More Thomas (1478-1535), English humanist, political figure and historian, one of the founders of utopian socialism.

He was educated in the house of Cardinal J. Morton and completed his education at Oxford (1492-1494). Elected to Parliament (1504), More opposed the ruin of the country by King Henry VII and was forced to go into hiding. When passions subsided, he became an assistant sheriff of London (1510-1518).

In 1516, More published the treatise “Utopia” (Greek: “place that does not exist”). The author depicts a state where people live in self-governing cities, and land and property are in common use. Everything produced is handed over to public warehouses and distributed among the fathers of families by officials, and the latter are not appointed, but elected. These same fathers of families command production and take turns going to work on suburban farms for two years. Family composition is regulated by officials. Residents eat mainly in public canteens.

“Utopia” had a huge influence on religious sectarians traveling to America. More himself, knighted (1521), headed the House of Commons (1523-1529) and became Lord Chancellor (1529-1532), issued pamphlets against the Reformation (a social movement in Western and Central Europe in the 16th century, directed against the Roman Catholic Church) and was indignant about the Peasants' War in Germany (1524-1526).

His humanistic passions were embodied in correspondence with like-minded people, including Erasmus of Rotterdam, and in the defense of Catholicism.

In The History of King Richard III (1531), More skillfully created a terrifying image of a tyrant - an ugly, depraved and criminal usurper.

King Henry VIII, whom More prevented from divorcing and marrying Anne Boleyn, broke with the Pope and dismissed the chancellor. Imprisoned in the Tower of London, More refused to swear allegiance to the king as head of the Church of England and was executed on July 6, 1535.

400 years later, in 1935, he was canonized by the Roman Catholic Church like a saint.

• POWER
• MORALITY
• SOCIETY

The article examines the socio-political views of Thomas More. Particular attention is paid to the presentation of his concept of the state.

• Improving the information policy of the Russian Federation
• Basic rules for working with the media of local governments
• Integrated land policy as an object of political science research

Thomas More is an English philosopher and writer who adheres to humanistic views. His main book is "Utopia", in which he depicts his ideal society in the form of a fantastic island-state. He follows many thinkers of the Renaissance, who saw limitations in the cult of individualism, which became the ideological core of the Renaissance, and turned to understanding sociality, without which a full-fledged existence is impossible and which needs to be improved. He considers the method of building such a society to be convincing people of the need for such a future. He considers universal morality to be the main tool for the life of society.

More saw the Reformation as a threat to the church and society, criticized the religious views of Martin Luther and William Tyndale and, while serving as Lord Chancellor, prevented the spread of Protestantism in England. Refused to recognize Henry VIII as the head of the Church of England and considered his divorce from Catherine of Aragon invalid. In 1535 he was executed under the Act of Treason. In 1935 he was canonized as a saint of the Catholic Church. Most likely, his views should be characterized as traditionalism, but the revolutionary spirit of his book speaks of his inherent sympathy for innovation, for moderate liberalism.

The main topic More's thoughts became problems of the socio-political structure. He did not create an original socio-philosophical concept based on a deeply developed theoretical philosophy, but his substantive approach to the consideration of social problems, which nevertheless traces his attitude to the problem of the relationship between the individual and society, is of interest. Religious beliefs occupy an important place in More's worldview. On the one hand, he is a model Catholic, opposing Protestantism and the Church of England. On the other hand, he is a humanist who understands the need for scientific thinking and enlightenment of the people of his era. We believe that he is a follower of the Catholic philosopher Thomas Aquinas, who proposed to seek a union between religion, science and education. The same position is defended by a number of Muslim theologians.

The main problem socio-political structure T. More considered the issue of property, which gives rise to many social ills - inequality, oppression, envy, etc. He saw a cure for social ills in replacing private property with public property. T. More knew well the social and moral life of contemporary England. His sympathy for the plight of the masses was reflected precisely in the book “Utopia”, which is permeated with the influence of Plato’s ideas, and above all his work “The State”.

The most specific feature of T. More's socio-philosophical concept is the anti-individualistic interpretation of social life, which he envisions in his version of the ideal state. Consistent anti-individualism requires the abolition of private property, equalizing everyone in consumption (we subsequently discover this idea in the theory of scientific communism of Marxism). And if in Plato private property is absent only in the ruling classes, then in the utopian state of T. More it is absent for everyone. T. More tried to reduce the state to big family, in which there can be no stratification of property, because within the family, private property loses its meaning. At the same time, it is necessary for people to recognize this loss and accept it.

Following the example of Plato, T. More considers justice and adherence to laws to be the main pillars of the state. Moreover, the inhabitants of Utopia are subject not so much to legal as to ethical laws: they have very few written laws. It is interesting that such a view on the regulation of social life was expressed by the classics of Marxism-Leninism. The inhabitants of Utopia have their own religion, more ancient than Christianity. Its content boils down to the belief in the existence of a single divine being (Parent), scattered throughout the world. Here we see a contradiction in the views of the Catholic More and the ideologist of Utopia. However, such contradictions are also revealed on a number of other issues of this utopian socialist.

The methodology for analyzing society proposed by More is hardly justified. But for its time it was progressive, it showed that there were other ways of social structure. Unfortunately, More did not see other ways to explain social development, the multidimensionality of historical and sociological knowledge.

Based on the above, the following conclusions can be drawn:

1. Since T. More argues that the imperfection of the individual existence of people in the state is determined by the established system of property, this actually means an objective approach to the relationship between the individual and society, in which the social whole in the form of social relations influences individuals, turning them into suffering objects.
2. By changing the social whole, one can achieve a change in individual existence for the better.

Bibliography

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Thomas More (1478-1535). His life and social activities Yakovenko Valentin

Chapter IV. Literary works of Thomas More. "Utopia"

Literary works. – The emergence and success of “Utopia.” – Is this satire? – Contents of “Utopia”

The centuries-old literary fame of Thomas More rests solely on his Utopia. Of his other works, we will only point out the “History of Richard III,” the biography of Pico della Mirandola, the polemic with Brixius in defense of Erasmus, and then some works of a religious nature, but these will be discussed below. In this chapter we will talk only about “Utopia”, or, rather, we will simply outline its content, since for various reasons we cannot subject it to a critical analysis here.

Utopia appeared in 1516 in Latin at Louvain; its successor was Erasmus of Rotterdam, who wrote a preface filled with praise for the author and the work. The success of “Utopia” was enormous at first; it went through ten Latin editions alone in the 16th and 17th centuries and then, of course, was translated into all the major European languages. More took a leading position among humanists, which, of course, could not but please him; but he was far from any vanity, and if this extraordinary success had any influence on him personally, then perhaps only that it prompted him to decide to serve King Henry VIII.

“Utopia” falls into two parts: critical and positive; but it cannot be said that each of them was strictly consistent in its own way: in the critical one you find positive indications, for example, about the community of property, and in the positive one - criticism of the modern system, for example final words. The parts of “Utopia” were written in reverse order: first the second, in fits and starts, between times, and then the first - all at once. Presentation of the positive part in any teaching is, of course, much more difficult; it requires greater mental resources, greater strain on mental abilities, and more time. The fragmentary nature of the work had its unfavorable consequences for Utopia: some questions are not developed clearly enough and are presented confusingly, such as the question of power and, in particular, the sovereign.

