Space mapping. Cartography

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Introduction

Today, GIS geographic information systems are most widely used in the field of information support and automation of land management works, land cadastre and assessment of land resources. Cartographic information is of particular importance for land monitoring and spatial display of negative processes and phenomena. Specialists in the field of GIS play an important role in information support for decision-making on the organization of productive use of land resources, their improvement and protection. They must be able to create and supplement a geodatabase, use in their work remote sensing data, ground-based instrumental survey materials, vector and raster models for representing spatial data in geoinformation mapping of land resources.

But before developing scientifically sound mapping activities, it is necessary to comprehensively study the current state of the environment and possible changes during economic use. It is important to preserve unique landscapes, flora and fauna for future generations. Nowadays, the territory changed as a result of economic activity reaches up to 85% of the entire land area, and this territory is constantly changing. Studying such vast areas is almost impossible using only traditional methods. A productive solution to these issues requires determining the exact spatial location of lands when drawing up maps. In this situation, the method of studying land resources by remote sensing from space comes to the rescue. This procedure is a complex of different methods of recording the natural environment using photographic, scanner, television, radar and other special equipment, as well as visual observations.

Space images serve as the basis for developing traditional maps of nature based on photographs from space, and help in creating maps that reflect the current state of the surrounding nature. The advent of space photography helped to reduce the cost and simplify the mapping process.

Today, cartographic materials are presented in digital form on the basis of GIS, which is a system for ensuring data collection, its safety, processing, display and transmission of processed data.

My course work will address the following important issues:

Education and development of GIS methods for mapping land resources;

Objectives and goals of land resource mapping;

Consideration of software tools for GIS land mapping;

Study of the main characteristics of satellite images;

Consideration of methods for decrypting space images;

The advantages of using satellite images in land mapping are considered;

Prospects for further development of this area have been identified;

- using a specific example, the issue of features of vegetation mapping for cadastral valuation of land is highlighted using the example of the Lapland Nature Reserve;

In conclusion, conclusions will be drawn to the entire work on the importance of developing this method in the future.

Chapter 1. Geoinformation mapping of land resources

1.1 Education and development of GIS methods for mapping land resources

In the education and development of GIS methods for mapping land resources, three main stages can be defined:

1. pioneer period (1960s);

2. era of government initiatives (1970s);

3. period of commercial development (1980s to the present day).

The pioneering period developed against the background of the emergence of electronic computers, plotters, digitizers and other peripheral equipment, with the creation of software algorithms and methods for graphically displaying information on screens, and the emergence of formal methods of spatial analysis. The formation and rapid development of GIS was due to vast experience in topographic and thematic mapping, automation of the mapping process and a breakthrough in the development of computer technology.

For the first time in 1960, a GIS land mapping database was created in Canada. The main task was to analyze the wealth of data accumulated by the Canadian Land Registry Service and to obtain statistical data that could be applied to the development of land management plans for large areas, mainly for agricultural lands. To implement this project, it was necessary to create a land classification, identify and show the established structure of land use. The most pressing issue was to ensure productive input of existing cartographic and thematic knowledge. To achieve this, specialists developed a solution to use tables of attribute data, which made it possible to divide files of geometric geoinformation about the location of objects and files with thematic content about the objects under study. To introduce large-scale land plans, scientists have designed a unique scanning device.

In Sweden, experts paid attention to GIS land accounting specialization, and thus the Swedish Land Data Bank was created, which makes it possible to automate the accounting of land holdings and real estate. Maps at that time were constructed in the form of rough alphanumeric printouts, consisting of letters and numbers with different display densities, which created the effect of halftone images.

In the second half of the 1960s, unique developments by Harvard scientists were presented; software was designed in their laboratories, which became classic in the field of mapping.

Thus, the foundation was laid and the leading role of cartographic data models, the cartographic method of research, and methods of presenting information in geographic information systems were determined.

The next period of state GIS initiatives were aimed at inventorying land resources, land cadastre and accounting to improve the taxation system, while automating land resources in the accounting document flow system in the form of databases for the corresponding divisions. An important step in the development of GIS was the introduction of the space feature, soil classification or space feature into the list of attributes of operational objects.

