The Christian Church was divided into Orthodox and Catholic. History of the schism of the Christian church

9th century

In the 9th century, a schism occurred between the Patriarchate of Constantinople and the Papacy, which lasted from 863 to 867. The Patriarchate of Constantinople at that time was headed by Patriarch Photius (858-867, 877-886), the head of the Roman Curia was Nicholas I (858-867). It is believed that although the formal reason for the schism was the question of the legality of the election of Photius to the patriarchal throne, the underlying reason for the schism lay in the pope’s desire to extend his influence to the dioceses of the Balkan Peninsula, which met resistance from the Eastern Roman Empire. Also, over time, the personal conflict between the two hierarchs intensified.

10th century

In the 10th century, the severity of the conflict decreased, disputes were replaced by long periods of cooperation. The 10th century manual contains the formula for the Byzantine emperor’s appeal to the Pope:

In the name of the Father, and the Son, and the Holy Spirit, our one and only God. From [name] and [name], emperors of the Romans, faithful to God, [name] to the most holy Pope and our spiritual father.

In a similar way, respectful forms of addressing the emperor were established for ambassadors from Rome.

11th century

At the beginning of the 11th century, Western European conquerors began to penetrate into territories that had previously been under the control of the Eastern Roman Empire. The political confrontation soon led to a confrontation between the Western and Eastern churches.

Conflict in Southern Italy

The end of the 11th century was marked by the beginning of active expansion of immigrants from the Norman Duchy in Southern Italy. At first, the Normans entered the service of the Byzantines and Lombards as mercenaries, but over time they began to create independent possessions. Although the main struggle of the Normans was against the Muslims of the Sicilian Emirate, the conquests of the northerners soon led to clashes with Byzantium.

Struggle of the Churches

The struggle for influence in Italy soon led to a conflict between the Patriarch of Constantinople and the Pope. The parishes in Southern Italy historically fell under the jurisdiction of Constantinople, but as the Normans conquered the lands, the situation began to change. In 1053, Patriarch Michael Cerularius learned that the Greek rite in the Norman lands was being replaced by the Latin one. In response, Cerularius closed all the churches of the Latin rite in Constantinople and instructed the Bulgarian Archbishop Leo of Ohrid to compose a letter against the Latins, which would condemn various elements Latin rite: serving the liturgy on unleavened bread; fasting on Saturday during Lent; the absence of Hallelujah singing during Lent; eating strangled meat and more. The letter was sent to Apulia and was addressed to Bishop John of Trania, and through him to all the bishops of the Franks and "the most venerable pope." Humbert Silva-Candide wrote the essay “Dialogue”, in which he defended Latin rites and condemned Greek ones. In response, Nikita Stifat writes a treatise “Anti-Dialogue”, or “A Discourse on Unleavened Bread, Saturday Fasting and the Marriage of Priests” against Humbert’s work.

1054

In 1054, Pope Leo sent a letter to Cerularius which, in support of the papal claim to full authority in the Church, contained lengthy extracts from a forged document known as the Deed of Constantine, insisting on its authenticity. The Patriarch rejected the Pope's claims to supremacy, after which Leo sent legates to Constantinople that same year to settle the dispute. The main political task of the papal embassy was the desire to obtain military assistance from the Byzantine emperor in the fight against the Normans.

On July 16, 1054, after the death of Pope Leo IX himself, three papal legates entered the Hagia Sophia and placed on the altar a letter of excommunication anathematizing the patriarch and his two assistants. In response to this, on July 20, the patriarch anathematized the legates. Neither the Roman Church by Constantinople nor the Byzantine Church were anathematized by the legates.

Consolidating the split

The events of 1054 did not yet mean a complete break between the Eastern and Western Churches, but the First Crusade exacerbated the differences. When the crusader leader Bohemond captured the former Byzantine city of Antioch (1098), he expelled the Greek patriarch and replaced him with a Latin one; Having captured Jerusalem in 1099, the crusaders also installed a Latin patriarch at the head of the local Church. The Byzantine Emperor Alexios, in turn, appointed his own patriarchs of both cities, but they lived in Constantinople. The existence of parallel hierarchies meant that the Eastern and Western churches actually were in a state of schism. This split had important political consequences. When Bohemond went on a campaign against Byzantium in 1107 in retaliation for Alexei's attempts to recapture Antioch, he told the Pope that this was completely justified, since the Byzantines were schismatics. Thus, he created a dangerous precedent for future aggression against Byzantium by Western Europeans. Pope Paschal II made efforts to bridge the schism between the Orthodox and Catholic churches, but this failed as the pope continued to insist that the Patriarch of Constantinople recognize the primacy of the Pope over "all the churches of God throughout the world."

First Crusade

Church relations improved markedly in the lead-up to and during the First Crusade. New policy was associated with the struggle of the newly elected Pope Urban II for influence on the church with the “antipope” Clement III and his patron Henry IV. Urban II realized that his position in the West was weak and, as an alternative support, began to look for ways of reconciliation with Byzantium. Soon after his election, Urban II sent a delegation to Constantinople to discuss the issues that had provoked the schism thirty years earlier. These measures paved the way for renewed dialogue with Rome and laid the foundation for the restructuring of the Byzantine Empire in the run-up to the First Crusade. A high-ranking Byzantine cleric, Theophylact Hephaistos, was commissioned to prepare a document that carefully downplayed the importance of the differences between Greek and Latin rites in order to calm the concerns of Byzantine clerics. These differences are mostly trivial, wrote Theophylact. The purpose of this cautious change of position was to heal the rift between Constantinople and Rome and lay the basis for a political and even military alliance.

12th century

Another event that strengthened the schism was the pogrom of the Latin Quarter in Constantinople under Emperor Andronicus I (1182). There is no evidence that the pogrom of the Latins was sanctioned from above, but the reputation of Byzantium in the Christian West was seriously damaged.

XIII century

Union of Lyons

Michael's actions met resistance from Greek nationalists in Byzantium. Among those protesting against the union was, among others, Michael's sister Eulogia, who stated: " Let my brother's empire be destroyed rather than purity Orthodox faith ", for which she was imprisoned. The Athonite monks unanimously declared the union a fall into heresy, despite cruel punishments from the emperor: one particularly disobedient monk had his tongue cut out.