Then it is necessary to say at least a few words about what “Utopia” is essentially, in its entirety - whether it is a picture of an ideal social order, as More understood it, or a satire on the social and state life of that time. Many writers are inclined to the latter opinion: they are shocked by the ideal hostel outlined by More. But you shouldn’t stop there: you never know what can shock people. Question: who is shocked? A person accustomed to indulging his “tastes,” whatever those tastes may be, is shocked by any restrictions imposed in the name of ideal requirements. A person imbued with bourgeois principles, no matter how subtly and sublimely he understands them, cannot, of course, sympathize with More’s common life, and if at the same time, due to his bourgeois delicacy, he does not dare to call “Utopia” in its essential part nonsense and phantasmagoria (I do not I’m talking about particulars), then he begins to talk about satire. An amazing satire in which there is nothing satirical, except for some minor episodes! Satire proceeds from the existing order of things: it takes a fact or principle that is subject to ridicule, and, making all sorts of constructions on it, striking with unexpected conclusions, leading to the point of absurdity, or going deeper and analyzing it, overthrows it from its pedestal. Is this what Mor does? No, he does something completely opposite: he really puts forward a single comprehensive principle, but a principle that was trampled and condemned by everyone at the time when he wrote. Let them explain to us why More needed to defend a principle that had no application in life? After all, this is more pointless than fighting windmills! If More paints a Utopian life in order to highlight the social disgraces that surrounded him, and thus wants to lead the reader’s thoughts to a critical attitude towards the latter, then he himself must stand on solid ground, rely on principles sincerely recognized, in a word, believe in what what is he talking about; otherwise his entire structure will fall apart at the slightest movement of critical thought, like a house of cards from a blow of the breeze. And More really believes...

We have shown the logical inconsistency of the statement that More wrote a satire. Getting acquainted with More's life, we are convinced that at the same time there is a complete internal inconsistency. “Utopia” is in complete harmony with the actual beliefs of Thomas More, at least at the time when he wrote it; This does not mean that More accomplished everything described in “Utopia” in his life, but that he would have accomplished all of this (I’m not talking about particulars, of course) if the conditions had been at all suitable. A social ideal, no matter how ardently you believe in it, cannot be realized if society does not share your faith. Another thing is the entire personal routine of a person’s life, which depends to a large extent on himself; and if you compare More's private life with the life of his Utopians, you will be convinced that More was not at all fantasizing: the author described not only what he believed in, but what he, in essence, did himself. I'll give you a few examples. Compare family life Mora with the life of the Utopians: food and drink, love of music, condemnation of all kinds of games, spending time in reading and conversation, even such a particular as love for Lucian, and so on. What, then, did More aim the arrows of his satire at? To his own life, into which he brought so much thoughtfulness and so much conviction? No, Utopia was not a satire for More; she is a sincere expression of his positive beliefs. So we must accept it, but whether you share these beliefs or not is another question. But bourgeois critics, like the Catholic Church, want to classify the utopian More among “their own”, and therefore turn his “Utopia” partly into satire, and partly into empty fun, a game of the mind...

“Utopia” opens with a story about how Thomas More, as an envoy, goes to Flanders and here in Antwerp he meets a certain Peter Aegidius, who introduces him to Raphael Hythloday, a man of extraordinary learning and who has seen a lot in his life. He traveled with Amerigo Vespucci, but, having left him, accompanied by several companions, he went deeper into the continent and, after quite a long wandering, finally reached Utopia.

Before describing the social life and political system of the Utopians, Raphael, answering the questions of his interlocutors, criticizes various aspects of the social life of European states of that time. This criticism constitutes the first part of Utopia. It fully reflected the worldview of More himself; in the future we will have to refer to this part of “Utopia” more than once, finding out these or those beliefs of his. Therefore, here I will limit myself to only a brief indication of what was left unused in subsequent chapters.

It should be noted that theft and robberies during the time of Mora represented a terrible social plague. The thieves were treated harshly; They were hanged by the dozens. Raphael finds that such cruelty is unfair and useless. No punishment, no matter how severe, is able to deter people from stealing for whom there is no other way to get a piece of bread. Instead of executions, proper conditions should be created for people, care should be taken that they do not feel the fatal need to steal, even risking their own lives. Then Raphael proceeds to analyze the reasons that give rise to such a mass of thieves, vagabonds, beggars and the like, and points out: firstly, a huge household, consisting of idle and lazy people, maintained by no less idle and lazy local nobility; secondly, on standing armies and the development of the soldiery; thirdly, the transformation of arable fields into pastures for sheep and the mass expulsion and ruin of peasants; fourthly, to the exorbitant luxury that develops hand in hand with the impoverishment of the people, to the mass of all kinds of obscene houses, taverns, pubs, to all kinds of gambling, etc. And whoever gets into this whirlpool is pushed out by the force of the circumstances themselves In the end he takes the high road and becomes a thief and robber. Destroy these plagues, compel the lords who drove the people from such vast expanses of land, either to build villages again, or to transfer their lands to those who can do it, stop the exorbitant accumulation of wealth in the hands of a few, as shameful as monopoly of any other kind, raise agriculture to its proper height, regulate wool production... Do all this, find, in a word, positive remedies against these evils and do not think that everything can be helped by the severity of punishments, in the present order of things both unfair and invalid. At the same time, Hythloday rebels against the death penalty imposed for theft and robbery; a man loses his life because of a few stolen coins, and yet there is no good in the world more valuable than life; They say that punishment is imposed for breaking the laws, but under these circumstances, the highest justice turns into a blatant untruth. More concludes and in this critical half of his book dealing with real life of that time, expresses general positive principles on which, in his opinion, public life should be built. I must say frankly, says Hythloday, that as long as property exists, as long as money is everything, so long no government can provide its people with either justice or happiness; justice, because all the best will always go to the lowest people; happiness, because all goods will be distributed among the few and the entire mass of the people will remain in extreme poverty... The only way to make the people happy is a universal equation... A little lower he says again: I am convinced that until property is abolished, it cannot there can be neither an equal nor a fair distribution of wealth, and there cannot be a government that would make people happy, since as long as property exists, the largest and, moreover, the most worthy part of the human race will forever groan under the burden of worries and deprivations...

The second part - the description of Utopian routines - suffers from a lack of systematicity, and therefore, in presenting it, I somewhat disturb the order.

The big picture. There are 54 cities on the island of Utopia; they are built spaciously and well, all according to the same plan. Everywhere you meet the same laws, customs, morals. The main city of Amaurot is located almost in the center of the island and thus represents the most suitable point for a meeting of the people's representatives. Each city's jurisdiction extends over a specific county; residents consider themselves temporary tenants rather than eternal owners, and therefore any aspirations to expand the borders of their hometown are completely alien to them. In addition to the cities, there are farms scattered throughout the island that have everything necessary for farming; urban residents take turns moving to these farms and doing agricultural work.

