TAOISM AND THE TEACHINGS OF CONFUCIUS - TWO MAIN DIRECTIONS OF ANCIENT CHINESE PHILOSOPHY

The concept of Tao and Taoism.

The concept of Tao in the history of Chinese thought is the most universal and comprehensive. Being the ideological core of not only all natural philosophy and ontology, but in many ways sociology, ethics, medicine, and astrology, this concept can rightfully be called the quintessence of the philosophy of traditional China. Tao as the original supreme universality, as the great law of nature and the root cause of all things as the highest absolute reality (the One), from the gigantic path-flow of which the phenomenal world is born, in order to ultimately go there and then appear again, but already renewed, on for thousands of years, it was perceived in China as the general norm of existence. Outside of Tao, the Chinese, as long as he sometimes thought about it at all and knew at least a little about it, did not think about the principles of being in the philosophical sense of the word. It is not surprising that Tao as a fundamental category of Chinese philosophy has been accepted everywhere and always by all schools and directions.

Tao cannot be defined unambiguously as any category in European philosophy. This is some of the most primary categories, the Supreme Mind of Divine Being. The Supreme Being, having Reason and Word, Logos, God, Absolute. This category has different semantic levels: Tao-law, Tao-first principle, Tao-the single essence of everything. Tao is general, immanently inherent in all individual objects and phenomena at every moment of their existence. Here is how it is said about this in one of the main Taoist treatises, “Tao Te Ching”: “The Great Tao spreads everywhere. It can be located both to the right and to the left. Tao is not exhausted in the huge, nor is it absent in the smallest. That is why it is represented completely in the whole darkness of things. Vast, vast, it embraces everything within itself." "Man follows the laws of the earth. The earth follows the laws of heaven. Heaven follows the laws of Tao, and Tao follows itself." According to another ancient Taoist treatise, “Zhuang Tzu,” “Tao unites in unity both the beam and the pillar, and the ugly and the beautiful Xi Shi, and generosity and deceit, and the strange and monstrous,” Tao is a universal pattern of the universe, having cognized Tao, we recognize this pattern. “The sky cannot help but be high, the earth cannot help but be wide, the Sun and Moon cannot help but move - they receive this from Tao.” The entire order of the cosmos is generated by Tao and determined by it in all its manifestations. Deviation from the natural order harms not only nature itself, but also apostates from its true essence - Tao. Human self-will and violation of Tao lead people to death. “Whoever does not observe the Tao will die before his time,” it is written in the Tao Te Ching. But the necessity contained in Tao is not rigid or without alternative. The single true necessity, symbolizing Tao, in Taoism is associated with ultimate Beauty, Truth and Harmony, acts as the original predetermination, and Tao acts as the true meaning of life.

The second important category of the ancient Chinese is qi. Qi is a subtle energetic primary matter, a common Chinese universal substance, a category, the concept of which was widely developed in early Taoist treatises. Qi - matter, air, ether, gas, spirit, life force, life energy - is not only a material substance but also some fluids, elements spiritual origin. For the early Taoists, qi appears on a cosmically universal scale; qi is directly connected with the entire universe, with Tao, with yin and yang, with heaven and earth, with the four seasons of the year, forming the basis of both physical and mental life of a person. It is impossible to name a single phenomenon considered or mentioned by the ancient Taoists, the substrate of which was something other than qi. If we conditionally single out Taoist cosmology and cosmogony, anthropology and anthropotony, ethics - all are based on the doctrine of qi. Qi is a common category for all natural philosophy of China. The concept of qi was also transferred to Chinese medicine, where it was tested practically. According to Chinese doctors, illness is a disturbance in the movement of qi, a disturbance in the state of human energy. The birth of a person is simply an accumulation of ether qi. “Ether gathers, life is formed, dissipates, death is formed.”

Thus, in early Taoism, “any phenomenon is included in world unity through the single essence of Tao immanent to it, and represents a formalized way of existence of the universal energy substance - qi.” But the ancient Chinese das not only gave definitions to the main categories, they called on people to comprehend the beauty of Tao, the teaching of Tao: “Those who acquired the teaching in ancient times rejoiced in both trouble and good fortune. Their joy did not depend on either trouble or good fortune . To fall into error, to abandon the Tao, not to be able to see beauty and rejoice is an untrue state." “All those who are unable to enjoy their thoughts and desires maintain life for many years without understanding the path.”

If Tao (the mother of qi, like everything else) can be understood as a substantivized law, then the substantivized content of qi has the features of a law in Taoism. Eternal movement in the world, as a universal pattern, represents the manifestation and deployment of the integral attributes of the universal substance. The transition of the substantial and the lawful into each other expresses the specificity of the consistent monism of the Taoists. There is no clear line between what is substantial in space and what is law; for Taoists, the primordial unity of the world is more essential. Along with monism, the Taoists developed the principle of binary. This principle is secondary, but significant for the architectonics of the world building (“nothing is one-sided, everything has reverse side"). Duality is expressed in global patterns (yin-yang, heaven-earth). Tao is inherent in all binaries, it is their source, the law and essence immanent to them. Thus, among Taoists, the principle of monism is placed above the principle of binary. In addition to the above two categories , Taoists define the category de as a category related to the levels of being in the form of life. De acts at the level of organic life as a guarantee of the unfolding of Tao into the individual “Tao is the master of de, life is the light of de, and character is the highest meaning of life.” life among the Taoists consists in calming and purifying the qi, in meditation, in comprehending the Tao, the one. The ideal of the Taoists is a sage man, returned to the Tao, to nature, alienated from existence until the point of oblivion of himself. People who have comprehended the Tao gain. long life or immortality, have magical properties - they do not burn in fire, do not drown in water. Taoists transfer the relationship between man and nature to the binary society-nature. According to their ideals, both society and man should correspond to nature, occupy a subordinate place in relation to the cosmos, to nature. The social ideal of the Taoists is the kingdom of established de: man, merging with nature in a state of universal unity, is the personification of the complete implementation of the principle of naturalness, which is a necessary condition for the development of de.

For Taoists, life substance, consciousness and wisdom are closely related. They are united by the installation of Taoism to begin considering all problems with physical existence human body, which is explained by the main goal of the teachings of Tao: the inclusion of the human physical body in the natural-sacral cosmos in order to transfer cosmic attributes to the mortal flesh of man: eternity and perfection, gaining longevity and immortality, the inclusion of the human body in space and the correct location of the body in space, meditation and psychophysical training, searching for miraculous talismans and the elixir of eternal life, the “golden pill”, disappearing without a trace into the Tao or becoming a miracle-working saint.

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What is Tao? Meaning and interpretation of the word dao, definition of the term

1) Tao- (Chinese - God, word, logos, path) - a concept of ancient Chinese philosophy, meaning that: having neither name nor form; being eternally one, unchangeable, imperishable, existing from eternity; being inaudible, invisible, inaccessible to comprehension - indefinable, but perfect; being in a state of rest and constant movement; acting as the root cause of all changes, she is the “mother of all things,” the “root of everything.” D. - ("all-one" according to Lao Tzu) - depends only on himself: "man depends on the earth, the earth on the sky (space), the sky - on D., and D. - on himself."