Historians associate protests against the union with the development of Greek nationalism in Byzantium. Religious affiliation was associated with ethnic identity. Those who supported the emperor's policies were reviled not because they became Catholics, but because they were perceived as traitors to their people.

Return of Orthodoxy

After the death of Michael in December 1282, his son Andronikos II (reigned 1282-1328) ascended the throne. The new emperor believed that after the defeat of Charles of Anjou in Sicily, the danger from the West had passed and, accordingly, the practical need for a union had disappeared. Just a few days after the death of his father, Andronicus released from prison all those imprisoned opponents of the union and deposed Patriarch John XI of Constantinople, whom Michael had appointed to fulfill the terms of the agreement with the Pope. The following year, all bishops who supported the union were deposed and replaced. On the streets of Constantinople, the release of prisoners was greeted by jubilant crowds. Orthodoxy was restored in Byzantium.
For refusing the Union of Lyons, the Pope excommunicated Andronikos II from the church, but towards the end of his reign, Andronikos resumed contacts with the papal curia and began to discuss the possibility of overcoming the schism.

XIV century

In the middle of the 14th century, the existence of Byzantium began to be threatened by the Ottoman Turks. Emperor John V decided to turn to the Christian countries of Europe for help, but the Pope made it clear that help was possible only if the Churches united. In October 1369, John traveled to Rome, where he took part in a service in St. Peter's Basilica and declared himself a Catholic, accepting papal authority and recognizing the filioque. To avoid unrest in his homeland, John converted to Catholicism personally, without making any promises on behalf of his subjects. However, the Pope declared that the Byzantine Emperor now deserved support and called on the Catholic powers to come to his aid against the Ottomans. However, the Pope's call had no result: no help was provided, and John soon became a vassal of the Ottoman Emir Murad I.

15th century

Despite the rupture of the Union of Lyons, the Orthodox (except for Rus' and some areas of the Middle East) continued to adhere to triplicity, and the Pope was still recognized as the first in honor among equal Orthodox patriarchs. The situation changed only after the Ferraro-Florence Council, when the insistence of the West in accepting its dogmas forced the Orthodox to recognize the Pope as a heretic, and the Western Church as heretical, and to create a new one parallel to those who recognized the council - the Uniates. Orthodox hierarchy. After the capture of Constantinople (1453), the Turkish Sultan Mehmed II took measures to maintain the split between Orthodox and Catholics and thereby deprive the Byzantines of hope that Catholic Christians would come to their aid. The Uniate patriarch and his clergy were expelled from Constantinople. At the time of the conquest of Constantinople, the place Orthodox Patriarch was vacant, and the Sultan personally saw to it that within a few months it would be occupied by a man known for his uncompromising attitude towards Catholics. The Patriarch of Constantinople continued to be the head of the Orthodox Church, and his authority was recognized in Serbia, Bulgaria, the Danube principalities and Rus'.

Justifications for the split

There is an alternative point of view, according to which the real cause of the schism was Rome's claims to political influence and monetary collections in the territories controlled by Constantinople. However, both sides cited theological differences as a public justification for the conflict.

Rome's Arguments

1. Michael is wrongly called the patriarch.
2. Like the Simonians, they sell the gift of God.
3. Like the Valesians, they castrate newcomers and make them not only clergy, but also bishops.
4. Like the Arians, they rebaptize those baptized in the name of the Holy Trinity, especially the Latins.
5. Like the Donatists, they claim that throughout the world, with the exception of the Greek Church, the Church of Christ, the true Eucharist, and baptism have perished.
6. Like the Nicolaitans, altar servers are allowed marriages.
7. Like the Sevirians, they slander the law of Moses.
8. Like the Doukhobors, they cut off the procession of the Holy Spirit from the Son (filioque) in the symbol of faith.
9. Like the Manichaeans, they consider leaven to be animate.
10. Like the Nazirites, the Jews observe bodily cleansing, newborn children are not baptized before eight days after birth, parents are not honored with communion, and, if they are pagans, they are denied baptism.

As for the view of the role of the Roman Church, then, according to Catholic authors, evidence of the doctrine of the unconditional primacy and ecumenical jurisdiction of the Bishop of Rome as the successor of St. Peter has existed since the 1st century (Clement of Rome) and is then found everywhere in both the West and the East ( St. Ignatius the God-Bearer, Irenaeus, Cyprian of Carthage, John Chrysostom, Leo the Great, Hormizd, Maximus the Confessor, Theodore the Studite, etc.), therefore attempts to attribute only a certain “primacy of honor” to Rome are unfounded.

Until the middle of the 5th century, this theory had the character of unfinished, scattered thoughts, and only Pope Leo the Great expressed them systematically and set them out in his church sermons, delivered by him on the day of his consecration before a meeting of Italian bishops.

The main points of this system boil down, firstly, to the fact that the holy Apostle Peter is the princeps of the entire rank of apostles, superior to all others in power, he is the primas of all bishops, he is entrusted with the care of all sheep, he is entrusted with the care of all shepherds Churches.

Secondly, all the gifts and prerogatives of the apostleship, priesthood and shepherdhood were given fully and first of all to the Apostle Peter and through him and no other way than through his mediation are given by Christ and all other apostles and shepherds.

Thirdly, the primatus of the Apostle Peter is not a temporary, but a permanent institution.

Fourthly, the communication of the Roman bishops with the Supreme Apostle is very close: each new bishop receives the Apostle Peter in the Chair of Peter, and from here the grace-filled power granted to the Apostle Peter spills over to his successors.

From this it practically follows for Pope Leo:
1) since the entire Church is based on the firmness of Peter, those who move away from this stronghold place themselves outside the mystical body of Christ’s Church;
2) whoever encroaches on the authority of the Roman bishop and refuses obedience to the apostolic throne does not want to obey the blessed Apostle Peter;
3) whoever rejects the power and primacy of the Apostle Peter cannot in the least diminish his dignity, but the arrogant spirit of pride casts himself into hell.

Despite the petition of Pope Leo I to convene the IV Ecumenical Council in Italy, which was supported royal persons western half of the empire, the IV Ecumenical Council was convened by Emperor Marcian in the East, in Nicaea and then in Chalcedon, and not in the West. In the conciliar discussions, the Council Fathers treated very restrainedly the speeches of the legates of the Pope, who presented and developed this theory in detail, and the declaration of the Pope announced by them.