Utopians live in families; each family consists of no less than 40 men and women, not counting two slaves. The head of the family is oldest man and the oldest woman, and at the head of every 30 families is a special ruler. Every year 20 people from each family move from the city to farms and the same number return back to the city; thanks to this, hard agricultural labor is distributed evenly among everyone and proceeds quite correctly. Farmers cultivate the soil, feed livestock, prepare building materials and deliver their products to the city, and in return they receive from the city everything they need, and the exchange is made according to simple statements from the rulers. During the harvest, as many workers as needed are sent from the city, and all the fields are usually harvested in one day.

The cities on Utopia are quite similar to one another, and therefore Hythloday limits himself to describing one capital - Amaurot. It is a quadrangle located on the river bank and surrounded by a high thick wall and a moat. The streets are spacious - 20 feet wide. The houses are built up with a solid wall and face the street, with courtyards and gardens adjoining them at the back. The doors in the houses are never locked, and everyone can come and go freely. The gardens contain grapes, fruit trees, flowers, etc.; they are kept in exemplary order thanks to competition.

Every ten years, lots are cast for who will live in which house. The population of the city cannot exceed six thousand families, not counting those living on farms; the excess people move to other, less populous cities, and in case of general overcrowding, they move to the continent and form a colony.

Rulers. Every 30 families annually elect their own ruler, who was formerly called a syphogrant, but is now called a phylarch; above the 10 siphogrants stands in the ancient way - tranibor, and in the newest way - protophylarchus. All siphogrants – 200; they choose a sovereign from among four candidates nominated directly by the people, and they take an oath in advance that they will choose the most worthy; Voting is closed. The sovereign is elected for life, although he can be removed if there is a suspicion that he is plotting against the people. Tranibors are elected annually, but in most cases they are simply re-elected for new terms. All other public positions are also held for a one-year term. Tranibors meet to discuss matters every two days, and, if necessary, more often. Two syphogrants, constantly changing, take part in their meetings. According to the basic rule, any decision concerning a public matter can be made only after three days of preliminary discussion. Under penalty of death, Utopians are prohibited from conferring and discussing state affairs outside of council meetings or a national assembly. Such a strict measure was adopted so that the sovereign and the tranibors could not plot against people's freedom. In cases of particular importance, the issue is submitted through siphogrants for consideration individual families and is decided by all the people together. When discussing issues, another rule is observed that the issue to be decided is never debated on the same day on which it was submitted to the council for consideration. The main council meets in Amaurot; it consists of deputies, experienced and knowledgeable elders, three from each city. Utopian rulers are neither arrogant nor cruel; they can be called rather fathers, and all citizens treat them with great respect. They do not wear any external insignia and dress in the same clothes as all other residents. Instead of a crown and similar signs of royal dignity, the king has only a bunch of ears of corn, which is worn in front of him, and the high priest - wax candle, which is also worn in front of him. The laws of the Utopians are extremely simple and few in number; Every citizen knows them, and that is why there are no lawyers there at all. The Utopians maintain friendly relations with the surrounding peoples, but do not enter into any alliances, considering them useless; no unions, they say, will help if people cannot be united by the fact that they are all human.

Economic organization. Agriculture, which was mentioned above, is the main occupation of the inhabitants; Everyone is taught it from childhood. But besides farming, everyone is engaged in some other activity; Moreover, the Utopians treat all kinds of activities equally lovingly. The son usually follows in his father's footsteps. If a child shows special inclinations for something, then he is placed in a family engaged in the business to which his heart lies, and this family adopts him. The same thing is done when a person, having studied one craft, wants to learn another. The main duty of the siphogrants is to ensure that everyone is busy with their work and does not spend time in idleness. But the Utopians do not have to work from morning to night, like beasts of burden, without knowing rest. No, they work only six hours a day: three hours before lunch and three hours after lunch; they sleep for eight hours, and manage the rest of the time at their own discretion and devote it to various activities, depending on their inclinations, mainly to reading; in addition, they attend public lectures and so on. After dinner, one hour is usually devoted to fun and amusement, in the summer in the gardens, and in the winter in the dining halls, where the Utopians listen to music and have conversations. Everyone works on Utopia, and therefore six hours of labor there is quite enough to produce the necessary consumer goods; they do not produce luxury items and all sorts of trifles, on which we spend so much labor.

It would hardly be possible to count on the entire island more than 500 people capable of physical labor and not engaged in it. Syphogrants, as well as persons who devote themselves entirely to scientific pursuits, are exempt from compulsory work. If a person who has devoted himself to science does not live up to the expectations placed on him, then he must return back to the ordinary working masses. And vice versa, a simple worker who devoted his free hours to scientific pursuits and discovered remarkable abilities is transferred to the category of scientists. Thus, the Utopians have at their disposal many working hands that would be completely wasted for labor under a different social system. But they also gain a lot of time by keeping their work life organized and simple. They cannot rebuild at the mere whim of the houses in which they live; they wear extremely simple clothes: one cut for all men, another cut for all women, both married and single. While working, they put on a rough dress made of leather, which serves them for a long time, and on holidays and generally during non-working hours - an outer dress made of wool or linen. So, due to the fact that the Utopians all work and are content with very little, they have in abundance everything they need, and it often happens that, due to the lack of need for labor to produce certain consumer goods, they go in large companies to repair roads. However, the Utopians believe that a person’s happiness lies in the satisfaction and refinement of his mental and moral needs, and therefore they devote only as much time to physical labor as is actually needed to produce necessities. As for hard and unpleasant work, firstly, they are always performed by men, leaving easier tasks for women, and secondly, such work is usually done by volunteers, motivated by religious jealousy.

In utopia there is no trade; all goods are stored in special stores in city markets; the head of the family comes here and takes everything he needs; at the same time, he does not pay money and does not give anything in exchange for what he took. Everyone takes as much as they need, and since the Utopian stores are full of goods, no one has to be refused. Meals on Utopia are shared, and therefore special savers make fences from food stores. All the best of the provisions goes to the sick and weak, and the rest is divided in proportion to the number of those dining, with preference given to the sovereign, the chief priest, tranibors, envoys and, finally, foreigners, cattle are killed for meat and poultry is slaughtered by slaves, and this whole procedure is performed outside the city near rivers, so that the citizens’ sense of pity would not be dulled and blood and all sorts of garbage would not decompose and contaminate the air. In general, dirty and hard work around the kitchen is assigned to slaves; but the women cook, and there is a queue. Of course, anyone who wants to dine alone can go to the market, take provisions and prepare their own lunch; but you have to be crazy, Raphael notes, to spend time and labor on all this and in the end get a lunch that is much worse than the general one. Women and men dine together in the same hall, which has a special maternity room, where women who suddenly feel the approach of labor retire. Children under five years old remain with their nannies, and older ones (up to marriageable age) either serve at the table or stand behind the diners and eat only what is given to them. In the place of honor at the table sit the siphogrant and his wife, and next to them are two elders, white-haired; all four eat from the same cup; then old and young people alternately sit at the table. Lunch and dinner always begin with edifying reading, followed by a general conversation. At dinner, music usually plays, dessert is served, the air is saturated with all sorts of fragrances; In general, Utopians do not deny themselves anything that can cheer their soul.