At this time, the concept of spatial objects appeared, which were described using positional and non-positional attributes. Two opposite directions in representation were formed: raster and vector structures, including topological linear-nodal representations. The tasks that form the basis of the foundations of geographic information technologies were solved, such as the imposition of layers of different names, the generation of buffer zones, Thiessen polygons and other spatial data management actions, such as determining whether a point belongs to a polygon, computational geometry actions, etc. Effective solutions to other geometric issues, the order of operation of evaluation operations and graphic-analytical constructions have been determined.

The period of commercial development comes in the 1980s with the formation unified system by combining computer software for data processing, preparation of texts and maps. This soyuh enables a person to make the right decision in important events. At this time, GIS is developing at a very rapid pace, new capabilities of computing tools and personal computers are significantly changing the entire geographic information direction. Software products are now versatile enough to evaluate and analyze problems in GIS matters. Thus, it was during this period that the ARC/INFO software appeared at the Institute for the Study of Environmental Systems in the USA, the basis for the creation of which was the combination of a standard relational database management system (INFO) with the program (ARC). Today, the software has grown into the ArcGIS complex - a solid solution for GIS mapping, in particular of land resources.

During this period of time, GIS was introduced in our country for mapping land resources. A land information structure was founded, divided into local, regional and central, and land cadastral data began to accumulate. GIS has been implemented in the process of registering land plots, monitoring and protection of the land fund, and server funds are being developed.

1.2 Objectives and goals of GIS mapping of land resources. Classification of land resources in Russia

The cooperation of geoinformatics and cartography has become the basis for the formation of a new direction - geoinformation mapping, the essence of which is automated information and cartographic modeling of natural and socio-economic geosystems based on GIS and knowledge bases.

The use of maps in planning and management in science and other aspects of life proves the importance of GIS mapping on a national scale.

For the development of this area there are the following important tasks and goals:

Creation of thematic maps and atlases and their availability to consumers, this is especially important when taking into account the natural resources of the earth and maps related to environmental protection;

Increasing the volume of production of cartographic materials and optimizing the timing of its issuance;

Use of computer technology to automate cartographic processes and develop digital maps;

Creation of an information retrieval system that ensures the collection, storage and use of information;

Development of maps by specialists with fundamental knowledge in science.

Let us consider in more detail the essence and goals of mapping land resources. To correctly create maps of land resources, it is necessary to solve a number of priority tasks when studying an object:

To study the country's land capabilities, its resources, their location, condition, prospects for use and protection, individual traits and general characteristics as an object of mapping;

Assess existing scientific publications and experience in this thematic mapping movement to identify content, trends, methods of implementation and the possibility of use in work;

Follow the developed work concepts to design maps, taking into account the purpose of each of them, the principle of formation, justification of the structure, mathematical, general geographical and thematic elements of their content;

When developing maps, it strives to unify software in accordance with the modern technical equipment of state and departmental cartographic services;

- create detailed original layouts of the atlas, wall maps, containing fragments of main and inset maps, diagrams, graphs, tables.

In order to understand about mapping land resources, it is necessary first of all to understand what the very concept of land resources means on a state scale, to see the classification.

The Russian Federation has the largest land resources in the world, the area of Russia occupies 12.5% of the world's territory, which is equal to 1709 million hectares of land. Given the availability of such a quantity of resources, state policy ensures the strictest control over its characteristics and condition.

At the same time, land management is an important function of government authorities; they adopt rules for land management, carry out this management and oversee the legality of the adopted rules.

The classification of land resources in Russia distinguishes the following groups:

Lands of agricultural enterprises, as well as lands used for agricultural needs, farm lands;

Forest fund lands;

Water fund lands;

Lands registered with city, town and rural authorities

Lands for industrial purposes, transport, communications, directly involved in the production process;

Lands for environmental purposes that have environmental, scientific, aesthetic, and health value;

Reserve lands that are not provided to legal entities and individuals for possession.

Feature of the land fund Russian Federation is that more than 90% of the land belongs to the state. This once again confirms the importance of proper GIS mapping.

1.3 Software tools for GIS land mapping

The development of geographic information technologies has led to the creation of firms that distribute GIS software necessary for the purposes of GIS land mapping. There are several classes of software, differing in functionality and stages of material processing.