2) Tao- (Chinese Way) - In ancient Chinese thought, the Supreme Being, preceding the universe, nameless and formless, eternal and unchanging, the deepest secret and the highest spiritual essence of the life of the world and each individual being, incomprehensible by thought and inexpressible in human language. Being an invisible Super-being, Tao is at the same time Non-being. “In the world, all things are born into being, and being is born into Non-Being” (Lao Tzu). The order and life of the world is a manifestation of the creative and constructive power of Tao, regulating the eternal cosmic struggle of the polar principles of the world - Yin and Yang. The wise, having undergone purification, mastered his vital and mental powers and achieved inner peace, is able to contemplate the Tao and unite with it. Living in accordance with Tao is man’s calling, and the human race is unhappy if it has lost knowledge of Tao and unity with it.

3) Tao- (Chinese - Path, Destiny, First Order, Teaching, Unity) - a category of Chinese philosophy, a universal image of the Chinese type of thinking. Set out in the VI - IV centuries. BC e. The sages Lao Tzu, Zhuang Tzu, Le Tzu and the doctrine of the Tao Way, later developed by Confucianism and Chan Buddhism, were woven into all philosophical, religious, political, aesthetic and other spheres of Chinese culture. Since the time of the Tao Te Ching (Book of Tao and Te), attributed to Lao Tzu, only the Taoist corpus of commentaries on D. and his possible interpretations amounted to about 5000 volumes. Continuous attempts to penetrate into the essence of D., to give its adequate linguistic expression and to indicate the conditions for comprehension, led to the understanding of D. as a universal symbolic structure of consciousness. According to the Tao Te Ching, D. is “inexhaustible,” “nameless,” “empty,” it is “the forefather of all things” and “precedes the ancestor of phenomena.” "The Great D. spreads everywhere. It can be to the right and to the left. Thanks to it, all beings are born, and they do not stop in their growth. It accomplishes feats, but does not want glory for itself. All beings return to it, and it does not consider itself master. It can be called great. It becomes great due to the fact that it never considers itself such" (34 Zhang "D.-de-ching"). Lao Tzu's D. is the ultimate universal reality, which has the ontological characteristics of "eternity", "beginninglessness", "emptiness", "non-existence", etc. However, inexpressible and transcendental, it manifests itself through de (virtue, justice, noble power). De, being an ethical manifestation of D., is aimed at the natural ordering of a person’s relationship with society, nature and himself. According to the order of these laws, D. and Te constantly follow the principle of naturalness (Zi-Zhan) and carry out non-action (Wu-Wei). The naturalness of D. is opposed to any external laws , including rituals (li) and taboos (fa), being the ultimate criterion of cosmic harmony. Developing the doctrine of D, Confucius gave it evaluative characteristics and interpreted it in the language of morality. According to Confucius, the infinity of D. is realized in the image of the perfectly wise and serves the favorable course of social events. And Zhuang Tzu brings the substantiality of the non-existence of D. closer to the everyday existence of a person and introduces reflection as a condition for “staying in D.” The figurative and poetic philosophy of Taoism Zhuangzi (IV century BC) consistently pursues the principle of the existence of multiple realities on the basis of the paradoxical, mystical-reflexive identity of consciousness and practice. The hierarchy of these realities is built according to the degree of proximity to nature, the truth of self-consciousness and the potential power of the chaotic inexpressibility of existence. Being inside mythological images and metaphors, Zhuang Tzu subjects any epistemology and speculativeness to a vital test of the authenticity and sincerity of the states of consciousness of the knowing subject. The reflexive-psychological orientation of Taoist analytics of Zhuang Tzu is associated with the original magical and real possibility of “merging” with D.D., as the primary ethereal substance is realized and acts through psychic energy and vital force qi Practice of Tai Chi (reaching the Great Limit), as well as the ability to use the balanced harmony of yin and yang with the help of the I Ching ("Book of Changes") give the comprehension of D. the character of technical exercises and practical skills. Being at the same time a philosophical category and an ideal of practical achievement, the symbol of D. is the core of philosophical and religious Taoism. During the Age of the Six Dynasties (IV - VI centuries AD), Taoist yoga, magic and alchemy were transformed into “religious-liturgical Taoism”, which subsequently influenced significant influence on neo-Confucianism. The religious side of Taoism has a pronounced pantheistic character, is entirely based on the cult of ancestors and in ritual content is close to Confucianism. Taoist logic and ontology made possible the emergence and spread of the Chan (Zen) Buddhist school in China and Japan. The concept of “shunya”, set forth in the sutras of the Prajnaparamita block and subsequently developed by Nagarjuna, deepens and concretizes the understanding of D. Chinese Buddhism transforms the image of D as a synthesis of micro- and macrocosmos into the principle of the unity of nirvana and samsara. With the help of Taoist psychological practices, Nagarjuna's Great Principle of Relativity finds concrete practical implementation in Chan Buddhism. D. is inherent in every thing and every person, just as the “dharma body of the Buddha” (dharmakaya) is present in every living being initially. Through non-action one realizes the true nature of the self, which turns out to be empty, and therefore also initially enlightened. The concept of “not-self”, developed in Chan Buddhism, completely removes the way of thinking and lifestyle of a Taoist philosopher. The naturalness of D. turns out to be the starting point for understanding personality, while it also acts as the result of this understanding. Initially calm, serene and dispassionate D., devoid of form and name, entirely corresponds to the ontological-psychological non-existence of empty dharmas. The philosophy of Neo-Confucianism, which arose in China in? V. n. e., tried to carry out a synthesis of the concept of D., Confucian ethics and Buddhism. Using the interpretations of D. proposed by Confucius, focusing on commentary on the originally Taoist treatise "I Ching" ("Chou-yi"), Neo-Confucianism dissolved D. in moral metaphysics and specifically Chinese impersonal theology. Being a poetic image and a category in equal measure, D. acts as a cultural symbol, which is deciphered and filled with content due to the interpretations applied to it. However, the maximum universality of this symbolic structure not only does not remove practical problem translatability of cultural languages ​​(East - West, Taoism - Christianity), but also sharpens it to the utmost. In terms of the degree of “supreme universality,” D. is close to Brahman. D. and Brahman generate themselves, and the gods are among their many creations. D., like Brahman, is outside of space, outside of time, unknowable, indivisible, but at the same time manifested in the phenomenal world. Both substances emanate: D. through de and qi. Brahman through Atman and Purusha. In its search for fundamental solidity, D. comes close to the classical Greek substances of water and fire, and in terms of transcendental transcendence - with Heraclitus’ Logos and Plotinus’ One. The impossibility of speaking about D. makes the logic of his comprehension similar to the Orthodox apophatic tradition, going from Dionysius the Areopagite to Gregory Palamas. “Tao expressed in words is not a permanent Tao,” “he who knows does not prove, he who proves does not know” (“De Ching”, ch. 1, 81). D. is comprehended through the efforts of practical wisdom, and it is impossible to convey the scope of its content by means of language. The symbolism of D does not point to a reality external to it, since it itself is the limit of all reality and, as a symbol, points to itself. The nature of such a symbol is different from the symbolism of the Western, metaphysical model. Based on Christian ontology, metaphysical symbolism hierarchizes being and places the idea of ​​divine law between the immanent and the transcendent. D as a symbol is opposite to the idea of ​​deity and establishes the natural goodness of human nature as a criterion of truth. Like Heidegger’s being, it does not allow external assessments, rituals of measurement and rules of judgment, D. as “nothing” and “chaos” comes close to the existential philosophical orientation of the 20th century. L. S. Chernov