Consumer goods are distributed among the cities by a general council meeting in Amaurot; this is done without taking into account considerations of equal exchange, but simply send part of the products where there is a need from where they are in abundance. Then part of the products is left as a reserve for two years, and the rest is taken outside of Utopia and exchanged for those few items that the Utopians need, for example, iron or gold and silver; Thanks to the latter circumstance, a huge mass of precious metals has accumulated on the island, and the Utopians partly distribute them as loans to their neighbors, and partly save them in case of war. But they are very indifferent to the metal itself, they do not even use it for decoration, but make various trinkets from it for children, night vases and coins, forge chains for slaves, and so on.

Slaves. The Utopians do not have slaves as a class: prisoners of war taken in battle become slaves; fellow citizens convicted of special crimes; then, foreigners sentenced to death and ransomed by Utopian merchants; finally, generally poor people from neighboring countries, who themselves wished better to be slaves in Utopia than to endure poverty in their native country. With slaves last kind Utopians are treated as equal citizens. Slaves are condemned to eternal labor and walk in chains; Utopians who have sunk to a slave state are treated much worse than others. In the event of an uprising, slaves are treated like wild animals: they are killed mercilessly. But with good behavior you can earn your freedom again.

Only persons chosen by the people from candidates nominated by the priests, and, moreover, chosen through a closed ballot, are specifically engaged in science on Utopia. Scientists are held in high esteem: from among them the Utopians elect their ambassadors, priests, tranibors, even the sovereign himself. The dominant language in both science and literature is the local national language.

In terms of music, logic, arithmetic and geometry, the Utopians are not inferior to the Greeks; but they do not fill young heads with meaningless scholasticism, do not engage in logical abstractions, and generally know how to distinguish chimeras and fantastic inventions from reality. They are familiar with astronomy; perfectly understand the movements of the celestial bodies, have invented various instruments with which they can observe the Sun, Moon and stars; can predict the weather: rain, wind and other atmospheric changes. Regarding abstract questions about essences and the like, they hold different opinions, partly reminiscent of the theories of our ancient philosophers, and partly quite original.

In area moral Philosophy among them reveals the same disagreement as among us, and the same heated debates are conducted. They explore the question of what good is, both in the material and spiritual sense. Then they are also concerned with the question of the nature of pleasure and virtue. But the main subject of dispute is the question of human happiness, what it consists of; and they seem inclined to think that happiness consists chiefly in pleasure. The most curious thing is that in support of their opinion they not only cite arguments arising from common sense, but also draw arguments from the religious sphere. Virtue, in their opinion, consists in following the suggestions of nature, for which one must only obey the dictates of reason. Reason instructs us to love the supreme being who created us, to be above passions, to maintain cheerfulness in ourselves and to contribute with all our might to the happiness of others. If, the Utopians say, a virtuous person is considered to be one who cares about the happiness of others, then it is all the more obligatory for him to care about his own happiness. For one must admit one of two things: either happiness-pleasure is something base, and then, of course, a virtuous person will not care about the happiness of others, or it is really good, in which case why not care about goodness in relation to oneself? Nature cannot encourage us to act virtuously towards others and at the same time induce us to treat ourselves cruelly and mercilessly. Thus, since to be virtuous means to live according to the instructions of nature, then every person should strive for pleasure as the ultimate goal of his entire life. Then, the Utopians also allow the usual limitations of the interests of one person by the interests of other persons and believe that a truly virtuous person sees in the happiness brought to other people a sufficient reward for the various concessions that he has to make in the interests of these latter. Finally, they point to the afterlife, where small hardships undertaken in this life for the benefit of others will be rewarded with endless joys.

Marriage and family. The Utopian family consists of 40 people, including 10 to 16 adults; all members unquestioningly obey the head, the eldest; in the event of his death or extreme decrepitude, this place is occupied by the next oldest member of the family. Wives serve their husbands, and children serve their parents, and in general the younger serves the elder. Children are fed by mothers; If the mother is ill, the child is given to a nurse. Any woman who can be a nurse willingly agrees to take someone else's child, since she at the same time becomes his mother. Girls get married no earlier than 18 years old, and boys get married no earlier than 22; all premarital sexual relations are strictly prohibited, and young people found guilty of this are severely punished and even deprived of the right to marry; responsibility for this kind of misconduct also falls on those who are at the head of the family, since their job and duty is to guard the morality of their charges.

The marriage issue is of paramount importance for the Utopians, since they do not allow either polygamy or divorce, excluding only cases of adultery and exceptional dissimilarity of characters.

Divorce is granted by the Senate, with the innocent party having the right to remarry, while the guilty party is considered dishonored and forever deprived of the right to family life. No one has the right, under pain of severe punishment, to abandon his wife; but by mutual agreement the spouses may separate, and each party has the right to seek happiness in marriage with a new person. But this is also allowed only with the permission of the Senate, which is usually not quick to deal with this kind of matter and, before giving permission, conducts a thorough investigation. Marital infidelity, as has already been noted, is punished extremely severely. If both guilty persons are related by marriage, then their marriages are dissolved; innocent parties are allowed to marry each other or with anyone, and those guilty of adultery are condemned to slavery. If one of the former continues to love his disgraced boyfriend or girlfriend and wants to save the family, then he or she must also share the slave labor that befalls the latter. After a certain test, the king can forgive a person condemned to slavery; but in case of a second sin he is subject to the death penalty.

Husbands have authority over their wives and parents over their children; they punish them in all those cases where the crime is not so great as to require public punishment to deter others. The most serious crimes are most often punished by slavery, since the Utopians believe that slavery is a more productive use of criminals in the interests of public benefit than death, and that it produces no less a terrifying impression than the latter.

Wars. Utopians do not like wars; In contrast to all other peoples, they believe that glory gained by weapons is the most shameful glory. Despite this, they are not afraid of war and do not shy away from it when they consider it necessary and fair. Through daily military exercises they discipline the young men and improve in the art of war; Even their women are trained in military affairs, so that, if necessary, they too can be useful. The Utopians consider themselves entitled to repel an enemy who attacks them with armed hand, and also to protect their friends from similar attacks; then, they consider it fair to provide assistance to every people in their struggle against the tyrant.

They also consider violence and injustice inflicted on their trading people or the trading people of their friends as a just cause for offensive war. But at the same time, they restore only their rights or the rights of their friends and do not pursue any aggressive predatory goals. However, if the insults inflicted on their trading people were not accompanied by violence, then they are limited to simply stopping all further trade relations; but when the interests of peoples friendly to them are mixed up in such a matter, they act more decisively, since any monetary losses for the Utopians, thanks to their social structure, are much less important than for other peoples.