Based on functionality, GIS land mapping software is divided into the following five classes.

Let's consider the first of them, these are instrumental GIS.

They are designed to organize the input of cartographic and attribute information, its storage, processing complex information requests, solving spatial and analytical problems, constructing derivative maps and plans, and ultimately preparing for outputting original cartographic image layouts onto a medium. Basically, GIS support working with both raster and vector images, have a built-in database or use databases such as Paradox, Access, Oracle and others. In addition, GIS land mapping is possible in AutoCAD Map, MapInfo Professional, GIS map 2011, GeoDraw and others.

The second class includes GIS viewers, software products that allow the use of geodatabases created using instrumental GIS. All GIS viewers include tools for querying databases, performing positioning and zooming operations on cartographic images. Viewers are an integral part of medium and large projects, which saves costs. GIS viewers allow you to display cartographic material (tablets) on hard media. The most common software products are: Arc Reader, Vista Map, Win Map.

The third class includes software for preprocessing and decoding Earth remote sensing data. These include image processing packages equipped with a mathematical apparatus that allows manipulation of scanned or digitally recorded images of the Earth's surface. This includes a large set of operations, including all types of correction through georeferencing of images, to automated decryption of land. Among these GIS products are ERDAS Imagine, ERDAS ER Mapper, Image Analyst for ArcGis, Stereo Analyst for ArcGis, ENVI, MultiSpec, PHOTOMOD.

The fourth class includes vectorizer programs. These GIS packages specialize in scanning, stitching and correction of paper planning and cartographic data with subsequent vectorization of their contents automatically or semi-automatically automatic mode. This is provided by the following programs: AutoCAD Raster Design, Easy Trace, Arc Scan for ArcGIS, Map EDIT, Panorama Editor and others.

The fifth class includes software for processing field geodetic observations, which provides for the import of information from GPS receivers, electronic tachometers, levels and other geodetic equipment. This product processes and evaluates data, calculates the coordinates of turning points of land boundaries, creates plans of land boundaries using its own means, or exports information from instrumental GIS. The following software products are used: Trimble Geomatics Office, CREDO_DAT and CREDO TOP PLAN, Survey Analyst for ArcGIS, Complex of geodetic calculations, etc.

1.4 Prospects for development in GIS mapping

The development of mapping is determined by the growth in consumption of maps and the increase in their value in the national economy, construction and research work. The reasons for the increased interest are explained by the need for more detailed and accurate spatial information about the earth's surface, about the development space research, natural conditions and resources, increasing the level of education among the population, developing strategies in planning the national economy and construction, when making decisions on the protection and protection of the environment. That is, the introduction of a cartographic method for studying natural and socio-economic processes.

Some of these factors influence the growth in the number of produced geographical maps, some lead to detail and clarification of content, to regular updating, others give rise to the need to create new types of maps and the founding of new branches of mapping.

The development of cartography requires the search for more optimal ways of research, obtaining data, new ways of developing and using maps that increase the efficiency and productivity of work, which leads to easier understanding of maps and expands the horizons of their application.

Thus, an increase in tourist countries leads to an increase in the volume of cards produced for tourists; population growth, in turn, leads to greater production for educational institutions atlases. There are an infinite number of examples, but the point remains that all of the above factors lead to some changes for mapping.

Thus, one can observe the growth of thematic mapping of the World Ocean, the significance of which is difficult to overestimate on a planetary scale. Issues resolved integrated mapping The world ocean, which is considered as a sphere of human activity associated with the increased use of biological, mineral and energy resources both on the surface and in the thickness of its water. This was solved by mapping the natural resources of the shelves.

Of great interest to science is the introduction of cartography into space for the study of the Moon, planets, and the creation of maps of celestial bodies.

When developing terrestrial, topographic maps, the work is not limited to just clarification and updating, but leads to the emergence of such new maps with photographs of the earth's surface, maps showing development and urban management at various levels.

The creation of new maps and atlases contributes to the accumulation of a huge amount of information about the location of natural and social processes, makes it possible to assess their condition, interaction, change...

The main tasks that cartographers set for themselves are:

Increased labor efficiency;

Improving maps;

Expanding the areas of use of maps in practice and science.