4) Tao- (lit. “pug”): one of the main concepts of Chinese philosophy, meaning the path of the world as a whole and each thing individually, a symbol of cosmic harmony and energy. It manifests itself in the uniqueness of every moment, representing the entire Absolute, the basis of everything that exists, hello to all beginnings. Tao is incorporeal, not amenable to sensory perception, it is everywhere and nowhere, formless and nameless. The “world of things” is created by Tao and is subject to the laws of life, i.e. passing: all things are in a great circulation and, having reached the limit set by them, returns to their original source Tao, which gives them a new birth.

5) Tao- (Chinese) The name of the philosophy of Lao Tzu.

6) Tao- (Chinese - God, word, logos, path) - a concept of ancient Chinese philosophy, meaning that: having neither name nor form; being eternally one, unchangeable, imperishable, existing from eternity; being inaudible, invisible, inaccessible to comprehension - indefinable, but perfect; being in a state of rest and constant movement; acting as the root cause of all changes, she is the “mother of all things,” the “root of everything.” D. - ("all-one" according to Lao Tzu) - depends only on himself: "man depends on the earth, the earth on the sky (space), the sky - on D., and D. - on himself." A.A. Gritsanov

7) Tao- (Chinese “way”) is one of the basic concepts of Chinese philosophy. If, in Confucius’s understanding, Tao is the “way of man,” i.e. moral behavior and a social order based on morality, then in Taoism itself Tao has a universal ontological meaning: the root cause of the universe, its mysterious pattern; the integrity of life present in everything.

8) Tao- (Chinese - God, path, reason, word, logos, meaning) - one of the most important concepts of China. philosophy. According to Lao Tzu's philosophy, Tao means the all-one. It has neither name nor form; inaudible, invisible, incomprehensible, indefinable, but perfect. It is at rest and yet moves all the time. It itself does not change, but is the cause of all changes. It is eternally one, unchanging, imperishable, existing always and forever. It is the root of everything, the mother of all things. "Man depends on the earth, the earth - on the sky (space), the sky - on Tao, and Tao - on itself."

9) Tao- - one of the most important categories in China. classical philosophy. Initially, D. meant “path”, “road”. Subsequently, the concept of “D.” was used in philosophy to designate the “path” of nature, its laws. At the same time, D. also acquired the meaning of a person’s life path and turned into the concept “ ethical standard”(daode). In thinking, D. means “logic”, “reason”, “argument” (dao-li). The content of the concept “D.” changed along with the development of China. philosophy. Materialist philosophers (Laozi, Xunzi, Wang Chong, etc.) view money as the natural way of things, their pattern. Among idealists, D. is interpreted as an “ideal beginning”, “true non-existence” (Wang Bi and others), as a “divine path” (Dong Zhongshu and others).

Tao

(Chinese - God, word, logos, path) - a concept in ancient Chinese philosophy, meaning that: having neither name nor form; being eternally one, unchangeable, imperishable, existing from eternity; being inaudible, invisible, inaccessible to comprehension - indefinable, but perfect; being in a state of rest and constant movement; acting as the root cause of all changes, she is the “mother of all things,” the “root of everything.” D. - ("all-one" according to Lao Tzu) - depends only on himself: "man depends on the earth, the earth on the sky (space), the sky - on D., and D. - on himself."

(Chinese Way) - In ancient Chinese thought, the Supreme Being, preceding the universe, nameless and formless, eternal and unchanging, the deepest secret and the highest spiritual essence of the life of the world and each individual being, incomprehensible by thought and inexpressible in human language. Being an invisible Super-being, Tao is at the same time Non-being. “In the world, all things are born into being, and being is born into Non-Being” (Lao Tzu). The order and life of the world is a manifestation of the creative and constructive power of Tao, regulating the eternal cosmic struggle of the polar principles of the world - Yin and Yang. The wise, having undergone purification, mastered his vital and mental powers and achieved inner peace, is able to contemplate the Tao and unite with it. Living in accordance with Tao is man’s calling, and the human race is unhappy if it has lost knowledge of Tao and unity with it.