They consider a bloody war a shame and misfortune; that victory, in their opinion, is good and glorious, which was achieved without bloodshed, and for such victories they honor their winners and erect monuments. The goal pursued by the Utopians in every war is to obtain by force that which, done in time, would eliminate the very reason for war; or, if this is no longer possible, to frighten those who offended them, so that they would be discouraged from doing the same in the future. Thus, in their wars there is no place for ambition; they are conducted solely for the sake of public safety. If war has become inevitable and declared, the first thing the Utopians do is to secretly distribute special proclamations to all the main points of the enemy’s land, in which they promise a large reward to the one who kills the king and generally important dignitaries, the real culprits of the war; They promise twice the reward to anyone who brings alive into their hands the persons named in the proclamation; then, they promise not only forgiveness, but also rewards for those who have committed a crime against them, who goes over to their side and begins to act against their compatriots. Thus, their main concern is to sow discord and mutual suspicion in the ranks of their enemies. Such behavior from the point of view of other peoples is considered shameful and despicable; but the Utopians believe that they have the right to act in this way...

If such a policy does not lead to the desired results, then the Utopians try to arrange a conspiracy and cause internal strife among their enemy, for example, they persuade the king’s brother to overthrow the latter from the throne, and so on. If this fails, then they try to make neighboring peoples hostile, recall various insults and injustices suffered by them, and so on, provide enormous support with money and extremely insignificant support with people, since the Utopians will not voluntarily exchange the last of their citizens even for a king hostile country. They recruit soldiers among foreigners, which is very easy thanks to their untold wealth (follows a very vivid description of the “flying” mercenaries, that is, in all likelihood, the Swiss); They are also helped by friendly peoples, so that the Utopians themselves constitute an insignificant part in the active army. But at the head of the army they usually place one of their outstanding people.

The Utopians do not prevent wives who want to share the fate of their husbands from joining the ranks of soldiers; on the contrary, they praise and encourage such behavior and often place wives along with their husbands in the front ranks of the army. Actually, the Utopian detachment moves forward only in extreme cases, but if it has to act, it fights very bravely and stands firm.

In case of victory, the Utopians try to kill as few enemies as possible and prefer to take them prisoner; they do not rush recklessly into pursuit and, thus, do not expose themselves to the risk of turning, due to some unforeseen circumstances, from winners to losers. In the event of a favorable outcome of the war, the Utopians reimburse their expenses from the funds of the defeated people; they either take pure money or take possession of lands, the income from which replenishes their public treasury. If the enemy intends to land on their island, then they try to warn him and transfer the war to the territory of the latter; if they fail to do this, then they defend themselves on our own and in this case they no longer resort to the help of foreign troops.

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Apparently, More did not intend to pursue a career as a lawyer all his life. In particular, he hesitated for a long time between civilian and church service. While studying at Lincoln's Inn (one of four law corporations that train lawyers), More decided to become a monk and live near the monastery. Until his death, he adhered to a monastic lifestyle with constant prayers and fasting. However, More's desire to serve his country put an end to his monastic aspirations. In 1504 More was elected to Parliament, and in 1505 he married.

Family life

More first married in 1505, to Jane Colt. She was almost 10 years younger than him, and his friends said she was quiet and had a kind disposition. Erasmus of Rotterdam advised her to obtain additional education to that which she had already received at home, and became her personal tutor in the fields of music and literature. More had four children with Jane: Margaret, Elizabeth, Cecil and John. When Jane died in 1511, he married almost immediately, choosing a wealthy widow named Alice Middleton as his second wife. Alice did not have the reputation of a submissive woman like her predecessor, but instead was known as a strong and straightforward woman, although Erasmus records that the marriage was a happy one. More and Alice had no children together, but More raised Alice's daughter from his first marriage as his own. In addition, More became the guardian of a young girl named Alice Cresacre, who later married his son, John More. There was a pestilence loving father who wrote letters to his children when he was away on legal or state affairs, and encouraged them to write to him more often. More became seriously interested in women's education, an attitude that was highly unusual at the time. He believed that women were just as capable of scientific achievement as men, and he insisted that his daughters receive higher education, as well as his sons.

Religious controversy

Thomas More called his work " A golden little book that is as useful as it is funny. the best device states and the new island of Utopia».

“Utopia” is divided into two parts, not very similar in content, but logically inseparable from each other.

The first part of More's work is a literary and political pamphlet; here the most powerful point is a criticism of the socio-political order of his time: he castigates the “bloody” legislation on workers, opposes the death penalty and passionately attacks royal despotism and the politics of war, sharply ridicules the parasitism and debauchery of the clergy. But Pestilence attacks especially sharply the enclosure of common lands. enclosures), ruining the peasantry: “The sheep,” he wrote, “ate the people.” The first part of Utopia provides not only a critique of the existing order, but also a reform program reminiscent of More's earlier, moderate projects; this part obviously served as a screen for the second, where he expressed his innermost thoughts in the form of a fantastic story.

In the second part, More's humanistic tendencies are again evident. More placed a “wise” monarch at the head of the state, allowing slaves for menial work; he talks a lot about Greek philosophy, in particular about Plato: the heroes of Utopia themselves are ardent adherents of humanism. But in describing the socio-economic system of his fictional country, More gives key provisions for understanding his position. First of all, in Utopia private property is abolished and all exploitation is destroyed. In its place, socialized production is established. This is a big step forward, since for previous socialist writers socialism was of a consumer nature. Labor is obligatory in “Utopia” for everyone, and all citizens up to a certain age are engaged in farming one by one, agriculture is carried out by artisans, but urban production is built on the family-craft principle - the influence of underdeveloped economic relations in the era of Mora. In Utopia, manual labor dominates, although it lasts only 6 hours a day and is not exhausting. More says nothing about the development of technology. Due to the nature of production, there is no exchange in the state of Mora, there is also no money, it exists only for trade relations with other countries, and trade is a state monopoly. The distribution of products in Utopia is carried out according to needs, without any strict restrictions. The political system of the Utopians, despite the presence of a king, is complete democracy: all positions are elective and can be filled by everyone, but, as befits a humanist, More gives the intelligentsia a leading role. Women enjoy full equality. The school is alien to scholasticism; it is built on a combination of theory and production practice.

All religions in Utopia are treated tolerantly, and only atheism is prohibited, for adherence to which one was deprived of citizenship rights. In relation to religion, More occupies an intermediate position between people of religious and rationalistic worldviews, but in matters of society and the state he is a pure rationalist. Recognizing that the existing society is unreasonable, More at the same time declares that it is a conspiracy of the rich against all members of society. More's socialism fully reflects the situation around him, the aspirations of the oppressed masses of the city and countryside. In the history of socialist ideas, his system widely raises the question of organizing social production, moreover, on a national scale. It is also a new stage in the development of socialism because it recognizes the importance of state organization for building socialism, but More could not at one time see the prospect of a classless society (in More’s Utopia, slavery was not abolished), implementing the principle “from each abilities, to each according to his needs" without any participation state power, which has become redundant.