At the Council of Chalcedon, the theory was not condemned, since, despite the harsh form in relation to all eastern bishops, the content of the speeches of the legates, for example, in relation to Patriarch Dioscorus of Alexandria, corresponded to the mood and direction of the entire Council. But nevertheless, the council refused to condemn Dioscorus only because Dioscorus committed crimes against discipline, not fulfilling the instructions of the first in honor among the patriarchs, and especially because Dioscorus himself dared to carry out the excommunication of Pope Leo.

The papal declaration did not mention Dioscorus' crimes against the faith anywhere. The declaration also ends remarkably, in the spirit of papist theory: “Therefore, the most serene and blessed Archbishop Leo of the great and ancient Rome, through us and through this most holy council, together with the most blessed and all-praised Apostle Peter, who is the rock and affirmation of the Catholic Church and the foundation of the Orthodox faith, deprives him of his bishopric and alienates him from all holy orders.”

The declaration was tactfully, but rejected by the Fathers of the Council, and Dioscorus was deprived of the patriarchate and rank for the persecution of the family of Cyril of Alexandria, although they also recalled his support for the heretic Eutyches, disrespect for bishops, the Robber Council, etc., but not for the speech of the Alexandrian pope against Pope of Rome, and nothing from the declaration of Pope Leo was approved by the Council, which so raised the tomos of Pope Leo. The rule adopted at the Council of Chalcedon 28 on granting honor as the second after the Pope to the Archbishop of New Rome as the second bishop of the reigning city after Rome caused a storm of indignation. Saint Leo the Pope did not recognize the validity of this canon, interrupted communication with Archbishop Anatoly of Constantinople and threatened him with excommunication.

The Arguments of Constantinople

After the legate of the Pope, Cardinal Humbert, placed on the altar of the Church of St. Sophia a scripture with an anathema to the Patriarch of Constantinople, Patriarch Michael convened a synod, at which a reciprocal anathema was put forward:

With anathema then to the wicked writing itself, as well as to those who presented it, wrote it and participated in its creation with any approval or will.

The retaliatory accusations against the Latins were as follows at the council:

In various bishops' messages and conciliar decrees, the Orthodox also blamed the Catholics:

1. Celebrating the Liturgy on Unleavened Bread.
2. Post on Saturday.
3. Allowing a man to marry the sister of his deceased wife.
4. Catholic bishops wearing rings on their fingers.
5. Catholic bishops and priests going to war and desecrating their hands with the blood of the slain.
6. The presence of wives of Catholic bishops and the presence of concubines of Catholic priests.
7. Eating eggs, cheese and milk on the Saturdays and Sundays of Lent and not observing Lent.
8. Eating strangled meat, carrion, meat with blood.
9. Catholic monks eating lard.
10. Carrying out Baptism in one rather than three immersions.
11. The image of the Holy Cross and the image of saints on marble slabs in churches and Catholics walking on them with their feet.

The patriarch's reaction to the defiant act of the cardinals was quite cautious and generally peaceful. Suffice it to say that in order to calm the unrest, it was officially announced that the Greek translators had distorted the meaning of the Latin letter. Further, at the ensuing Council on July 20, all three members of the papal delegation were excommunicated from the Church for misbehavior in the church, but the Roman Church was not specifically mentioned in the council’s decision. Everything was done to reduce the conflict to the initiative of several Roman representatives, which, in fact, took place. The Patriarch excommunicated only legates from the Church and only for disciplinary violations, and not for doctrinal issues. These anathemas did not apply in any way to the Western Church or the Bishop of Rome.

Even when one of the excommunicated legates became pope (Stephen IX), this split was not considered final and particularly important, and the pope sent an embassy to Constantinople to apologize for Humbert's harshness. This event began to be assessed as something extremely important only a couple of decades later in the West, when Pope Gregory VII, who at one time was a protégé of the now deceased Cardinal Humbert, came to power. It was through his efforts that this story acquired extraordinary significance. Then, in modern times, it ricocheted from Western historiography back to the East and began to be considered the date of the division of the Churches.

Perception of the schism in Rus'

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Having left Constantinople, the papal legates went to Rome in a roundabout way to notify of the excommunication of Michael Cerularius his opponent Hilarion, whom the Church of Constantinople did not want to recognize as metropolitan, and to receive military assistance from Rus' in the struggle of the papal throne with the Normans. They visited Kyiv, where they were received with due honors by the Grand Duke Izyaslav Yaroslavich and the clergy, who should have liked the separation of Rome from Constantinople. Perhaps the strange at first glance behavior of the papal legates, who accompanied their request for anathema to the Byzantine Church military assistance Byzantium to Rome should have won over the Russian prince and metropolitan in their favor, receiving much more help from Rus' than could be expected from Byzantium.

Around 1089, an embassy of antipope Gibert (Clement III) arrived in Kyiv to Metropolitan John, apparently wanting to strengthen his position through his recognition in Rus'. John, being a Greek by origin, responded with a message, although composed in the most respectful terms, but still directed against the “errors” of the Latins (this is the first non-apocryphal writing “against the Latins”, compiled in Rus', although not by a Russian author). According to Russian chronicles, ambassadors from the pope came in 1169.

In Kyiv there were Latin monasteries (including the Dominican - from 1228), on lands subject to the Russian princes, Latin missionaries acted with their permission (for example, in 1181, the princes of Polotsk allowed the Augustinian monks from Bremen to baptize the Latvians and Livs subject to them in Western Dvina). In the upper class there were (to the displeasure of the Greek metropolitans) numerous mixed marriages (with Polish princes alone - more than twenty), and in none of these cases anything resembling a “transition” from one religion to another was recorded. Western influence is noticeable in some areas of church life, for example, before the Mongol invasion there were organs in Rus' (which then disappeared); Bells were brought to Rus' mainly from the West, where they were more widespread than among the Greeks.

Removal of mutual anathemas

Postage stamp dedicated to the historical meeting of Patriarch Athenagoras and Pope Paul VI

In 1964, a meeting took place in Jerusalem between Patriarch Athenagoras, primate of the Orthodox Church of Constantinople, and Pope Paul VI, as a result of which mutual anathemas were lifted in December 1965 and a joint declaration was signed. However, the “gesture of justice and mutual forgiveness” (Joint Declaration, 5) had no practical or canonical meaning: the declaration itself read: “Pope Paul VI and Patriarch Athenagoras I with his Synod are aware that this gesture of justice and mutual forgiveness is not sufficient to to put an end to the differences, both ancient and recent, that still remain between the Roman Catholic Church and the Orthodox Church." From the point of view of the Orthodox Church, the remaining anathemas of the First Vatican Council against those who deny the dogma of the primacy of the Pope and the infallibility of his judgments on issues of faith and morals, pronounced by ex cathedra, as well as a number of other dogmatic decrees.

