an artist, lectured on general history at the university, etc.
But then he returns to literature again. In 1831, on behalf of Rudy Panko, he wrote his famous “Evenings on a Farm near Dikanka.” Assessing “Evenings on a Farm near Dikanka,” A. S. Pushkin wrote: “They amazed me.”
Belinsky wrote about Gogol: “It can be said without exaggeration that Gogol made a revolution in Russian romantic prose, like Pushkin in poetry.” Belinsky speaks of the extraordinary colorfulness and imagery of Gogol’s language. “Gogol,” Belinsky declares, “does not write, but draws; his images breathe the living colors of reality.”
But Gogol himself said that in order to create a good work, you need to work a lot on the manuscript, at least redoing it eight times. The genius of Gogol's works lies not only in the extraordinary imagery of the language, but also in the truthful, realistic depiction of life. Touching on this aspect of the matter, V. G. Belinsky wrote: “The perfect truth of life in Mr. Gogol’s stories is closely connected with the simplicity of fiction. He does not flatter life, but does not slander it; he is happy to expose everything that is beautiful and human in her, and at the same time does not hide her ugliness in the least. In both cases, he is faithful to life to the last degree.” This is precisely what Gogol’s critical realism in the field of literature consists of. Depicting life truthfully, Gogol sought to reveal its ulcers and condemn its negative phenomena.
In 1836, N.V. Gogol created his brilliant work “The Inspector General”. After the production of The Inspector General, Nicholas I said: “Everyone got it, but I got it more than anyone else.” Following this, a whole campaign began directed against Gogol. In a letter to Shchepkin, Gogol wrote: “Now I see what it means to be a comic writer. The slightest specter of truth - and not just one person, but an entire class, rebels against you.” In these words, he clearly expressed the attitude of the bureaucratic and noble circles to his brilliant work. In 1842, Gogol published Dead Souls. In this work he gives a vivid negative picture of serf Russia. In “Dead Souls” N.V. Gogol draws a whole collection of negative types of feudal landowners.
It is interesting to note how the censor reacted to this brilliant creation of the great writer. When “Dead Souls” was brought to the censorship committee, Golokhvastov, hearing only one title, shouted: “No, I won’t allow this. There cannot be a dead soul. The author is against immortality." And when they explained to him what the matter was - that in this work of Gogol it was not about the immortality of the soul, but about the dead landowner peasants - he said: “No, this certainly cannot be allowed, even if it was not in the manuscript, but there was one word: revisionist soul, this cannot be allowed, it means against serfdom.” Without reading the work, Golokhvastov “got to the point,” because Gogol’s “Dead Souls” was really directed against serfdom, showed it in an extremely unsightly, realistic light, and depicted negative types of serf-landowners whom Gogol castigated. The “heroes” in “Dead Souls” are negative people, starting with Chichikov himself. This was not accidental, because while condemning serfdom and sympathizing with the situation of the masses, N.V. Gogol could not portray the domination and violence of the landowners against the peasants in a positive light. In the last chapter of Dead Souls, the writer explains as follows the reason why he took negative types rather than positive ones: “Because,” he writes, “it’s time to finally give rest to the poor virtuous man; because the word “virtuous person” rolls around idly in one’s mouth; because they turned into a horse virtuous person, and there is no writer who would not ride on him, urging him on with a whip and anything else... No, it’s time to finally punish the scoundrel too. So, let’s harness the scoundrel.”
“The Inspector General” and “Dead Souls” are vividly accusatory works directed against serf owners and officials. Gogol also wrote the second part of Dead Souls, but burned it.
In the last period of his life, Gogol fell ill with a nervous disorder, fell into mysticism, and took reactionary positions. It was previously said that his work “Selected Passages from Correspondence with Friends,” where he expressed incorrect, reactionary thoughts, was sharply criticized in Belinsky’s letter. This letter from Belinsky did not pass without a trace for Gogol. Gogol wrote the following in response to him: “I could not answer your letter. My soul was exhausted, everything was shocked... And what could I answer? God knows, maybe there is some truth in your words.” This shows that Gogol was close to realizing his mistakes.
N.V. Gogol created many great works, including: “Tarzs Bulba” - a patriotic work, “The Overcoat” - a work depicting the hard life and everyday life of petty officials, “The Tale of How Ivan Ivanovich Quarreled with Ivan Nikiforovich” and many other outstanding works.