Political Views

• The main cause of all vices and disasters is private property and the resulting contradictions between the interests of the individual and society, rich and poor, luxury and poverty. Private property and money give rise to crimes that cannot be stopped by any laws or sanctions.
• Utopia (ideal country) is a kind of federation of 54 cities.
• The structure and management of each city are the same. There are 6,000 families in the city; in a family - from 10 to 16 adults. Each family is engaged in a certain craft (transition from one family to another is allowed). To work in areas adjacent to the city rural areas“village families” are formed (from 40 adults), in which a city resident is obliged to work for at least two years
• Officials in Utopia are elected. Every 30 families elect a phylarch (syphogrant) for a year; at the head of the 10 phylarchs is the protophylarch (tranibor). Protophylarchs are elected from among scientists. They form the city senate, headed by the prince. The prince (adem) is elected by the phylarchs of the city from candidates proposed by the people. The position of the prince is irremovable unless he is suspected of striving for tyranny. The most important affairs of the city are decided by the people's assemblies; They also elect most of the officials and hear their reports.
• In Utopia there is no private property and, therefore, disputes between Utopians are rare and crimes are few; therefore, Utopians do not need extensive and complex legislation.
• The Utopians strongly abhor war, as a truly brutal act. Not wanting, however, to reveal, if necessary, their inability to do it, they constantly practice military science. Usually mercenaries are used for war.
• The Utopians recognize as a completely just cause for war the case when a nation, possessing in vain and in vain a territory that it does not use itself, nevertheless refuses to use and possess it to others, who, according to the law of nature, must feed from it.

see also

Notes

Literature

• Kudryavtsev O.F. Humanistic ideas about justice and equality in Thomas More’s “Utopia” // History of socialist teachings. - M., 1987. - P. 197-214.
• Chicolini L. S. Lukin’s dialogues and More’s “Utopia” in Giunti’s edition (1519) // Middle Ages. - M., 1987. Issue. 50. pp. 237-252.
• Steckli A.E. The origins of totalitarianism: is Thomas More guilty? // Anarchy and power. - M., 1992.
• Osinovsky I. N. Erasmus of Rotterdam and Thomas More: from the history of Renaissance Christian humanism: ( tutorial on the Middle Ages for students of Moscow State Pedagogical University). - M., 2006. - 217 p.

Thomas More- English humanist writer, statesman - born in London on February 7, 1478. His father was a famous lawyer, famous for his integrity. The place where More received his initial education was the grammar school of St. Antonia. At the age of 13 he was sent to the house of the Archbishop of Canterbury as a page. Having received during 1490-1494. education at Oxford, continued his studies: his father insisted that his son delve into the study of legal sciences at London law schools. During the same period, More studied classical languages, the works of ancient authors, and became close to Oxford humanists, in particular, Erasmus of Rotterdam. It was More who was dedicated to the famous “Praise of Folly” by this outstanding humanist of the Renaissance.

Most likely, Thomas More was not too interested in a career as a lawyer. While still studying law, he decided to settle near a monastery and take monastic vows. However, in the end, More set out to serve his country in a different way, although until his death he led a very abstinent lifestyle, observed fasts, and constantly prayed.

Around 1502, More began working as a lawyer and teaching law, and in 1504 he was elected to parliament. Having advocated a reduction in fees for Henry VII, he fell into disgrace and had to withdraw himself from social activities. More returned to politics in 1509, when Henry VII died. In 1510, More was again elected to parliament, which was convened by Henry VIII. In the same year, he was appointed to the position of junior sheriff of the capital, assistant city judge of the capital.

The tenth years are marked in More's biography by attracting the favorable attention of the king. In 1515 he was sent to Flanders, where he traveled with the embassy. While in a foreign land, More begins work on the first book of an outstanding work that became the foundation for utopian socialism. He finished it when he returned to his homeland, and the second book of “Utopia” was created much earlier. The complete work, which appeared in 1516, was appreciated by the monarch.

“Utopia” was not More’s first literary experience: in 1510, he translated into English the biography of the scientist Pico della Mirandola. In parallel with Utopia, More most likely worked on The History of Richard III, which could not be completed, which did not prevent it from being considered one of the best works of national literature of the Renaissance.

After the publication of Utopia, career statesman went uphill even more at a fast pace. In 1518, T. More was one of the members of the secret royal council, and since 1521 - a member of the highest judicial institution, the so-called. Star Chamber. In the same year he becomes sir, receiving a knighthood along with large land plots. During 1525-1527. More is Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster and, from 1529, Lord Chancellor. His appointment was unprecedented, because... More did not belong to the highest circles by origin.

In 1532, More retired for the officially stated reason of poor health, but in fact his resignation was caused by disagreement with the position of Henry VIII regarding the Catholic Church and his creation of the Anglican Church. Thomas More, who proclaimed her the head of the king, did not recognize the “Act of Supremacy”, thereby signing his own death sentence. In 1534 he was imprisoned in the Tower, and on July 6, 1535 he was executed in London.

In the 19th century The Catholic Church ranked him as blessed in the 20th century. - to the ranks of saints. However, Thomas More entered national and world history, first of all, as a humanist, thinker and outstanding writer.

Biography from Wikipedia

Thomas More(English) Sir Thomas More; February 7, 1478, London - July 6, 1535, London) - English lawyer, philosopher, humanist writer. Lord Chancellor of England (1529-1532). In 1516 he wrote the book “Utopia”, in which he showed his understanding the best system social structure using the example of a fictional island state.

More saw the Reformation as a threat to the church and society, criticized the religious views of Martin Luther and William Tyndale and, while serving as Lord Chancellor, prevented the spread of Protestantism in England. Refused to recognize Henry VIII as the head of the Church of England and considered his divorce from Catherine of Aragon invalid. In 1535 he was executed under the Act of Treason. In 1935 he was canonized as a saint of the Catholic Church.

Education

Thomas was born on February 7, 1478, the son of Sir John More, a London High Court judge who was known for his integrity. More received his primary education at St. Anthony's School, where, among other things, he became proficient in Latin. Thanks to his father's connections, at the age of 13 he came to Cardinal John Morton, Archbishop of Canterbury, an enlightened man who once held the post of Lord Chancellor. More served as his page for some time. Thomas's cheerful personality, wit, and desire for knowledge impressed Morton, who predicted that More would become "a marvelous man."

In 1492, More continued his education at Oxford University, where he studied with Thomas Linacre and William Grocyn, famous lawyers of the time. During his years at Oxford, More was interested in the writings of the Italian humanist Pico della Mirandola, whose biography and essay “The Twelve Swords” he translated into English.

In 1494, More, forced by his father, left Oxford and returned to London, where, under the guidance of experienced lawyers, he continued to study law. Despite the fact that More becomes an excellent lawyer, he devotes attention to the study of the works of the ancient classics, with a special interest in Plato and Lucian. He is also improving in the field of Greek and Latin and working on his own essays, which he began at Oxford.

In 1497, More met Erasmus of Rotterdam during his visit to England at a state dinner with the Lord Mayor. More's friendship with Rotterdam brought More closer to the humanists, after which he became a member of the Erasmus circle. In 1509, Erasmus wrote his famous essay “In Praise of Folly” at More’s house.