In addition, during the years of division, the teaching of the Filioque in the East was recognized as heretical: “The newly appeared teaching that “the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father and the Son” was invented contrary to the clear and deliberate saying of our Lord on this subject: who comes from the Father(John 15:26), and contrary to the confession of the entire Catholic Church, witnessed by the seven ecumenical Councils in the words who comes from the Father <…> (

In the middle of the 17th century. relations between the church and the authorities in the Moscow state became complicated. This happened at a time of strengthening autocracy and growing social tension. Under these conditions, transformations of the Orthodox Church took place, which led to serious changes in political and spiritual life. Russian society and church schism.

Reasons and background

The division of the church occurred in the 1650s - 1660s during the church reform, started by Patriarch Nikon. The reasons for the schism of the church in Rus' in the 17th century can be divided into several groups:

• social crisis,
• church crisis,
• spiritual crisis,
• foreign policy interests of the country.

Social crisis was caused by the desire of the authorities to limit the rights of the church, since it had significant privileges and influence on politics and ideology. The ecclesiastical one was generated by the low level of professionalism of the clergy, its licentiousness, differences in rituals, and interpretation of the contents of holy books. Spiritual crisis - society was changing, people understood their role and position in society in a new way. They expected the church to meet the demands of the times.

Rice. 1. Dual fingers.

Russia's interests in foreign policy also demanded changes. The Moscow ruler wanted to become the heir of the Byzantine emperors both in matters of faith and in their territorial possessions. To achieve what he wanted, it was necessary to bring the rituals into unity with the Greek models adopted in the territories of the Orthodox lands, which the tsar sought to annex to Russia, or take under its control.

Reform and schism

The split of the church in Rus' in the 17th century began with the election of Nikon as patriarch and church reform. In 1653, a document (circular) was sent to all Moscow churches about replacing the two-finger sign of the cross with the three-finger one. Nikon's haste and repressive methods in carrying out the reform provoked protest from the population and led to a split.

Rice. 2. Patriarch Nikon.

In 1658 Nikon was expelled from Moscow. His disgrace was caused by both his lust for power and the machinations of the boyars. The transformation was continued by the king himself. In accordance with the latest Greek models, church rites and liturgical books were reformed, which did not change for centuries, but were preserved in the form in which they received them from Byzantium.

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Consequences

On the one hand, the reform strengthened the centralization of the church and its hierarchy. On the other hand, the trial of Nikon became the prologue to the liquidation of the patriarchate and the complete subordination of the church institution to the state. In society, the transformations that have taken place have created an atmosphere of perception of the new, which has given rise to criticism of tradition.

Rice. 3. Old Believers.

Those who did not accept the innovations were called Old Believers. The Old Believers became one of the most complex and contradictory consequences of the reform, a split in society and the church.

What have we learned?

We learned about the time of the church reform, its main content and results. One of the main ones was the schism of the church; its flock was divided into Old Believers and Nikonians. .

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In 1054 there was a collapse christian church into Western (Roman Catholic) and Eastern (Greek Catholic). The Eastern Christian Church began to be called Orthodox, i.e. true believer, and those professing Christianity according to the Greek rite are orthodox or true believers.

The “Great Schism” between the Eastern and Western Churches matured gradually, as a result of long and complex processes that began long before the 11th century.

Disagreements between the Eastern and Western Churches before the schism (a brief overview)

The disagreements between East and West that caused the “Great Schism” and accumulated over the centuries were political, cultural, ecclesiological, theological and ritual in nature.

a) Political differences between East and West were rooted in the political antagonism between the Roman popes and the Byzantine emperors (basileus). At the time of the apostles, when the Christian Church was just emerging, the Roman Empire was a unified empire, both politically and culturally, headed by one emperor. From the end of the 3rd century. the empire, de jure still unified, was de facto divided into two parts - Eastern and Western, each of which was under the control of its own emperor (Emperor Theodosius (346-395) was the last Roman emperor who led the entire Roman Empire). Constantine exacerbated the process of division by establishing a new capital in the east, Constantinople, along with ancient Rome in Italy. The Roman bishops, based on the central position of Rome as an imperial city, and on the origin of the see from the supreme apostle Peter, began to claim a special, dominant position in the entire Church. In subsequent centuries, the ambitions of the Roman high priests only grew, pride took its poisonous roots deeper and deeper into the church life of the West. Unlike the Patriarchs of Constantinople, the Roman Popes maintained independence from the Byzantine emperors, did not submit to them unless they considered it necessary, and sometimes openly opposed them.

In addition, in the year 800, Pope Leo III in Rome crowned the Frankish king Charlemagne with the imperial crown as Roman Emperor, who in the eyes of his contemporaries became “equal” to the Eastern Emperor and on whose political power the Bishop of Rome was able to rely in his claims. The emperors of the Byzantine Empire, who themselves considered themselves successors to the Roman Empire, refused to recognize the imperial title for Charles. The Byzantines viewed Charlemagne as a usurper and the papal coronation as an act of division within the empire.

b) Cultural alienation between East and West was largely due to the fact that in the Eastern Roman Empire they spoke Greek, and in the Western Empire they spoke Latin. In the time of the apostles, when the Roman Empire was unified, Greek and Latin were understood almost everywhere, and many could speak both languages. However, by 450 very few in Western Europe could read Greek, and after 600 few in Byzantium spoke Latin, the language of the Romans, although the empire continued to be called Roman. If the Greeks wanted to read the books of Latin authors, and the Latins the works of the Greeks, they could only do this in translation. And this meant that the Greek East and Latin West drew information from different sources and read different books, as a result becoming increasingly distant from each other. In the East they read Plato and Aristotle, in the West they read Cicero and Seneca. The main theological authorities of the Eastern Church were the fathers of the era of the Ecumenical Councils, such as Gregory the Theologian, Basil the Great, John Chrysostom, Cyril of Alexandria. In the West, the most widely read Christian author was St. Augustine (who was almost unknown in the East) - his theological system was much simpler to understand and more easily accepted by barbarian converts to Christianity than the sophisticated reasoning of the Greek fathers.

c) Ecclesiological disagreements. Political and cultural disagreements could not but affect the life of the Church and only contributed to church discord between Rome and Constantinople. Throughout the era of the Ecumenical Councils in the West, a doctrine of papal primacy (i.e. the Roman bishop as the head of the Universal Church) . At the same time, in the East the primacy of the Bishop of Constantinople increased, and from the end of the 6th century he acquired the title of “Ecumenical Patriarch”. However, in the East, the Patriarch of Constantinople was never perceived as the head of the Universal Church: he was only second in rank after the Bishop of Rome and first in honor among the Eastern patriarchs. In the West, the Pope began to be perceived precisely as the head of the Universal Church, to whom the Church throughout the world must obey.