The difficulties in carrying out the assigned tasks were resolved largely thanks to the development of computer technology, computer technology, automation and remote sensing, and experimental research in cartography.

But along with this, there are a number of maps and processes that are practically not amenable to mathematical problems due to large quantity criteria whose significance is difficult to apply to a certain measure or law. And it is the latest technology that gives the cartographer access to work automatic system and individually resolve issues in the “man-machine” dialogue mode.

It is this symbiosis of human thought and limitless possibilities the latest technology is considered to represent a great prospect for the subsequent development of cartography.

Satellite surveys, which provide a huge spatial overview and reflect the patterns of geography, allow the cartographer to avoid the process of gradually reducing large-scale sources and removing a lot of unnecessary data, and therefore definitely speed up the process of obtaining medium- and small-scale thematic maps. Of great importance is the fact that automation allows the transformation of data obtained from space surveys into cartographic form.

Thus, when studying the prospects of cartography, two main goals can be distinguished:

Creation of new maps aimed at a circle of cartographers and other specialists taking part in the design, surveying, and compilation of maps;

The use of maps in science and practice, serving the interests of consumers.

I would like to emphasize that it is the use of maps that shapes the future of this current of science and therefore requires continuous improvement.

Chapter 2 Satellite images when mapping lands

2.1 Main types and characteristics of satellite images

Space photography occupies a leading place among other methods of remote sensing, which is a collection of non-contact imaging methods for studying the Earth and its parts by recording and assessing their own and reflected radiation from aircraft and spacecraft.

Space photography occurs with the help of artificial Earth satellites, interplanetary automatic stations, long-term automatic stations, and manned spacecraft. The main characteristic of satellite images is spatial resolution, divided into the following classes:

Satellite images of very low resolution 10000-100000 m;

Low resolution satellite images 300-1000 m;

Satellite images of average resolution 50-200 m;

Satellite images of relatively high resolution 20-40 m;

High resolution satellite images 10-20 m;

Very high resolution satellite images 1-10 m;

Ultra-high resolution satellite images of 0.3-0.9 m.

Based on the characteristics of the earth's surface, the following group of images can be distinguished:

Single photography is carried out by astronauts with hand-held cameras; the pictures are perspective with significant angles of inclination;

Route photography, it is carried out along the satellite flight path, in this case the width of the shooting swath depends on the flight altitude and the viewing angle of the equipment;

Targeted photography is intended to obtain images of specified areas of land away from the highway;

Global photography, which is carried out from geostationary and polar-orbiting satellites, providing small-scale overview images of the entire Earth, except for the polar caps.

There are a number of parameters that determine the possibility of deciphering space images, these are scale, spatial resolution, visibility and spectral characteristics.

The scale and visibility of satellite images make it possible to identify objects of different levels captured at the same time and in the same shooting mode.

The visibility of satellite images covers a larger area compared to aerial photographs. For comparison, one image from space covers the area of 10,000 aerial photographs. At the same time large areas are covered simultaneously under the same conditions, which makes it possible to study regional and zonal patterns, global phenomena, and conduct research on a global scale.

Comprehensive display of geosphere components.

When displaying different components of the geosphere (lithosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, atmosphere) together, it allows one to study their connections. Due to the high altitude of the shooting, the images show the cloud cover of the planet, and as a result of the generalization of the image, deep geological structures are displayed on them. Based on this, satellite images provide:

Study of processes in the atmosphere;

Atmosphere-ocean interaction;

Manifestation of hydrodynamics of flows.

All this provides a number of advantages; the complex method shows the interrelationships of objects, which facilitates deciphering and makes it possible to use images to create thematic maps.

Regular repeatability of space images ensures regular repeatability of surveys at a given interval (years, months, days, etc.), which cannot be achieved using other methods.

Also, satellite images can be used as a terrain model. Images represent spatio-temporal models, making it possible to study temporal changes on their basis using the principle of spatio-temporal series.

2.2 Methods for deciphering satellite images when mapping land resources

After carrying out the necessary stages, based on remote sensing data, GIS mapping of land resources is carried out through decryption.