1501 More becomes a barrister.

Apparently, More did not intend to pursue a career as a lawyer all his life. For a long time he could not choose between civil and church service. While studying at Lincoln's Inn (one of the four barristers' colleges), More decided to become a monk and live near the monastery. Until his death, he adhered to a monastic lifestyle with constant prayers and fasting. However, More's desire to serve his country put an end to his monastic aspirations. In 1504 More was elected to Parliament, and in 1505 he married.

Family life

In 1505, More married 17-year-old Jane Colt, eldest daughter Esquire of Essex. According to a biography written by his brother-in-law, William Roper, Thomas liked her younger sister better, but out of courtesy he chose Jane. More's friends described her as quiet and kind-hearted. Erasmus of Rotterdam advised her to obtain additional education to that which she had already received at home, and became her personal tutor in the fields of music and literature. More and Jane had four children: Margaret, Elizabeth, Cecil and John.

In 1511 Jane died of a fever. Within a month, More married again, choosing the wealthy widow Alice Middleton as his second wife. Unlike his first wife, Alice was known to be a strong and straightforward woman, although Erasmus testifies that the marriage was a happy one. More and Alice had no children together, but More raised Alice's daughter from his first marriage as his own. In addition, More became the guardian of a young girl named Alice Cresacre, who later married his son, John More. More was a loving father who wrote letters to his children when he was away on legal or government business and encouraged them to write to him more often. More became seriously interested in women's education, and his attitude to this problem was highly unusual at that time. He believed that women were just as capable of scientific achievement as men, and he insisted that his daughters receive a college education, just like his son.

Religious controversy

In 1520, the reformer Martin Luther published three works: “Address to the Christian Nobility of the German Nation”, “On the Babylonian Captivity of the Church”, “On the Freedom of the Christian”. In these works, Luther outlined his doctrine of salvation by faith, rejected the sacraments and other Catholic practices, and pointed out the abuses and harmful influence of the Roman Catholic Church. In 1521, Henry VIII responded to Luther's criticism with a manifesto, Assertio septem sacramentorum, probably written and edited by More. In light of this work, Pope Leo X awarded Henry VIII for his efforts in combating Luther's heresy with the title "Defensor Fidei" (curiously, long after England broke with the Catholic Church, English monarchs continued to bear this title, and on English coins the letters D. F are still present. Martin Luther responded to Henry VIII in print, calling him "a pig, a fool and a liar." At the request of Henry VIII, More wrote a refutation: Responsio Lutherum. It was published at the end of 1523. In the Responsio, More defended the supremacy of the pope, as well as the sacrament of other ecclesiastical rites. This confrontation with Luther confirmed the conservative religious tendencies that More espoused, and from then on his work was devoid of any criticism and satire that could be seen as harmful to the authority of the church.

In parliament

More's first act in Parliament was to advocate for a reduction in taxes in favor of King Henry VII. In retaliation for this, Henry imprisoned More's father, who was released only after paying a significant ransom and Thomas More's withdrawal from public life. After the death of Henry VII in 1509, More returned to his career as a politician. In 1510 he became one of two undersheriffs of London.

At the king's court

In the 1510s, More came to the attention of King Henry VIII. In 1515, he was sent as part of an embassy to Flanders, which negotiated the trade in English wool (the famous "Utopia" begins with a reference to this embassy). In 1517, he helped pacify London, which had rebelled against foreigners. In 1518 More became a member of the Privy Council. In 1520, he was part of Henry VIII's retinue during his meeting with King Francis I of France near the city of Calais. In 1521, the prefix “Sir” was added to the name of Thomas More - he was knighted for “services to the King and England.”

In 1529, the king appointed More to the highest post in the state - Lord Chancellor. For the first time, a person from a bourgeois background became Lord Chancellor.

Conflict with the king. Arrest and execution

Particularly noteworthy is the situation with the divorce of Henry VIII, which led to More's rise, then to his fall and ultimately to his death. Cardinal Thomas Wolsey, Archbishop of York and Lord Chancellor of England, failed to obtain a divorce from Henry VIII and Queen Catherine of Aragon, and as a result he was forced to resign in 1529. The next Lord Chancellor was Sir Thomas More, who by that time was already Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster and Speaker of the House of Commons. Unfortunately for everyone, Henry VIII did not understand what kind of man More was. Deeply religious and well-educated in the field of canon law, More firmly stood his ground: only the Pope can dissolve a marriage sanctified by the church. Clement VII was against this divorce - Charles V of Spain, Queen Catherine's nephew, put pressure on him.

In 1532, More resigned as Lord Chancellor, citing poor health. The real reason for his departure was Henry VIII's break with Rome and the creation of the Anglican Church; More was against this. Moreover, Thomas More was so outraged by England’s departure from the “true faith” that he did not appear at the coronation of the king’s new wife, Anne Boleyn. Naturally, Henry VIII noticed this. In 1534, Elizabeth Barton, a nun from Kent, dared to publicly condemn the king's break with the Catholic Church. It turned out that the desperate nun corresponded with More, who had similar views, and if he had not come under the protection of the House of Lords, he would not have escaped prison. In the same year, Parliament passed the "Act of Supremacy", which proclaimed the king Supreme Head of the Church, and the "Act of Succession", which included the oath that all representatives of the English knighthood were required to take. The one who took the oath:

• recognized as legitimate all the children of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn;
• refused to recognize any power, be it the power of secular rulers or princes of the church, except the power of kings from the Tudor dynasty.

Thomas More, like Bishop John Fisher of Rochester, was sworn to this oath, but refused to take it because it contradicted his beliefs.

On 17 April 1534 he was imprisoned in the Tower, found guilty under the Act of Treason and beheaded on Tower Hill on 6 July 1535. Before the execution he behaved very courageously and joked.

For his devotion to Catholicism, More was canonized by the Roman Catholic Church and canonized by Pope Pius XI in 1935.

Works

"The History of Richard III"

There is still debate among experts about whether Thomas More's History of Richard III is a historical work or a work of fiction. In any case, in its main plot lines this work coincides with most chronicles and historical studies, namely with the “New Chronicles of England and France” by R. Fabian, the notes of D. Mancini, P. Carmiliano, P. Virgil, the works of B. Andre . The accounts of chroniclers and writers differ from the story written by Thomas More only in particulars. At the same time, in the “History of Richard III” the character of the author is clearly indicated; in many cases, assessments of what happened in 1483 are given historical events. So, regarding the election of Richard III as king, the historian writes that this is “... nothing more than royal games, only they are not played on the stage, but mostly on the scaffold.”

Poetic works and translations

Thomas More was the author of 280 Latin epigrams, translated works, and short poems. Thomas More was actively involved in translations from ancient Greek, which in his era was much less popular than Latin.

According to Yu. F. Schultz, expressed in the article “The Poetry of Thomas More,” the exact dating of the vast majority of More’s epigrams is difficult. However, both in the choice of epigrams and in the poetic works of Thomas More, the main theme is the image of an ideal ruler, many epigrams and poetic works are ideologically close to Thomas More's work "Utopia".