In the East there were 4 sees (i.e. 4 Local Churches: Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch and Jerusalem) and, accordingly, 4 patriarchs. The East recognized the Pope as the first bishop of the Church - but first among equals . In the West there was only one throne claiming to be of apostolic origin - namely, the Roman See. As a result of this, Rome came to be regarded as the only apostolic see. Although the West accepted the decisions of the Ecumenical Councils, it itself did not play an active role in them; In the Church, the West saw not so much a college as a monarchy - the monarchy of the Pope.

The Greeks recognized the primacy of honor for the Pope, but not universal superiority, as the Pope himself believed. Championship "by honor" in modern language it may mean “most respected,” but it does not abolish the Conciliar structure of the church (that is, making all decisions collectively through convening Councils of all churches, primarily apostolic). The Pope considered infallibility his prerogative, but the Greeks were convinced that in matters of faith final decision remains not with the Pope, but with the council, representing all the bishops of the church.

d) Theological reasons. The main point of theological dispute between the Churches of the East and West was the Latin the doctrine of the procession of the Holy Spirit from the Father and the Son (Filioque) . This is a doctrine based on trinitarian views St. Augustine and other Latin fathers, led to a change in the words of the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed, where it was about the Holy Spirit: instead of “coming from the Father” in the West they began to say “from the Father and the Son (lat. Filioque) proceeding.” The expression “proceeds from the Father” is based on the words of Christ Himself ( cm.: In. 15:26) and in this sense has indisputable authority, while the addition “and the Son” has no basis either in Scripture or in the Tradition of the early Christian Church: it began to be inserted into the Creed only at the Toledo Councils of the 6th-7th centuries, presumably as protective measure against Arianism. From Spain, the Filioque came to France and Germany, where it was approved at the Frankfurt Council in 794. The court theologians of Charlemagne even began to reproach the Byzantines for reciting the Creed without the Filioque. Rome resisted changes to the Creed for some time. In 808, Pope Leo III wrote to Charlemagne that although the Filioque was theologically acceptable, its inclusion in the Creed was undesirable. Leo placed tablets with the Creed without the Filioque in St. Peter's Basilica. However, by the beginning of the 11th century, the reading of the Creed with the addition of “and the Son” entered into Roman practice.

Orthodoxy objected (and still objects) to the Filioque for two reasons. Firstly, the Creed is the property of the entire Church, and any changes can only be made to it by an Ecumenical Council. By changing the Creed without consultation with the East, the West (according to Khomyakov) is guilty of moral fratricide, a sin against the unity of the Church. Secondly, most Orthodox believe that the Filioque is theologically incorrect. The Orthodox believe that the Spirit comes only from the Father, and consider it heresy to claim that He also comes from the Son.

e) Ritual differences between East and West have existed throughout the history of Christianity. The liturgical charter of the Roman Church differed from the charters of the Eastern Churches. A whole series of ritual details separated the Churches of the East and the West. In the middle of the 11th century, the main issue of a ritual nature, on which polemics flared up between East and West, was the Latins' consumption of unleavened bread at the Eucharist, while the Byzantines consumed leavened bread. Behind this seemingly insignificant difference, the Byzantines saw a serious difference in the theological view of the essence of the Body of Christ, taught to the faithful in the Eucharist: if leavened bread symbolizes the fact that the flesh of Christ is consubstantial with our flesh, then unleavened bread is a symbol of the difference between the flesh of Christ and our flesh. In the service of unleavened bread, the Greeks saw an attack on the core point of Eastern Christian theology - the doctrine of deification (which was little known in the West).

These were all disagreements that preceded the conflict of 1054. Ultimately, the West and the East differed on matters of doctrine, mainly on two issues: about papal primacy And about Filioque .

Reason for split

The immediate cause of the church schism was conflict between the first hierarchs of two capitals - Rome and Constantinople .

The Roman high priest was Leo IX. While still a German bishop, he refused the Roman See for a long time and only at the persistent requests of the clergy and Emperor Henry III himself agreed to accept the papal tiara. On one of the rainy days autumn days 1048, in a coarse hair shirt - the clothing of penitents, with bare feet and a head sprinkled with ashes, he entered Rome to take the Roman throne. This unusual behavior flattered the pride of the townspeople. With the crowds cheering, he was immediately proclaimed pope. Leo IX was convinced of the high importance of the Roman See for the entire Christian world. He tried with all his might to restore the previously wavered papal influence in both the West and the East. From this time on, the active growth of both the church and socio-political significance of the papacy as an institution of power began. Pope Leo achieved respect for himself and his cathedra not only through radical reforms, but also by actively acting as a defender of all the oppressed and offended. This is what made the pope seek a political alliance with Byzantium.

At that time, Rome's political enemy were the Normans, who had already captured Sicily and were now threatening Italy. Emperor Henry could not provide the pope with the necessary military support, and the pope did not want to give up his role as defender of Italy and Rome. Leo IX decided to ask for help from the Byzantine emperor and the Patriarch of Constantinople.

Since 1043 the Patriarch of Constantinople was Mikhail Kerullariy . He came from a noble aristocratic family and held a high position under the emperor. But after the failed palace coup, when a group of conspirators tried to elevate him to the throne, Mikhail was deprived of his property and forcibly tonsured a monk. The new emperor Constantine Monomakh made the persecuted man his closest adviser, and then, with the consent of the clergy and people, Michael took the patriarchal see. Having devoted himself to the service of the Church, the new patriarch retained the features of an imperious and state-minded man who did not tolerate the derogation of his authority and the authority of the See of Constantinople.