(Chinese - Path, Fate, First Order, Teaching, One) - a category of Chinese philosophy, a universal image of the Chinese type of thinking. Set out in the VI - IV centuries. BC e. The sages Lao Tzu, Zhuang Tzu, Le Tzu and the doctrine of the Tao Way, later developed by Confucianism and Chan Buddhism, were woven into all philosophical, religious, political, aesthetic and other spheres of Chinese culture. Since the time of the Tao Te Ching (Book of Tao and Te), attributed to Lao Tzu, the Taoist corpus of commentaries on D. and its possible interpretations alone has amounted to about 5,000 volumes. Continuous attempts to penetrate into the essence of D., to give its adequate linguistic expression and to indicate the conditions for comprehension, led to the understanding of D. as a universal symbolic structure of consciousness. According to the Tao Te Ching, D. is “inexhaustible,” “nameless,” “empty,” it is “the forefather of all things” and “precedes the ancestor of phenomena.” "The Great D. spreads everywhere. It can be to the right and to the left. Thanks to it, all beings are born, and they do not stop in their growth. It accomplishes feats, but does not want glory for itself. All beings return to it, and it does not consider itself master. It can be called great. It becomes great due to the fact that it never considers itself such" (34 Zhang "D.-de-ching"). Lao Tzu's D. is the ultimate universal reality, which has the ontological characteristics of "eternity", "beginninglessness", "emptiness", "non-existence", etc. However, inexpressible and transcendental, it manifests itself through de (virtue, justice, noble power). De, being an ethical manifestation of D., is aimed at the natural ordering of a person’s relationship with society, nature and himself. According to the order of these laws, D. and Te constantly follow the principle of naturalness (Zi-Zhan) and carry out non-action (Wu-Wei). The naturalness of D. opposes any external laws, including rituals (li) and taboos (fa), being the ultimate criterion of cosmic harmony. Developing the doctrine of D, Confucius gave it evaluative characteristics and interpreted it in the language of morality. According to Confucius, the infinity of D. is realized in the image of the perfectly wise and serves the favorable course of social events. And Zhuang Tzu brings the substantiality of the non-existence of D. closer to the everyday existence of a person and introduces reflection as a condition for “staying in D.” The figurative and poetic philosophy of Taoism Zhuangzi (IV century BC) consistently pursues the principle of the existence of multiple realities on the basis of the paradoxical, mystical-reflexive identity of consciousness and practice. The hierarchy of these realities is built according to the degree of proximity to nature, the truth of self-consciousness and the potential power of the chaotic inexpressibility of existence. Being inside mythological images and metaphors, Zhuang Tzu subjects any epistemology and speculativeness to a vital test of the authenticity and sincerity of the states of consciousness of the knowing subject. The reflexive-psychological orientation of Taoist analytics of Zhuang Tzu is associated with the original magical and real possibility of “merging” with D.D., as the primary ethereal substance is realized and acts through psychic energy and vital force qi Practice of Tai Chi (reaching the Great Limit), as well as the ability to use the balanced harmony of yin and yang with the help of the I Ching ("Book of Changes") give the comprehension of D. the character of technical exercises and practical skills. Being at the same time a philosophical category and an ideal of practical achievement, the symbol of D. is the core of philosophical and religious Taoism. During the Age of the Six Dynasties (IV - VI centuries AD), Taoist yoga, magic and alchemy were transformed into “religious-liturgical Taoism”, which subsequently influenced significant influence on neo-Confucianism. The religious side of Taoism has a pronounced pantheistic character, is entirely based on the cult of ancestors and in ritual content is close to Confucianism. Taoist logic and ontology made possible the emergence and spread of the Chan (Zen) Buddhist school in China and Japan. The concept of “shunya”, set forth in the sutras of the Prajnaparamita block and subsequently developed by Nagarjuna, deepens and concretizes the understanding of D. Chinese Buddhism transforms the image of D as a synthesis of micro- and macrocosmos into the principle of the unity of nirvana and samsara. With the help of Taoist psychological practices, Nagarjuna's Great Principle of Relativity finds concrete practical implementation in Chan Buddhism. D. is inherent in every thing and every person, just as the “dharma body of the Buddha” (dharmakaya) is present in every living being initially. Through non-action one realizes the true nature of the self, which turns out to be empty, and therefore also initially enlightened. The concept of “not-self”, developed in Chan Buddhism, completely removes the way of thinking and lifestyle of a Taoist philosopher. The naturalness of D. turns out to be the starting point for understanding personality, while it also acts as the result of this understanding. Initially calm, serene and dispassionate D., devoid of form and name, entirely corresponds to the ontological-psychological non-existence of empty dharmas. The philosophy of Neo-Confucianism, which arose in China in? V. n. e., tried to carry out a synthesis of the concept of D., Confucian ethics and Buddhism. Using the interpretations of D. proposed by Confucius, focusing on commentary on the originally Taoist treatise "I Ching" ("Chou-yi"), Neo-Confucianism dissolved D. in moral metaphysics and specifically Chinese impersonal theology. Being a poetic image and a category in equal measure, D. acts as a cultural symbol, which is deciphered and filled with content due to the interpretations applied to it. However, the maximum universality of this symbolic structure not only does not eliminate the practical problem of translatability of cultural languages ​​(East - West, Taoism - Christianity), but also sharpens it to the utmost. In terms of the degree of “supreme universality,” D. is close to Brahman. D. and Brahman generate themselves, and the gods are among their many creations. D., like Brahman, is outside of space, outside of time, unknowable, indivisible, but at the same time manifested in the phenomenal world. Both substances emanate: D. through de and qi. Brahman through Atman and Purusha. In its search for fundamental solidity, D. comes close to the classical Greek substances of water and fire, and in terms of transcendental transcendence - with Heraclitus’ Logos and Plotinus’ One. The impossibility of speaking about D. makes the logic of his comprehension similar to the Orthodox apophatic tradition, going from Dionysius the Areopagite to Gregory Palamas. “Tao expressed in words is not a permanent Tao,” “he who knows does not prove, he who proves does not know” (“De Ching”, ch. 1, 81). D. is comprehended through the efforts of practical wisdom, and it is impossible to convey the scope of its content by means of language. The symbolism of D does not point to a reality external to it, since it itself is the limit of all reality and, as a symbol, points to itself. The nature of such a symbol is different from the symbolism of the Western, metaphysical model. Based on Christian ontology, metaphysical symbolism hierarchizes being and places the idea of ​​divine law between the immanent and the transcendent. D as a symbol is opposite to the idea of ​​deity and establishes the natural goodness of human nature as a criterion of truth. Like Heidegger’s being, it does not allow external assessments, rituals of measurement and rules of judgment in relation to itself. D. as “nothing” and “chaos” comes close to the existential philosophical orientation of the 20th century . L. S. Chernov

(lit. “pug”): one of the main concepts of Chinese philosophy, meaning the path of the world as a whole and each thing individually, a symbol of cosmic harmony and energy. It manifests itself in the uniqueness of every moment, representing the entire Absolute, the basis of everything that exists, hello to all beginnings. Tao is incorporeal, not amenable to sensory perception, it is everywhere and nowhere, formless and nameless. The “world of things” is created by Tao and is subject to the laws of life, i.e. passing: all things are in a great circulation and, having reached the limit set by them, returns to their original source Tao, which gives them a new birth.

(Chinese) The name of the philosophy of Lao Tzu.

(Chinese - God, word, logos, path) - a concept in ancient Chinese philosophy, meaning that: having neither name nor form; being eternally one, unchangeable, imperishable, existing from eternity; being inaudible, invisible, inaccessible to comprehension - indefinable, but perfect; being in a state of rest and constant movement; acting as the root cause of all changes, she is the “mother of all things,” the “root of everything.” D. - ("all-one" according to Lao Tzu) - depends only on himself: "man depends on the earth, the earth on the sky (space), the sky - on D., and D. - on himself." A.A. Gritsanov

(Chinese: “way”) is one of the basic concepts of Chinese philosophy. If, in Confucius’s understanding, Tao is the “way of man,” i.e. moral behavior and a social order based on morality, then in Taoism itself Tao has a universal ontological meaning: the root cause of the universe, its mysterious pattern; the integrity of life present in everything.

(Chinese - God, path, reason, word, logos, meaning) - one of the most important concepts of China. philosophy. According to Lao Tzu's philosophy, Tao means the all-one. It has neither name nor form; inaudible, invisible, incomprehensible, indefinable, but perfect. It is at rest and yet moves all the time. It itself does not change, but is the cause of all changes. It is eternally one, unchanging, imperishable, existing always and forever. It is the root of everything, the mother of all things. "Man depends on the earth, the earth - on the sky (space), the sky - on Tao, and Tao - on itself."