Gogol's significance in Russian literature was exceptionally great. The types created by Gogol entered literature as common nouns, such as Khlestakovism, Manilovism, etc. Belinsky called Gogol the head of Russian literature, and this was indeed so. Realism in Gogol's work reached new, extraordinary heights. Gogol developed the legacy of Pushkin and Lermontov. He had a tremendous influence on the literary activity of writers of all subsequent generations, creating a natural school of critical direction, and had a great influence on the development of world literature and especially on the literature of the Slavic peoples.
After Pushkin, Lermontov and Gogol, the direction of critical realism received its further development in the work of a whole galaxy of such outstanding Russian writers as N. A. Nekrasov, M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, A. N. Ostrovsky, F. M. Dostoevsky, I. S. Turgenev, I. A. Goncharov and others. They were joined by less prominent writers, supporters of realism - Grigorovich, Dal, Sologub, Panaev.
It must be borne in mind that the work of such writers as Nekrasov, Saltykov-Shchedrin, Ostrovsky, Turgenev, Dostoevsky, Goncharov was mostly just beginning in the 40s and even in the 50s; The heyday of their creative work falls at a later time, on the eve of the reform of 1861 and after it, when serf Russia was replaced by capitalist Russia. In these later conditions, among the named major Russian writers, different directions were identified, arising from which camp this or that writer belonged to in terms of his political sympathies and views. Thus, Nekrasov and Saltykov-Shchedrin belonged to the camp of revolutionary democrats of the 50s and 60s. Ostrovsky stood close to them, I. S. Turgenev joined the liberal camp, and Dostoevsky, initially close to the Petrashevites, went through a very difficult path of creativity and strayed into preaching reactionary views, although all of his work cannot be reduced to this.
Such was the situation in the camp of these outstanding writers in post-reform times. As for their creativity in the 40-50s of the 19th century, then there was no such clear differentiation among them. Moreover, all of them, to a certain extent, were united and brought together by a negative attitude towards serfdom, sympathy for the position of the oppressed serf peasantry and the position of the humiliated and disadvantaged, small people of the city (petty officials, artisans, commoners, etc.). All outstanding writers of this time (Nekrasov, Saltykov-Shchedrin, Dostoevsky, Ostrovsky, Turgenev, Goncharov, Grigorovich, etc.), who, in relation to the era of the 40-50s, are often called representatives of the natural school of critical realism, in their works time depicted the extremely difficult situation of the oppressed serf peasantry, the cruelty of the feudal landowners, tyrant merchants, the hopeless situation of the small oppressed people of the city and countryside. In their works they condemned serfdom, condemned bribery, extortion and tyranny. During these years they created works that were forever included in the collection of great Russian literature.
N.A. Nekrasov wrote during these years “St. Petersburg Corners”, “On the Road”, “Troika”, “Motherland”, “Driving Down a Dark Street at Night”, “Reflections at the Front Entrance” and others.
M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin in the 40s wrote: “Contradictions”, “A Confused Affair”, and in the 50s he began publishing his “Provincial Sketches”.
I. S. Turgenev wrote his famous “Notes of a Hunter,” where he painted landowners as negative and peasants positive features. It is not without reason that the Minister of Education Shirinsky-Shikh-matov wrote that in this work by I. S. Turgenev, the landowners “are generally presented in a funny and caricatured way or, even more often, in a form reprehensible to their honor.”
F. M. Dostoevsky wrote his story “Poor People,” where he painted in bright colors the life of a poor official, Makar Devushkin, and people associated with him.
A. N. Ostrovsky, who painted the life of the merchants, wrote “The Insolvent Debtor” during these years. Later he wrote “Poverty is not a shame”, “Don’t get into your own sleigh” and other wonderful works. I. A. Goncharov published “An Ordinary Story,” where he described how the young man Aduev turns from a dreamer and idealist into a major official, a contender (by marriage) for a half-million dollar fortune. In 1859, he completed work on his largest work, the novel Oblomov. D. V. Grigorovich wrote the story “Petersburg Organ Grinders” from the life of the city, and from the life of the village - his two famous works: “Village” and “Anton Goremyka”. In them, especially in the last one, he depicts the plight of the peasantry.
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