Decoding is a method of studying objects, phenomena and processes on the earth's surface, which consists in recognizing objects by their characteristics, determining characteristics, and establishing relationships with other objects. Decryption is divided according to its content into topographical, in which information about the earth's surface and objects located on it is obtained from images; and special, in which information on the topics of agriculture, geological, etc.

The decryption process begins with the formulation of a general task, which is determined taking into account the real possibilities of obtaining survey materials, the availability of appropriate equipment, the experience of decipherers, etc.

For any type of decryption, it is necessary to carry out preparatory stage, which includes preparatory work, processing of image materials and creation of a raster spatial database.

Processing of satellite imagery materials consists of the following stages:

Formation of a digital photogrammetric system project and loading of satellite imagery data into the project;

Performing plan-altitude reference of satellite images;

Photogrammetric work on the external orientation of satellite images;

Alignment of phototriangulation results.

At this stage they use software product Photomod and photogrammetric scanners.

There are three main ways to decrypt space images: field, office and combined.

During field decryption, the image in the photographs is compared with the terrain, as a result of which objects are identified and their properties are determined. The main advantage of this method is the greatest completeness and reliability of the results, with a significant drawback consisting in high labor intensity, high time and money costs.

During desk decryption, logical analysis images and the use of the entire complex of decryption features, with the use of special software devices in the laboratory. It is worth noting the advantages of this method:

Saving time and money;

Good working conditions;

Application of various automation tools;

Use of auxiliary sources of information.

With all this, errors are possible, which will ultimately affect the reliability and require data to be refined in the field.

In combined decryption, processes and technological methods of field and office methods are used, which ensures high economic productivity and reliability of the data obtained.

Due to such obvious advantages, this method is the most common.

2.3 Advantages and disadvantages of using satellite images

When studying space images for mapping for GIS, I identified a number of advantages of their use:

The satellite does not experience vibrations or sharp fluctuations, so satellite images can be obtained with high resolution and high image quality;

Images can be converted into digital form for subsequent computer processing;

- obtaining environmental integrity;

The multizonal and multifactor nature of space data ensures a comprehensive assessment of the situation;

Efficiency, the ability to obtain repeated images;

Relatively low cost of surveying a unit area;

Possibility of using received survey documents in office work.

However, a number of disadvantages of this type of research should be noted:

When working in orbit, it is not possible to obtain images more than once every 6-12 hours;

Difficulties arise for upgrading systems, since new types of sensors can only work with new launches of devices;

It is difficult to implement the placement of some sensing equipment in space;

Insufficient efficiency in fulfilling requests, which is explained by the strict dependence of the spacecraft’s entry into the survey area on the ballistic parameters of the working orbit;

High costs of creating and deploying spacecraft.

Having analyzed these data, we can conclude that the use of satellite images for GIS mapping, although it has disadvantages, is preferable compared to other types of research.

2.4 Prospects for the development of the use of satellite images in mapping land resources for the Russian Federation

The development of domestic space technologies is an integral part of the course towards innovative development chosen by our country. Earth imagery data from space and specialized products derived from it are increasingly being found wide application for solving everyday practical problems. Construction progress assessment, environmental situation in the region, farming, assessing the investment attractiveness of territories, etc. A wide range of issues requires objective and up-to-date information for a productive solution, the only source of which is often Earth remote sensing (ERS) data.

The efficiency of working with satellite information can be increased by geoservices associated with receiving stations, which, based on ScanEx Web GeoMixer® technology, provide fast visualization of space and analytical information and the transfer of finished products. Geoportal technologies have confirmed their productivity in conducting operational satellite monitoring of the ecological state and ship situation in marine areas, monitoring the progress of floods and floods, etc.

The basic technology for increasing the availability of space information is the development of the ScanEx Center - universal hardware and software complexes "UniScan", which currently receive data from 17 modern satellites of land sensing data.

The use of satellite imagery data in the agricultural industry is expanding to solve problems of land inventory, monitoring the condition of crops, identifying erosion areas, monitoring the quality and timeliness of various agricultural activities. The repeatability of surveys makes it possible to observe the dynamics of crop development and predict yields.