One of the most important categories in China. classical philosophy. Initially, D. meant “path”, “road”. Subsequently, the concept of “D.” was used in philosophy to designate the “path” of nature, its laws. At the same time, D. also acquired the meaning of a person’s life path and turned into the concept of “ethical norm” (daode). In thinking, D. means “logic”, “reason”, “argument” (dao-li). The content of the concept “D.” changed along with the development of China. philosophy. Materialist philosophers (Laozi, Xunzi, Wang Chong, etc.) view money as the natural way of things, their pattern. Among idealists, D. is interpreted as an “ideal beginning”, “true non-existence” (Wang Bi and others), as a “divine path” (Dong Zhongshu and others).

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Encyclopedic Dictionary, 1998

Tao

DAO (Chinese lit. - way) is one of the main categories of Chinese philosophy. In Confucianism - the path of a perfect ruler, moral improvement, a set of moral and ethical standards. In Taoism - the law of existence, its generating and organizing principle. The world is the “embodiment” of Tao. The sage, following Tao, abandons goal-setting activity (wu wei, “non-action”), achieves unity with nature and perfection. In the tradition of the Book of Changes (I Ching), Tao is the pattern of alternation of yin-yang forces.

Tao

one of the most important categories of Chinese philosophy. The literal meaning of the term "D." ≈ “path”; Confucius and the early Confucians gave it an ethical meaning, interpreting it as “the way of man,” that is, moral behavior and a social order based on morality. In the philosophy of Taoism, the term "D." it no longer acquires an ethical, but an ontological meaning, and it refers to both the root cause of the universe, the mysterious and unknowable pattern underlying it, and the integrity of life. In the philosophy of Neo-Confucianism, the term "D." mostly identified with the term “li” (“principle”) and contrasted with the material substrate “qi”. The founder of the rationalistic system of Neo-Confucianism, Zhu Xi, emphasized the identity of the dynamic of man and the surrounding world.

Lit.: Konrad N.I., Philosophy of the Chinese Renaissance, in his book: West and East, M., 1966; Bykov F.S., The origin of socio-political and philosophical thought in China, M., 1966: Fung Yulan, A history of Chinese philosophy, v. 1≈2, Princeton, 1952≈53.

V. A. Rubin.

Wikipedia

Tao

Tao(literally - path) is one of the most important categories of Chinese philosophy. Confucius and the early Confucians gave it an ethical meaning, interpreting it as “the way of man,” that is, moral behavior and a social order based on morality. The most famous and significant Taoist interpretation of the Tao is contained in the treatise Tao Te Ching.

Dao (sword)

Tao (, pinyin dāo, not to be confused with, dào(path, Tao)) - “single-edged weapon” / “falchion” / “broadsword” / “saber” / “knife” / “cleaver” - a Chinese bladed single-edged weapon, often illiterately translated when translated as “crooked sword”.

Most often under Tao(indicating its type - for example, Newweidao - Tao"bull tail" or luedao - Tao"willow leaf") refers to single-edged falchions, sabers and broadswords, both one-handed and two-handed. However, as a meaningful element the word Tao included in the names of pole weapons - chuanweidao, yanyuedao, dadao etc.

As a significant element, the same hieroglyph is also included in the names of some specific types of weapons of Chinese martial arts (for example, baguadao), however in this case it only means the presence of sharpening along one of the edges of this weapon.

Japanese katanas were also called dao by the Chinese.

Tao (language)

Tao(Maniwo, "X-Ray") is a Papuan language spoken near the Dao River, east of Cenderawasih Bay, west of the central highlands of the Napan sub-county of the Paniai regency of Papua province in Indonesia. The Tao language is lexically 75% similar to the Auye language. The population also uses Papuan Malay.

Tao (disambiguation)

• Tao is one of the most important categories of Chinese philosophy.
• Dao is a Chinese sword.
• Dao is a Papuan language spoken near the Dao River
• Dao-tsung was the emperor of the Liao dynasty, the kingdom of the Khitan in northeast China.
• The Tao of Winnie the Pooh is a book written in 1982 by American writer Benjamin Hoff.
• Dao Thien Hai - Vietnamese chess player, grandmaster (1995).
• Tao Wu-di is the founder of the Chinese Xianbei dynasty Northern Wei.
• The Tao Te Ching is a book that has had a great influence on the culture of China and the whole world.
• Tao Tsang is a complete collection of religious and philosophical literature of Taoism.
• DAO - Decentralized Autonomous Organization.

whale. "path") is one of the basic concepts of Chinese philosophy. If, in Confucius’ understanding, Tao is the “way of man,” i.e. moral behavior and a social order based on morality, then in Taoism itself Tao has a universal ontological meaning: the root cause of the universe, its mysterious pattern; the integrity of life present in everything.

Excellent definition

Incomplete definition ↓

DAO

Chinese, literally - the way, as well as approach, schedule, function, method, pattern, principle, class, teaching, theory, truth, morality, absolute - one of the most important categories of Chinese philosophy. Etymologically goes back to the idea of ​​primacy (show) in "movement/behavior". The closest correlative categories are de (“grace”) and qi (“tool”). In modern language, binomial daode means morality. The term Tao conveyed the Buddhist concepts “marga” and “patha”, expressing the idea of ​​the path, as well as “bodhi” (“enlightenment”, “awakening”). Logos and Brahman are often recognized as analogues of Tao. The hieroglyph Dao is included in the designation of Taoism (Tao Jia, Dao Jiao) and Neo-Confucianism (Tao Xue). In the Mo Tzu, early Confucianism is also called the “teaching of Tao” (Tao Jiao), and in the Zhuang Tzu, the “art/technique of Tao” (Tao Shu). In different philosophical systems, Tao was defined differently, so Hin Yu called it, like De, an “empty position” that does not have a precisely fixed meaning.

In the Shu-jing, the term dao has abstract meanings: “behavior”, “promotion”, “the path of the sovereign and Heaven” and is correlated with de, which also expresses the abstract concept of social and cosmic harmony. Since the emergence of Chinese philosophy, the question of the relationship between the “human” and the “heavenly”, i.e., has become central to it. universal nature, Tao. (In a narrow sense, “heavenly tao” meant the passage of time or the movement of stars from west to east, as opposed to the movement of the sun from east to west.) Already in the “Shi Jing” there was a convergence of the concepts of “dao” and “limit” (see Tai Chi) .

Confucius focused on the “human” hypostases of Tao and De, which are interconnected, but can also manifest themselves independently of each other (“Dongyu”, V, 12, XII, 19). He concretized Tao in various sets of ethical concepts: “filial piety” and “brotherly love”, “loyalty” and “magnanimity” (zhong shu), i.e. implementation of the “golden rule” of morality, “humanity” (ren), “knowledge” (“zh“) and “courage” (yong), etc. In “Lun Yu”, Tao is the good course of social events and human life, depending both on “predestination” (min) and on the individual. Its bearer is the individual, the state, and all of humanity (the Celestial Empire). Due to the differences in the carriers, their dao is also different: straight and crooked, large and small, inherent in the “noble man” (jun zi) and the “insignificant person” (xiao ren). The des differ accordingly. The Celestial Empire may lose the Tao altogether. Ideally, the unified Tao should be cognized. His affirmation in the world exhausts the meaning of human existence; in the absence of Tao in the Celestial Empire, one should “hide” and refuse service.