In the resulting correspondence between the pope and the patriarch, Leo IX insisted on the primacy of the Roman See . In his letter, he pointed out to Michael that the Church of Constantinople and even the entire East should obey and honor the Roman Church as a mother. With this provision, the pope also justified the ritual differences between the Roman Church and the Churches of the East. Michael was ready to come to terms with any differences, but on one issue his position remained irreconcilable: he did not want to recognize the Roman See as superior to the See of Constantinople . The Roman bishop did not want to agree to such equality.

Beginning of the split

The Great Schism of 1054 and the Separation of the Churches

In the spring of 1054, an embassy from Rome headed by Cardinal Humbert , a hot-tempered and arrogant person. Together with him, as legates, came the deacon-cardinal Frederick (future Pope Stephen IX) and Archbishop Peter of Amalfi. The purpose of the visit was to meet with Emperor Constantine IX Monomachos and discuss the possibilities of a military alliance with Byzantium, as well as to reconcile with the Patriarch of Constantinople Michael Cerullarius, without diminishing the primacy of the Roman See. However, from the very beginning the embassy took a tone that was not consistent with reconciliation. The pope's ambassadors treated the patriarch without due respect, arrogantly and coldly. Seeing such an attitude towards himself, the patriarch repaid them in kind. At the convened Council, Michael allocated to the papal legates last place. Cardinal Humbert considered this a humiliation and refused to conduct any negotiations with the patriarch. The news of the death of Pope Leo that came from Rome did not stop the papal legates. They continued to act with the same boldness, wanting to teach the disobedient patriarch a lesson.

July 15, 1054 , when the St. Sophia Cathedral was filled with praying people, the legates walked to the altar and, interrupting the service, denounced Patriarch Michael Kerullarius. Then they placed a papal bull on the throne Latin, which spoke of the excommunication of the patriarch and his followers and brought forward ten charges of heresy: one of the charges concerned the “omission” of the Filioque in the Creed. Coming out of the temple, the papal ambassadors shook off the dust from their feet and exclaimed: “Let God see and judge.” Everyone was so amazed by what they saw that there was deathly silence. The patriarch, numb with amazement, initially refused to accept the bull, but then ordered it to be translated into Greek. When the contents of the bull were announced to the people, such a strong excitement that the legates had to hastily leave Constantinople. The people supported their patriarch.

July 20, 1054 Patriarch Michael Cerullarius convened a Council of 20 bishops, at which he subjected the papal legates to excommunication.The Acts of the Council were sent to all Eastern Patriarchs.

This is how the “great schism” happened . Formally, it was a gap between Local Churches Rome and Constantinople, but the Patriarch of Constantinople was subsequently supported by other Eastern Patriarchates, as well as young Churches that were part of the orbit of influence of Byzantium, in particular the Russian. The Church in the West over time adopted the name Catholic; The Church in the East is called Orthodox because it preserves the Christian doctrine intact. Both Orthodoxy and Rome equally considered themselves right in controversial issues of doctrine, and their opponent wrong, therefore, after the schism, both Rome and the Orthodox Church laid claim to the title of true church.

But even after 1054 friendly relations between East and West remained. Both parts of Christendom had not yet realized the full extent of the gap, and people on both sides hoped that the misunderstandings could be settled without much difficulty. Attempts to negotiate reunification were made for another century and a half. The dispute between Rome and Constantinople largely went unnoticed by ordinary Christians. The Russian abbot Daniil of Chernigov, who made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem in 1106-1107, found the Greeks and Latins praying in agreement in holy places. True, he noted with satisfaction that during the descent of the Holy Fire on Easter, the Greek lamps miraculously ignited, but the Latins were forced to light their lamps from the Greek ones.

The final division between East and West came only with the beginning of the Crusades, which brought with them a spirit of hatred and malice, as well as after the capture and destruction of Constantinople by the Crusaders during the Fourth Crusade in 1204.

Material prepared by Sergey SHULYAK

Used Books:
1. History of the Church (Callistus Ware)
2. Church of Christ. Stories from the history of the Christian Church (Georgy Orlov)
3. The Great Church Schism of 1054 (Radio Russia, cycle World. Man. Word)

Film by Metropolitan Hilarion (Alfeev)
Church in history. Great Schism

Themes: the formation of the Latin tradition; conflicts between Constantinople and Rome; schism 1051; Catholicism in the Middle Ages. Filming took place in Rome and the Vatican.

Orthodoxy is one of the main directions of Christianity. Orthodoxy is believed to have emerged in 33 AD. among the Greeks living in Jerusalem. Its founder was Jesus Christ. Of all Christian movements, Orthodoxy is the most to a greater extent preserved the features and traditions of early Christianity. Orthodox believe in one God, appearing in three hypostases - God the Father, God the Son and God the Holy Spirit.

By Orthodox teaching, Jesus Christ has a dual nature: Divine and Human. He was born (not created) by God the Father before the creation of the world. In his earthly life, He was born as a result of the immaculate conception of the Virgin Mary from the Holy Spirit. Orthodox believe in the atoning sacrifice of Jesus Christ. For the sake of saving people, He came to Earth and suffered martyrdom on the cross. They believe in His resurrection and ascension into heaven and await His second coming and the establishment of the Kingdom of God on Earth. The Holy Spirit comes only from God the Father. Communion into the Church, one, holy, catholic and apostolic, occurs through baptism. These main provisions of the Orthodox doctrine are contained in the Creed, adopted at the 1st (in 325 in Nicaea) and 2nd (381 in Constantinople) Ecumenical Councils, and have not been changed since then, preserved in their original form, so that do not distort the faith. Orthodox believe in posthumous rewards - hell and heaven. The religious symbol is the cross (four-, six- and eight-pointed).

Orthodoxy recognizes seven sacraments (sacraments) - baptism, confirmation, communion (Eucharist), confession (repentance), marriage, priesthood, unction (unction). Particularly prominent are the Gospel sacraments - baptism and communion, established by Jesus Christ. The Orthodox recognize both the Holy Scripture (Bible) and the Holy Tradition, the living memory of the Church (in the narrow sense - the decisions of recognized church councils and the works of the Church Fathers of the 2nd-8th centuries).