ScanNet technology can be used to monitor illegal economic activities, unauthorized fishing, land pollution and aquatic environment and other tasks. Its adaptation and organization of satellite monitoring is carried out taking into account the individual requirements of the customer.

To achieve a truly global competitive level in the industry, which is a catalyst for modern geoinformation processes in all developed countries, coordinated actions of all interested participants are required: both government authorities and representatives of the private sector. |

Chapter 3 Mapping vegetation for cadastral valuation of land using the example of the Lapland Nature Reserve

3.1 Features of cadastral valuation of land resources

With the advent of the order of the President of Russia to conduct a cadastral assessment of all lands in Russia, the issue of analyzing specially protected lands has become very acute natural areas(SPNA). A cadastral assessment of the value of protected areas lands is necessary when calculating damage to lands of this group, assessing economic decisions related to the transfer of lands from this group or to this group, as well as for comparison with the economic costs arising from abandoning the economic use of land.

Article 390 of the Tax Code of the Russian Federation determines that the cadastral value of a land plot is determined in accordance with the land legislation of Russia. Pursuant to paragraph 2 of Art. 66 of the Land Code of the Russian Federation, to determine the cadastral value, a state cadastral valuation of land resources is carried out. Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation dated 04/08/2000 N 316 approved the Rules for conducting state cadastral valuation of lands, which determine the procedure for conducting state cadastral valuation of lands of all categories on the territory of the Russian Federation for tax purposes and other purposes established by law. To carry out the specified work, appraisers or legal entities who have the right to conclude an appraisal agreement are involved in accordance with the requirements established by Federal Law dated July 21, 2005 N 94-FZ "On placing orders for the supply of goods, performance of work, provision of services for government and municipal needs" (as amended on July 11, 2011).

The state cadastral valuation of land is based on the classification of land by purpose and type of functional use, and is carried out to determine the cadastral value of land plots for various purposes at least once every five years. The executive authorities of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation, on the recommendation of the territorial bodies of Rosreestr, approve the results of the state cadastral valuation of land. Methodological guidelines for the state cadastral valuation of land and regulatory and technical documents necessary for carrying out the state cadastral valuation of land are developed and approved by the Ministry of Economic Development of Russia in agreement with the interested federal executive authorities.

Methodological recommendations for the state cadastral valuation of lands of specially protected territories and objects, approved by order of the Ministry of Economic Development of Russia dated June 23, 2005 No. 138, are applied only to determine the cadastral value of land plots for recreational purposes as part of protected areas and lands of medical and recreational areas and resorts.

Effective economic assessment of the value of protected area lands is complicated by the variety of reasons why the organization of protected areas is necessary. They can be divided into functional-biospheric, resource-economic and moral-ethical.

Methods for assessing the value of protected areas with a reserve regime take into account the effectiveness of ecosystems, the value and uniqueness of ecosystem diversity and other indicators. An analysis of the reserve lands is given taking into account the capitalization of the volume of lost production, the costs of restoring disturbed ecosystems for the average duration of the period of restoration of ecosystems in natural conditions. values. A clear formulation of conservation value is given by S.E. Zhuravleva, who proposed, based on syntaxonomic analysis, to take into account rarity, naturalness, vulnerability, floristic and phytocenotic significance plant communities, their proximity to the border of the range. Methodological approaches to assessing the environmental significance of forest communities are discussed in detail in the work of L. Andersen et al.

Cadastral valuation of lands involves their mapping taking into account their typological affiliation, which determines the value of specific areas. Thus, the cadastral assessment of protected areas involves mapping the vegetation of protected areas, taking into account the dynamic state, productivity, rarity, naturalness, vulnerability, floristic-phytocenotic significance of plant communities, and their proximity to the boundary of the range. Dynamic categories of vegetation of disturbed ecosystems should be characterized by the average duration of the recovery period, which is a necessary condition calculating the value of land taking into account capitalization.

3.2 Features of vegetation mapping using the example of the Lapland Nature Reserve using satellite imagery

In my course work, I chose the study of mapping using satellite images of such an object of the Russian Federation as the Lapland Nature Reserve, because it is a unique masterpiece created by nature itself, and therefore is of great value for our state, and its study is more than justified.