Followers of Confucius and representatives of other schools universalized the concept of two main types of Tao and Te, also distinguishing the Tao of order and unrest, ancient and modern, right and false, humane and inhumane, universal and individual Tao (for example, Mencius, Han Fei Tzu").

Confucius's closest disciples gave the highest hypostasis of Tao (the great, all-pervading Tao) a universal ontological meaning, and the founder of orthodox Confucianism, Dong Zhongshu, put forward the thesis: “The great source of Tao comes from Heaven.” In Zhong Yun, the Tao of a “noble man” or “perfectly wise” is defined as a general cosmic force emanating from an individual, “strengthening in heaven and earth”, “materializing in the thoughts and spirits”, leading to grace. “Authenticity” constitutes the “heavenly” and its realization constitutes the “human” Tao. One who has acquired the utmost “authenticity” is able to form a trinity with Heaven and Earth. In addition to de and qi, the concepts most closely related to Tao are “predestination,” “individual nature,” and “[bodily] form.”

Cultivation in Tao, from which one cannot depart even for a moment, is training (jiao). “Harmony” (he) constitutes the all-pervading dao of the Celestial Empire, which is concretized in five types of relationships: between ruler and subject, father and children, husband and wife, elders and younger brothers, friends and comrades. This dao is realized through “knowledge”, “humanity” and “courage” - the threefold all-pervading “great grace” (da de) of the Celestial Empire, which is identical to the threefold dao of “Lun Yu” (XIV, 28). At the ordinary level, the knowledge and implementation of Tao is accessible even to the stupid and worthless, but in its ultimate expression it contains something unknowable and unrealizable even for the “perfectly wise.”

In Mencius (4th century BC), “authenticity” is defined as the “heavenly” Tao, and “thought” (“care”-si) about it is defined as the “human” Tao. The Tao of the “perfectly wise” boils down to only “filial piety and brotherly love.” In general, the Tao represents the union of man and “humanity.” The heavenly Tao is predetermined, but in some ways it also depends on “individual nature,” although in general attempts to influence Tao and “predestination” are useless. Unlike Confucius, who assessed the “middle Tao” as insufficiency (“Lun Yu”), Mencius saw the “middle Tao” as a harmonious state.

Xun Tzu, on the one hand, exaggerated the comprehensiveness of Tao, declaring all the “darkness of things” to be one of its “sides”; on the other hand, he called the “perfectly wise” (sheng) the “limit” of Tao. Xun Tzu considered “decency/etiquette” (li) to be the “limit” of the human Tao. Tao, which is constant in its corporeal essence, is changeable and therefore indefinable on one of its sides. Through the Great Tao, all things are changed, transformed and formed. Following the Tao presupposes curbing passions, individual accumulation of “grace,” its preliminary identification and knowledge. The latter is carried out by a “heart” filled with emptiness, concentration and peace. Knowledge of Tao makes it possible to “weigh” (hen) all the darkness of things. In Mozi, the interpretation of Tao differs little from the early Confucian one.

The oppositional Confucian theory of Tao was developed in Taoism. Its main feature is the emphasis on the “heavenly” rather than the “human” hypostasis of Tao. If the Confucians proceeded from its verbal and conceptual expressibility and even self-expressibility, actively using such meanings of Tao as “utterance,” “saying,” “teaching,” then the founders of Taoism declared the verbal and conceptual inexpressibility of the Supreme Tao. In early Taoism, the paired categories of Tao and Te came to the fore, to which the main Taoist treatise “Tao Te Ching” is dedicated. In it, Tao is presented in two main forms: 1) lonely, separated from everything, constant, inactive, at rest, inaccessible to perception and verbal and conceptual expression, nameless, generating “absence/non-existence”, giving rise to Heaven and Earth, 2) all-encompassing, all-pervading, like water; changing with the world, acting, accessible to “passage,” perception and knowledge, expressed in a “name/concept,” sign and symbol, generating “presence/being,” which is the ancestor of the “darkness of things.” In addition, the just (“heavenly”) and vicious (“human”) Tao are contrasted with each other, and the possibility of deviations from the Tao and its absence in general in the Celestial Empire is also recognized. As the “beginning”, “mother”, “ancestor”, “root”, “rhizome”, Tao genetically precedes everything in the world, including the “lord”; described as an undifferentiated unity (“mysterious identity” containing all things and symbols in the state of “pneuma” and seed), i.e., a “thing” manifesting itself in the form of a thingless (objectless) and formless symbol, which in this aspect is empty -all-encompassing and equal to the all-pervading “absence/non-existence”. At the same time, “absence/non-existence” and, therefore, Tao is interpreted as an active manifestation (“function” - yun) of “presence/being”. The genetic superiority of “absence/non-existence” over “presence/being” is removed in the thesis about their mutual generation. Dao in the Tao Te Ching represents the genetic and organizing function of the unity of “presence/being” and “absence/non-existence,” subject and object. The main pattern of Tao is reversibility, return, that is, movement in a circle, characteristic of the sky, which was thought to be round. As Tao, following only its own nature, resists the dangerous artificiality of “tools” and the harmful supernaturalism of spirits, at the same time defining the possibility of both. “Grace” is defined in the Tao Te Ching as the first stage of degradation of Tao, at which a thing born of Tao is formed. The fullness of "grace" means the "ultimacy of the seed."

In the Zhuangzi there is a strong tendency to bring Tao closer to “absence/non-existence”, the highest form of which is “absence [even traces] of absence” (wu). The consequence of this was the thesis, which diverged from the Tao Te Ching and then became popular, according to which the Tao, not being a thing among things, makes things things. In “Zhuang Tzu” the ideas about the unknowability of Tao are strengthened: “Completion in which one does not know why this is so is called Tao.” At the same time, the omnipresence of the Tao is maximally emphasized, which not only “passes through the darkness of things”, forms space and time, but is also present in robbery and even in feces and urine. Hierarchically, Tao is placed above the “Great Limit” (tai chi), but already in “Lü shi chun chi” it, as the “ultimate seed” (chhi jing), is identified with both the “Great Limit” and the “Great One” ( tai i). The Song [Jian]-Yin [Wen] school (4th century BC; see “Guachzi”) interpreted Tao as the natural state of the “seminal,” “subtle,” “essential,” “spirit-like” pneuma, which is not differentiated either by “corporal forms” or “names/concepts”, and therefore is “empty non-existent” (xu wu).

In the Huainanzi, “absence/non-existence” is presented as the “corporeal essence” of the Tao and the active manifestation of the darkness of things. Tao, which appears as “Chaos”, “Formless”, “One”, is here defined as “contracting space and time” and non-localized between them.