"Utopia"

Of all More's literary and political works highest value has “Utopia” (published in 1516 by Dirk Martens), and this book has retained its significance for our time - not only as a talented novel, but also as a work of socialist thought that is brilliant in its concept. The literary sources of “Utopia” are the works of Plato (“Republic”, “Critias”, “Timaeus”), the travel novels of the 16th century, in particular “The Four Voyages” (lat. Quatuor Navigationes) by Amerigo Vespucci, and, to some extent, the works Chaucer, Langland and political ballads. The plot of “Utopia” is taken from Vespucci’s “Voyages” - a meeting with Hythlodeus, his adventures. More created the first coherent socialist system, although developed in the spirit of utopian socialism.

Thomas More called his work “A Golden Book, as useful as it is amusing, about the best structure of the state and about the new island of Utopia.”

“Utopia” is divided into two parts, not very similar in content, but logically inseparable from each other.

The first part of More's work is a literary and political pamphlet; here the most powerful point is a criticism of the socio-political order of his time: he castigates the “bloody” legislation on workers, opposes the death penalty and passionately attacks royal despotism and the politics of war, sharply ridicules the parasitism and debauchery of the clergy. But Mor attacks especially sharply the enclosures of common lands, which ruined the peasantry: “The sheep,” he wrote, “ate the people.” The first part of Utopia provides not only a critique of the existing order, but also a reform program reminiscent of More's earlier, moderate projects; this part obviously served as a screen for the second, where he expressed his innermost thoughts in the form of a fantastic story.

In the second part, More's humanistic tendencies are again evident. More placed a “wise” monarch at the head of the state, allowing slaves for menial work; he talks a lot about Greek philosophy, in particular about Plato: the heroes of Utopia themselves are ardent adherents of humanism. But in describing the socio-economic system of his fictional country, More gives key provisions for understanding his position. First of all, in Utopia private property is abolished and all exploitation is destroyed. In its place, socialized production is established. This is a big step forward, since for previous socialist writers socialism was of a consumer nature. Labor is obligatory in “Utopia” for everyone, and all citizens up to a certain age are engaged in farming one by one, agriculture is carried out by artisans, but urban production is built on the family-craft principle - the influence of underdeveloped economic relations in the era of Mora. In Utopia, manual labor dominates, although it lasts only 6 hours a day and is not exhausting. More says nothing about the development of technology. Due to the nature of production, there is no exchange in the state of Mora, there is also no money, it exists only for trade relations with other countries, and trade is a state monopoly. The distribution of products in Utopia is carried out according to needs, without any strict restrictions. The political system of the Utopians, despite the presence of a king, is complete democracy: all positions are elective and can be filled by anyone, but, as befits a humanist, More gives the intelligentsia a leading role. Women enjoy full equality. The school is alien to scholasticism; it is built on a combination of theory and production practice.

In “Utopia” the attitude towards all religions is tolerant, and only atheism is prohibited, for adherence to which one was deprived of citizenship rights. In relation to religion, More occupies an intermediate position between people of religious and rationalistic worldviews, but in matters of society and the state he is a pure rationalist. Believing that the existing society is unreasonable, More at the same time declares that it is a conspiracy of the rich against all members of society. More's socialism fully reflects the situation around him, the aspirations of the oppressed masses of the city and countryside. In the history of socialist ideas, his system widely raises the question of organizing social production, moreover, on a national scale. It is also a new stage in the development of socialism because it recognizes the importance of state organization for building socialism, but More could not at one time see the prospect of a classless society (in More’s Utopia, slavery was not abolished), implementing the principle “from each abilities, to each according to his needs” without any participation of state power, which has become unnecessary.

Political Views

• The main cause of all vices and disasters is private property and the resulting contradictions between the interests of the individual and society, rich and poor, luxury and poverty. Private property and money give rise to crimes that cannot be stopped by any laws or sanctions.
• Utopia (ideal country) is a kind of federation of 54 cities.
• The structure and administration of each city are the same, but the main one is the central city of Amaurot, in which the main senate is located. There are 6,000 families in the city; in a family - from 10 to 16 adults. Each family is engaged in a certain craft (transition from one family to another is allowed). To work in rural areas adjacent to the city, “village families” (from 40 adults) are formed, in which a city resident is required to work for at least two years.
• Officials in Utopia are elected. Every 30 families elect a phylarch (syphogrant) for a year; at the head of the 10 phylarchs is the protophylarch (tranibor). Protophylarchs are elected from among scientists. They form the city senate, headed by the prince. The prince (adem) is elected by the phylarchs of the city from candidates proposed by the people. The position of the prince is irremovable unless he is suspected of striving for tyranny. The most important affairs of the city are decided by the people's assemblies; They also elect most of the officials and hear their reports.
• In Utopia there is no private property (its author considers it the cause of all evil) and, therefore, disputes between Utopians are rare and crimes are few; therefore, Utopians do not need extensive and complex legislation.
• The Utopians strongly abhor war, as a truly brutal act. Not wanting, however, to reveal, if necessary, their inability to do it, they constantly practice military science. Usually mercenaries are used for war.
• The Utopians recognize as a completely just cause for war the case when a nation, possessing in vain and in vain a territory that it does not use itself, nevertheless refuses to use and possess it to others, who, according to the law of nature, must feed from it.
• In Utopia there is an institution of slavery. According to More, in this ideal country there are and should be slaves (a powerless category of the population), ensuring the possibility of implementing the principle “from each according to his ability, to each according to his needs” for every free citizen.

In culture

The play Sir Thomas More was written in 1592. Its authorship is attributed to a group of playwrights, including Henry Chettle, Anthony Mundy, Thomas Heywood and William Shakespeare (preserved partly due to censorship).

The film A Man for All Seasons was made about Thomas More in 1966. This film won two Moscow Film Festival awards (1967), six Oscar awards (1967), seven BAFTA awards (1968) and many other awards. The role of Sir Thomas More was played by English actor Paul Scofield.

The film's title is taken from Robert Whittington, More's contemporary, who wrote about it in 1520:

More is a man of angelic intelligence and outstanding learning. I don't know his equal. Where else is there a man of such nobility, such modesty, such friendliness? When the time is right, he is surprisingly cheerful and cheerful, when the time is right, he is just as sadly serious. A man for all times.

In the British-Irish-Canadian historical television series The Tudors, the role of Thomas More is played by British actor Jeremy Northam.

The biography of Thomas More and his relationship with King Henry VIII formed the basis for the novels Wolf Hall and Bring Up the Bodies by English writer Hilary Mantel, as well as the BBC miniseries Wolf Hall based on them. The role of Thomas More is played by British actor Anton Lesser.

Editions

• Mor T. Utopia / Transl. from lat. and comment. A. I. Malein and F. A. Petrovsky. - M.: Publishing House of the USSR Academy of Sciences, 1953. - 297 p. - (Predecessors of scientific socialism). - 10,000 copies.
• Mor T. Utopia. / Per. from Latin Yu. M. Kagan. Entry Art. I. N. Osinovsky. - M.: Nauka, 1978. - (“Predecessors of scientific socialism”) - 416 p. - 50,000 copies.