The Lapland Nature Reserve is located on the territory of the Monchetundra and Chunatundra mountain ranges, on the shores of Lake Imandra in Murmansk region The watershed of the White and Barents seas passes through the reserve. The area of the reserve is huge and equals 278,438 hectares, 8,574 of which are water areas of lakes and rivers. Figure 1 shows a photo from space of this unique reserve.

Figure 1 - Lapland Nature Reserve. Photo from space

The landscape of the reserve is very diverse, from forests to tundra and mountain peaks. The highest point is 1140 meters above sea level, the average height of the mountain range is 470 m.

The reserve ranks fourth in size in the European part of Russia, its unique feature The fact is that people have never lived on its territory or been engaged in production activities, therefore the territory of the reserve has retained its integrity.

Main goal and direction scientific activity reserve is maintaining and increasing the population reindeer on the territory of the Kola Peninsula. Workers also monitor and study the impact of nearby industrial enterprises on the environment and climate change. Rich animal and flora makes this reserve an interesting place to study and collect data.

The object of mapping for the course work was the vegetation of the Lapland state reserve. The area of the territory for creating the map is 161,241 hectares.

The method of studying vegetation is based on the use of data obtained from topographic maps and the assessment of spectral brightness coefficients (SBC) of satellite images (KS) obtained by the Landsat-7 satellite with a resolution of 30 m on the ground. Data from permanent experimental plots established in 1986 and described more widely in 2008 were used to determine the relationship between brightness coefficient and vegetation cover units and the accuracy of mapping ecological systems.

The main characteristic of the interaction of radiation in the optical range with the probed medium is the spectral brightness coefficient (SBC), since it is the brightness coefficients that are measured experimentally, and not the reflection coefficients. Spectral brightness coefficient c is a quantity characterizing the spatial distribution of the spectral brightness of a reflecting surface, equal to the ratio of the brightness of a given surface in a given direction B(l) to the brightness of an ideally scattering surface B0(l) with a unit reflection coefficient and illuminated in the same way as the given surface

s(l)= V(l)/V0(l)

Surfaces that have uniformly scattering reflection for all wavelengths of the spectrum, for example barium-coated plates, are usually taken as an ideal diffuser.

The land surface is distinguished by a wide variety of types of underlying surface, characterized by different integral brightness coefficients, and, in addition, to a greater extent, different spectral dependences of the CSC, caused, first of all, by the specific absorption spectra of various objects. However, for a number of different types of underlying surface, the values of the integral QWs can practically coincide, therefore, reliable identification of such objects is possible only based on the use of:

- structural decryption features;

Multi-spectral shooting.

The reflective characteristics of vegetation depend on:

Optical properties of phytoelements (leaves, stems, branches, trunks, flowers, fruits);

- architecture of vegetation cover (shape, relative position and orientation of phytoelements);

Projective cover coefficient (the amount of vegetation per unit area).

The main contribution to the formation of the CSC of a continuous plant cover is made by the reflection of light by leaves.

Using satellite images in the infrared range, we determined the CSC values corresponding to five classes of soil moisture degree. Using the normalized vegetation index (NVI), which takes into account the ratio of CV in the red and green ranges, 6 types of vegetation categories were identified:

Aquatic vegetation of water areas;

Spruce forests;

Deciduous and pine forests;

Open woodlands and shrubs;

Moss, shrub, herbaceous vegetation

Sparse vegetation cover.

The difference between deciduous and coniferous forests in the near-infrared range made it possible to create a map of coniferous forests. To process space images, we used the ImagePals2Go graphics package and original programs in C++. As a result of processing satellite images, the following raster images were obtained:

Humidity map;

Map of types of vegetation cover structures;

- map of coniferous forests.

Computer combination of these three maps makes it possible to construct a geobotanical map. The geobotanical interpretation of the contours that arise when all three maps are combined is presented in Table 1.