Representatives of the school of military thought (bin jia) also made the concept of Tao the basis of their teaching. In Sunzi, Tao is defined as the first of the five foundations of military art (along with the “conditions of Heaven and Earth,” the qualities of a commander and the law), consisting in the unity of the strong-willed thoughts of the people and the top. Since war is seen as “the way (Tao) of deceit,” Tao is associated with the idea of ​​selfish self-reliance and individual cunning, which was developed in late Taoism (“Yin Fu Jing”). According to the Wu Tzu, Tao is “that by which one turns to the basis and returns to the beginning”, that which pacifies and becomes the first in a series of four general principles of successful activity (the others are “duty/justice”, “planning” , “demandingness”) and “four graces” (the others are “duty/justice”, “decency/etiquette”, “humanity”). Han Fei (3rd century BC), relying on the ideas of Confucianism and Taoism, developed the connection outlined by Xunzi and the most important for subsequent philosophical systems (especially neo-Confucian) between the concepts of Tao and “principle” (li): “Tao is that , which makes the darkness of things such that it determines the darkness of principles. Principles are the culture that shapes things (wen). Tao is something through which the darkness of things is formed.” Following the Taoists, Han Fei recognized Tao not only as a universal formative function, but also as a universal generative and life-giving function. Unlike Song Jian and Yin Wen, he believed that the Tao could be represented in a "symbolic" form. The interpretation of Tao in the commentary part of “Zhou Yi” became the basis for the development of Chinese philosophical thought. Here we see both the binary model-Tao of Heaven and Earth, creativity (Qian) and performance (Kun), “noble man” and “insignificant person”, and the ternary model-Tao of Heaven, Earth, man, “three materials” (San Cai ), “three limits” (san ji). The heavenly Tao is affirmed by the forces of yin and yang, the earthly by “softness” and “hardness,” and the human by “humanity” and “duty/justice.” The main expression of Tao is “change”, transformation according to the principle of “yin and yang”. Therefore, the attribute of Tao is “reciprocity and recurrence.” Tao as “change” means “generating generation” (sheng sheng), or “revitalizing life,” which corresponds to the Taoist definition and understanding of simply generation, or life, as “the great grace of Heaven and Earth.” As a “change,” Tao is hierarchically superior to the “Great Limit”—it “possesses” it, which is similar to the provisions of the Zhuangzi. In the “Xi Qi Zhuan” (c. 4th century BC), the opposition of the “above-form” dao to the “sub-form” “tools” was first introduced. The four spheres of realization of Tao are also indicated there: in speeches, actions, the manufacture of implements, and fortune telling (I, 10). Influenced by both “Zhou Yi” and Taoism, the Confucian Yang Xiong (1st century BC - 1st century) presented the Tao as a hypostasis of the “[Great] mystery” ([tai] xuan), understood as the limit of “active manifestation” ; Tao is “penetration” into everything, “empty in form and determining the path of the darkness of things.”

The founders of xuan xue, He Yan (late 2nd-3rd century) and Wang Bi, identified dao with “absence/non-existence.” Guo Xiang, recognizing this identification, denied the possibility of generating “presence/being” from “absence/non-existence,” i.e., he rejected a possible creation-deistic interpretation of the Tao. Pei Wei (3rd century) directly identified Tao with “presence/being.” In Ge Hong, being the “form of forms”, in the hypostasis of the “One”, Tao acquired two modes - “Mysterious One” (xuan yi) and “True One” (zhen yi).

The opposition between Tao and qi-weapon has been subject to various interpretations in Chinese philosophy. Cui Jing (7th-9th centuries) identified it with the opposition yun-ti (see lu-yun): “active manifestation” (“function”) - “bodily essence” (“substance”), respectively. This opposition has become one of the most important in Neo-Confucianism. Zhang Zai correlated it with a pair of de-dao, the first member of which was defined as “spirit” (shen), i.e., the ability of things to perceive each other, and the second as “transformation” (hua). Zhang Zai equated the “active manifestation” of the “corporeal essence” of “pneuma”, interpreted as the formless “Great Emptiness” (tai xu), “Great Harmony” (tai he) or the unity of “presence/being” and “absence/non-existence” to “above another form” Tao. He also described Tao as the interaction of opposites (liang duan) that permeates the darkness of things, which is expressed in their mutual perception (spirit), which finds its bodily essence in individual nature. The universality of this interaction determines the possibility of its knowledge.

Han Yu returned to the original Confucian meaning of Tao (contrasting it with Taoist and Buddhist understandings) as following “humanity” and “duty/justice” (“Yuan Dao”). The main founders of Neo-Confucian philosophy emphasized the general ontological meaning of Tao. According to Shao Yun, the “formless” and “self-returning” Tao is “the root of Heaven, Earth and the darkness of things,” generating (revitalizing) and shaping them. Cheng Hao, following Zhang Zai, equated dao with “individual nature” (“Yi shu”), and Cheng Yi distinguished them as “active manifestation” and “bodily essence,” although he also spoke of a single dao, manifested in “predestination,” “ individual nature" and "heart". Cheng Yi expressed regularity in the action of Tao using the category “average and unchanging”, or “balance and constancy”. He defined “loyalty” as a “corporeal essence,” i.e., a “heavenly principle,” and “reciprocity” as an “active manifestation,” i.e., the human Tao (“Yi Shu”). Developing the ideas of Cheng Yi, Zhu Xi identified dao with the “principle” and the “Great Limit”, and “tools” with “pneuma”, the means of generating and revitalizing things and the forces of yin yang (“Zhu Tzu Yu Lei”). Although Zhu Xi defended the unity of Tao as a “corporeal essence” and “active manifestation,” he was criticized by Lu Juyuan, who appealed to the original definition of “Xi Qi Zhuan” and argued that yin yang is the “above-form” Tao, and therefore between Tao and “tools” do not have the functional difference that Zhu Xi established.

Wang Yangming, developing the ideas of Lu Jiuyuan, identified Tao with the human “heart” (“Zeng Yan-bo”) and its basis - “good meaning” (liang zhi).

Synthesizing the views of his predecessors, Wang Fuzhi defended the thesis of the unity of “tools” and Tao as a concrete reality and the principle that orders it. The result of this ordering is de. Wang Fuzhi believed that Tao is not devoid of “form” or “symbol”, but only dominates the “forms” with which everything in the world of “tools” is endowed.

Tan Sitong returned to the direct definition of “tools” and Tao by the Ta-yong opposition. The Celestial Empire is also a huge “weapon”. The susceptibility of the world of “tools” to changes entails changes in the Tao. This reasoning became Tan Sitong’s theoretical justification for reformism.

In general, in the historical development of the two main concepts of Taoism—Confucian and Taoist—opposite trends can be traced. In the first, there is an increasing connection with “presence/being”, universalization and objectification, a movement from ontologized ethics to “moral metaphysics” (new Confucianism, especially in the person of May Zongsan). In the second, there is an increasing connection with “absence/non-existence”, concretization and subjectivization, up to the connection of Tao with the idea of ​​an individual egoistic breakthrough “to heaven”, i.e. the “path” as a cunning loophole, on which the search for personal immortality was often based in late Taoism.