Orthodoxy recognizes only the first seven Ecumenical Councils, which took place before the separation of the Western branch of Christianity (in 1054). Orthodoxy lacks strict ecclesiastical centralization. Large local churches are completely independent (autocephalous). Currently, 15 churches have autocephaly. The biggest holiday in Orthodoxy is Easter (Resurrection of the Lord). Another 12 holidays are considered the main ones, the twelve: Christmas; Baptism of the Lord, or Epiphany; Presentation of the Lord; Transfiguration; Nativity of the Blessed Virgin Mary; Annunciation of the Blessed Virgin Mary; Introduction to the Temple of the Blessed Virgin Mary; Dormition of the Blessed Virgin Mary; Exaltation of the Holy Cross; Entry of the Lord into Jerusalem; Ascension of the Lord and Pentecost, or Trinity Day.

The total number of Orthodox Christians is 182 million people. Their largest number is in Russia - 70-80 million people.

Catholicism

Catholicism is one of the main directions in Christianity. The division of the Christian Church into Catholic and Orthodox occurred in 1054-1204. In the 16th century During the Reformation, Protestantism broke away from Catholicism.

The organization of the Catholic Church is distinguished by its strict centralization and hierarchical nature. The head is the Pope, considered the successor of the Apostle Peter; 1st Vatican Council 1869-70 the dogma of his infallibility was proclaimed. The residence of the pope is the Vatican. Sources of doctrine - Holy Scripture and Holy Tradition, which includes, in addition to ancient tradition and resolutions of the first seven Ecumenical Councils (IV-VIII centuries), decisions of subsequent church councils, papal messages. In Catholicism, it is believed that the Holy Spirit comes not only from God the Father, but also from the Son (filioque); Only Catholicism has a dogma of purgatory.

Catholics have a developed veneration of the Virgin Mary (in 1854 the dogma of her immaculate conception, in 1950 - about her bodily ascension), saints; The cult is characterized by lavish theatrical worship, the clergy is sharply separated from the laity.

Catholics make up the majority of believers in Australia, Belgium, Hungary, Spain, Italy, Lithuania, Poland, Portugal, France, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, the western regions of Belarus, Ukraine, and Latin American countries; only about 860 million people.

Encyclopedic Dictionary "World History"

Protestantism

Protestantism (literally “publicly proving”) is one of the main trends in Christianity. Broke away from Catholicism during the Reformation (16th century). Unites many independent movements, churches, sects (Lutheranism, Calvinism, Anglican Church, Methodists, Baptists, Adventists, etc.).

Protestantism is characterized by: the absence of a fundamental opposition between the clergy and the laity, the rejection of a complex church hierarchy, a simplified cult, the absence of monasticism, etc.; in Protestantism there is no cult of the Mother of God, saints, angels, icons; the number of sacraments is reduced to two (baptism and communion). The main source of doctrine is the Holy Scripture. Protestant churches play main role in the ecumenical movement (for the unification of all churches). Protestantism is widespread mainly in the USA, Great Britain, Germany, Scandinavian countries and Finland, the Netherlands, Switzerland, Australia, Canada, the Baltic countries (Estonia, Latvia), etc. The total number of adherents of Protestantism is about 600 million people.

Encyclopedic Dictionary "World History"

Monophysitism

Monophysitism (from the Greek mónos - one, phýsis - nature) is one of the 5 main directions of Christianity. Supporters of this trend are usually called Monophysites, although they do not recognize this term and call themselves either Orthodox or followers of the Apostolic Church.

The movement was formed in 433 in the Middle East, but officially separated from the rest of Christianity in 451, after the Ecumenical Council of Chalcedon adopted the Diophysite doctrine (the doctrine of the two natures of Jesus Christ) and condemned Monophysitism as a heresy. The founder of the movement was Archimandrite Eutyches (about 378-454) - abbot of one of the large monasteries in Constantinople.

Eutyches taught that at first two natures of Christ existed separately - God and man, but after their union at the incarnation only one began to exist. Subsequently, apologists for Monophysitism either completely denied the presence of any human element in the nature of Christ, or argued that the human nature in Christ was completely absorbed by the divine nature, or believed that the human and divine nature in Christ were united into something different from each of them.

However, there is an opinion that the main contradictions between Monophysitism and Orthodoxy were rather not doctrinal, but cultural, ethnic, and perhaps political in nature: Monophysitism united forces dissatisfied with the strengthening of Byzantine influence.

Of the ecumenical councils of Monophysitism, only the first three are recognized: Nicaea (325), Constantinople (381) and Ephesus (431).

The cult in the Monophysite churches is very close to the cult characteristic of Orthodoxy, differing from it only in certain details. Give it general characteristics difficult, since it varies markedly in individual Monophysite denominations, the main ones being: 1) Coptic Orthodox Church(including the closely related Nubian and Ethiopian churches), 2) Syrian Orthodox (Jacobite) Church (including the Malankara Province of the Syrian Church and the Malabar Syrian Church of Mar Thoma), 3) the Armenian Apostolic Church.

The total number of Monophysites reaches 36 million people. Monophysitism predominates in Armenia (it is also professed by the majority of Armenians living outside Armenia), is the most influential denomination in Ethiopia (it is adhered to by the overwhelming majority of Amharas, most of the Tigrayans), part of the population of some Arab countries(Egypt, Syria, etc.), large group within the Malayali people Indian state Kerala

P. I. Puchkov
Encyclopedia "Peoples and Religions of the World"

Nestorianism

Nestorianism is one of the 5 main directions of Christianity. Originated at the beginning of the 5th century. n. e. The founder is the monk Nestorius, who became a short time in 428-431 by the Patriarch of Constantinople. The doctrine of Nestorianism absorbed some elements of the teaching of Arius, condemned at the First Ecumenical Council of the Christian Church (325), who rejected the divine nature of Jesus Christ.

The main dogmatic difference between Nestorianism and other branches of Christianity is its teaching that Christ was not the son of God, but was a man in whom God lived, and that the divine and human natures of Jesus Christ are separable from each other. In connection with this view, the mother of Christ, the Virgin Mary, is considered by the Nestorians not to be the Mother of God, but the Mother of Christ, and is not an object of veneration. At the Third Ecumenical (Ephesian) Council (431), Nestorius’s creed was condemned as heresy, he himself was exiled, and his books were burned.