Lit.: Tao and Taoism in China. M., 1982; From magical power to moral imperative: the category of de in Chinese culture. M., 1998; Torchinov E. And Taoism. St. Petersburg, 1998.

Excellent definition

Incomplete definition ↓

Tao is an ancient Chinese esoteric tradition that grew out of the teachings of Lao Tzu, who lived in China at the turn of the 6th-5th centuries. BC e. Lao Tzu, like Siddharha Gautama, is one of the greatest awakened people (Buddhas) in the history of the Aryan period of human development. Based on this tradition (in the 3rd-4th centuries AD) arose orthodox religion China - Taoism.

Translated from Chinese, the term “Tao” means “path”. But already from distant antiquity, this concept began to be used in a figurative sense, in the meaning of “the human path.” It is in this sense that “dao” is often found in Lunyu. Taoist philosophers gave the term another, general philosophical meaning. In Taoist treatises, it denotes the path that the universe follows, and at the same time that invisible and incomprehensible principle either by sensations or by intellect, by virtue of which the universe appeared and is developing.

The book “Tao Te Ching” (“Book of Path and Grace”) attributed to Lao Tzu says: “There is something chaotic, but complete, existing before the birth of heaven and earth, soundless and formless. Unchangeable and not dependent on anything , it rotates tirelessly in a circle. It can be considered the mother of the Celestial Empire. I don’t know its name, but I call it “dao.”

The beginning of Tao, as if embodying the integrity of the universe, is contrasted by Taoists with vain human affairs and aspirations. The goal of one who has realized the insignificance of all worldly things should be to merge with the Tao through mystical enlightenment. Thus, before the time of Lao Tzu’s philosophical activity, the word Tao was used only in two senses: 1) road, or path; 2) imperative duty of a person.

Lao Tzu was the first to designate a supersensible being with this word and put it at the foundation of his system, where there is not a single thought that is not in one way or another connected with the teaching of Tao. One can thus draw an analogy with the Sanskrit term “Dharma”, with which the Chinese term “Tao” has a synonymous relationship. The Taoist tradition represents the vast experience of people who achieved enlightenment on their own. It, like the Zen tradition, belongs to a line of development that can roughly be called “the path of enlightenment, or awakening.”

The main goal and central concept of religious Taoism is the achievement of immortality (xian xue). The doctrine of immortality suggests that a follower of Taoism, through certain practices, including gymnastic and breathing exercises, rules of sexual hygiene, meditation and alchemy, can achieve not only spiritual, but also physical immortality, as well as develop supernatural strength and abilities.

Since Taoism denies the immortality of the soul, separated from the body, and considers man as an integral psychophysical complex, this doctrine assumed two aspects of religious practice: improvement of the body (gymnastic and breathing exercises) and improvement of the spirit (contemplation, meditation).

The source of life in Taoism is considered to be Tao, due to which immortality itself is considered as the achievement of complete unity with Tao. Of all the methods of achieving immortality, as already mentioned in the section " Religion", the most important is alchemy (lian dan shu, jin dan). The Taoist tradition distinguishes two types of alchemy: “external” (wai dan) and “internal” (nei dan). "External" alchemy is based on the belief in the possibility of creating an elixir of immortality either by producing "artificial gold" or by creating an elixir from cinnabar and combining it with other substances. In the Middle Ages, the passion for elixirs led to frequent poisoning with heavy metals, especially mercury.

“Internal” alchemy, based on the thesis about the similarity of the micro- and macrocosm, the human body and the Universe, considers it possible to create an elixir of immortality in the body itself from its juices and subtle energies (qi, jing, shen) through psychophysical exercises and contemplation. At the same time, an original doctrine was developed about the structure of the human body, which is based on the concept of “channels” (jing), through which qi circulates throughout the body, and the so-called “cinnabar fields” (dan tian) - peculiar reservoirs and centers of qi. Gradually, “internal” alchemy replaced “external” alchemy, which, starting from the late Middle Ages, began to be perceived as false or profane.

Of the many meridian channels described in ancient Chinese texts, Nei Dan practice mainly uses two of the so-called “eight wonderful channels”, well known to acupuncturists. These are the channels of control and conception (posterior and anteromedial) - du mo (du mai) and ren mo (ren mai). The Du Mo channel runs from the perineum (from the yin-hui point VC 1) up along the spine through the head and middle of the face to a point on the upper gum.

It is believed that the qi energy rises through the Du Mo channel (in qigong exercises, qi is usually concentrated on this movement on inhalation).

The Ren Mo channel runs from the Chen Jiang point (VC 24) under the lower lip down to the Yin Hui point in the perineum. It is believed that qi moves downward along this channel (in qi gong exercises, while exhaling). The rotation of qi along these two channels is called the “great heavenly circle” (da zhou tian), and when the qi “lowers” ​​into the lower “cinnabar field” it is called the “small heavenly circle” (xiao zhou tian).

In Taoism, “cinnabar fields” mean special energy centers human body. In total, tradition identifies three “cinnabar fields” - in the head, in the solar plexus area, and in the lower abdomen. The last of them is considered the most important and began to be mentioned in Taoist texts before the other two centers. In the process of “inner alchemy,” the Taoists directed qi into one of the “cinnabar fields,” where different types of qi were used to breathing exercises, visualization and contemplation, as it were, “fused”, combined, forming an “immortal “embryo”” (xian tai) - the germ of the future “immortal” body of the adept.

Followers of Taoism explained the essence of the “cinnabar fields” in different ways. For some, these were very real organic formations, for others - the functional centers of a living person (disappearing in the deceased), for others - energy structures that were formed in the process of practicing internal alchemy or qi gong and were absent among laymen.

Some areas of Wu Shu are directly related to Taoism. First of all, this concerns the Wudang direction (Wudang Pai) of internal styles (Nei Jia) of Shu, which received their name from Mount Wudangshan. On this mountain there was a center for the veneration of the deity of the north - the Hidden True Warrior (xuan wu, zhen wu). In the XIII - XIV centuries. Taoist monasteries and sects of hermits appeared on the mountain, gradually becoming the center of Taoist schools of Wu Shu.

Tradition also connects the name of the famous Taoist of the 14th - 15th centuries with them. Zhang Sanfeng. Although scientific verification of a number of traditional statements regarding his practice of wushu is significantly difficult, in any case, the influence of Taoism on both the theory and practice of wushu, as a method of psychophysical training, has always been very significant. Studying the Taoist roots of shu helps to better understand the essence of applied “yogic” arts as an interesting and significant phenomenon of the rich culture of ancient and medieval China.

The articles in this section are compiled based on materials from books and electronic publications:

1. Alexander Libier. History of esotericism. Part 6. Tao >>>
2. Lu Kuan Yu. Taoist yoga. Alchemy and immortality. Introduction to Taoism and traditional Chinese systems of psychophysical training
3. E.S. Stulova. "Taoist practice of achieving immortality"
4. Central site of the Zhong Yuan Qigong school
5. Electronic encyclopedia "Wikipedia"