As in Orthodoxy, Monophysitism and Catholicism, Nestorianism recognizes 7 sacraments, but not all of them are identical to those accepted by the 3 indicated directions of Christianity. The sacraments of the Nestorians are baptism, priesthood, communion, anointing, repentance, as well as the holy leaven (malka) and the sign of the cross, which are unique to them. The sacrament of holy leaven is associated with the Nestorian belief that a piece of bread distributed at the Last Supper by Jesus Christ was brought by the Apostle Thaddeus (Judas) to the East, in Mesopotamia, and some particle of it was constantly used in preparing the elements of the sacrament. The sign of the cross, considered a sacrament in Nestorianism, is performed in a very specific way.

Nestorians use the liturgy of St. Thaddeus (apostle of the 12) and St. Mark (apostles of the 70), which the latter introduced when they arrived in the East from Jerusalem. The liturgy is celebrated in the Old Syriac language (in its Nestorian version). In Nestorian churches, unlike Orthodox, Monophysite and Catholic churches, there are no icons or statues.

The Nestorian is headed by the Patriarch-Catholicos of the Whole East (currently Mar-Dinha IV), who has a residence in Tehran, and this position has been hereditary in the Mar-Shimun family since 1350 (the nephew succeeds his uncle). In 1972, a split occurred in the leadership of the Nestorian Church, and some of the Iraqi and Indian Nestorians recognized Mar-Addai, whose seat was in Baghdad, as their spiritual head. Metropolitans and bishops are subordinate to the Patriarch. The position of priests is also hereditary. Priests are not required to remain celibate and, unlike the white Orthodox clergy, can marry after ordination. Deacons help priests perform divine services and rituals.

The number of followers of the Nestorian Assyrian Church of the East is about 200 thousand people. Nestorians are settled in Iraq (82 thousand), Syria (40 thousand), India (15 thousand), Iran (13 thousand), USA (10 thousand), Russia (10 thousand), Georgia (6 thousand). ), Armenia (6 thousand) and other countries. Nestorians began to move to the Russian Empire, the USA and some other countries in the 90s. last century after the pogroms committed in the Ottoman Empire.

By nationality, the vast majority of Nestorians (except those living in India) are Assyrians, Indian Nestorians are Malayali.

On July 17, 1054, negotiations between representatives of the Eastern and Western Churches in Constantinople were interrupted. Thus began the split of the Christian Church into two branches - Catholic (Western) and Orthodox (Eastern).

Christianity became the state religion in the Roman Empire at its very end, in the 4th century, under the baptism of Emperor Constantine. However, then for some time, under Julian II, the empire again became pagan. But from the end of the century Christianity began to reign supreme over the ruins of the empire. The Christian flock was divided into five patriarchates - Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem, Constantinople and Rome. It was the last two that became the leading and most significant since the first centuries of Christianity.

But the church was not united already in its early centuries.

At first, the priest Arius preached that Christ was not both man and God at the same time (as the dogma of the Trinity prescribes), but was only a man. Arianism was called a heresy at the First Ecumenical Council of Nicaea; however, Arian parishes continued to exist, although they later became orthodox Christian.

In the 7th century, after the Council of Chalcedon, the Armenian, Coptic (common in northern Africa, mainly in Egypt), Ethiopian and Syro-Jacobite church (its Patriarch of Antioch has his residence in Damascus, but most of its believers live in India) - which did not recognize the doctrine of the two natures of Christ, insisting that he had only one - Divine - nature.

Despite the unity of the church from Kievan Rus to the north of Spain at the beginning of the 11th century, conflict was brewing between the two Christian worlds.

The Western Church, based on the papal throne in Rome, was based on the Latin language; the Byzantine world used Greek. Local preachers in the east - Cyril and Methodius - created new alphabets to promote Christianity among the Slavs and translate the Bible into local languages.

But there were also completely mundane reasons for the confrontation: the Byzantine Empire saw itself as the successor to the Roman Empire, but its power decreased due to the Arab offensive in the middle of the 7th century. Barbarian kingdoms The West became increasingly Christianized, and their rulers increasingly turned to the pope as the judge and legitimator of their power.

Kings and Byzantine emperors increasingly came into conflict in the Mediterranean, so a dispute over the understanding of Christianity became inevitable.

The main reason for the conflict between Rome and Constantinople was the dispute over filioque: V western church V "Creed" (« I believe... And in the Holy Spirit, the Life-Giving Lord, Who proceeds from the Father...") the word filioque ( "and son" from Latin), which meant the condescension of the Holy Spirit not only from the Father, but also from the Son, which caused additional theological discussions. This practice was still considered acceptable in the 9th century, but in the 11th century Western Christians fully adopted the filioque. In 1054, the legates of Pope Leo IX arrived in Constantinople and, after unsuccessful negotiations, excommunicated the Eastern Church and the Patriarch.

There was also a reciprocal anathema of the Synod of the Patriarchate of Constantinople, after which the mention of the pope disappeared from the text of the liturgy in the east.

Thus began a split in churches that continues to this day.

In 1204, the confrontation between the churches became even more severe: in 1204, the crusaders, during the Fourth Crusade, took Constantinople and destroyed it. Of course, Venice was more interested in this, thus destroying a competitor on the routes of Mediterranean trade with the East, but even then the attitude towards Orthodoxy among the crusaders was not much different from the attitude towards “heresy”: churches were desecrated, icons were broken.

In the middle of the 13th century, however, an attempt was made to unite the churches within the framework of the Union of Lyon.

However, politics trumped theology here: the Byzantines concluded it during a period of weakening of their state, and then the union ceased to be recognized.

As a result, the resulting Orthodox and Catholic Church each went their own way. Both denominations experienced a schism, in the zone of constant contact between Catholicism and Orthodoxy - on Western Ukraine and in Western Belarus - the Uniate movement arose. His followers signed in 1589 Union of Brest, recognizing the supreme power of the Pope, but preserving Greek rituals. Many peasants were baptized there, whose descendants later became convinced Uniates.

Uniatism (or Greek Catholicism) was persecuted after the annexation of these lands to Russia.

In 1946, the Union of Brest was officially abolished, and the Greek Catholic churches in Ukraine and Belarus were banned.

Their revival took place only after 1990.

In the twentieth century, the need to unite churches was spoken about many times. Even the term “sister churches” arose, and a powerful ecumenical movement arose. However, the Catholic and Orthodox thrones are still far from real rapprochement.