Table 1 - Vegetation decoding signs

Vegetation structure	The degree of soil moisture according to the results of satellite images

spruce forests		phagnum spruce forests, marsh grasses	blueberry-crowberry spruce forests	lingonberry-crowberry spruce forests	moss-lichen spruce forests
pine forests and woodlands	pine-shrub-sphagnum communities	pine woodlands sphagnum	blueberry-crowberry pine forests	green moss-lichen, crowberry-lingonberry pine forests	Pine forests, pine woodlands, lichens
deciduous forests	birch forests, grass-sphagnum, marsh grass	long-moss birch forests, blueberry-sphagnum	Blueberry-crowberry birch forests	birch forests, green moss-lichen, crowberry-lingonberry	birch forests, birch woodlands, lichens
crooked forests and deciduous shrubs	marsh-grass willows, marsh-grass birch forests	long-haired birch forests, wooden	birch blueberry-crowberry	birch green moss-lichen forests	birch forests
moss, shrub, herbaceous vegetation	grass-sphagnum, herbaceous gyrophilic communities of bogs	shrub-sphagnum communities of bogs	shrub-green moss tundra and wasteland meadows	lichen-shrub tundras and wastelands	lichen-shrub tundras and wastelands in combination with epilithic lichen aggregations
sparse vegetation cover	hygrophytic aggregations in swamps	hygrophytic aggregations of swampy burnt areas	mesophytic aggregations on potentially forest lands	Epilichen and moss aggregations	Epilichen aggregations

The accuracy of the mapping results was assessed by the percentage of coincidence of vegetation units on the map and at the same points on the earth's surface. If the map data and the control ground survey did not match, a coefficient was used that took values from 0 to 1 to assess the significance of the error:

Р=100*(N - S(Ki))/N, i=1, …., N

where P is the mapping accuracy, %; N is the number of points of the control examination, S is the sum, Ki is the dimensionless coefficient of significance of the error at the i-th point of the control examination. The error significance coefficient Ki is equal to the relative Euclidean distance between the centroid of a vegetation unit on the map and at the same point on the earth's surface.

Relative Euclidean distance is defined as the Euclidean distance between the centroids of the mapped and observed syntaxa, normalized by the maximum value of the Euclidean distance:

Ki = Eotn = Eij / E max

To calculate the Euclidean distance, the average cover of species was used; the maximum was the distance between grass spruce forests and lichen pine forests. The mapping accuracy was 72%. To improve the mapping accuracy to 98%, the moisture classes were adjusted according to the topographic map data. On a topographic map at a scale of 1:25000, sections of slopes and hilltops with strong drainage, flat and slightly sloping surfaces with normal drainage, hollows with flowing moisture, flat and slightly sloping surfaces covered with forest with swamp marks, forested swamps, passable and impassable were identified.

3.3 Analysis of the effectiveness of the mapping carried out. Conclusions

Application of a combined method using automatic interpretation of types of vegetation structure, degree of soil moisture from satellite images and topographic maps followed by combining the decryption results and their complete analysis gives acceptable results. Mapping the vegetation of the mountain tundra and the birch crooked forest belt made it possible to distinguish with an accuracy of 98%: lichen-shrub tundra, birch crooked forest green moss, birch crooked forest, lichen.

An assessment of the mapping of swamp vegetation by this method made it possible to clearly distinguish swamps from forests in automatic mode, however, to establish in detail the typological affiliation of swamp complexes, it is necessary to use data from texture analysis of high-resolution satellite images.

An assessment of the results of using the mapping method under consideration made it possible to identify the causes of errors and find ways to eliminate them. Thus, differences in the spectral brightness coefficient (SBC) of identical objects in different parts of satellite images have been identified, which is eliminated by processing the image in parts in comparison with reference areas in different parts of the image. To establish a better correspondence to soil moisture classes during spectral analysis, a larger number of ground study points in different areas of the territory is required.

To eliminate light and shadow effects that appear due to areas heavily shaded by hills, there are a number of special programs that require the construction mathematical model relief, types of area illumination for subsequent spectral editing of space images. This method is used in mountainous areas. For other areas of the earth, it is cheaper and more appropriate to use satellite images obtained in different times days.

Vegetation mapping and analysis of archival materials showed that 25% of forest lands were damaged by fires. Ground studies showed that in all 98 study areas pine forests there were fires. With the help of satellite images, the main stages of post-fire dynamics of pine forests, aimed at replacing pine and birch with spruce and lichens with mosses, are clearly recognized.

Based on the above, we can conclude that the use of a combined method of geobotanical mapping using automatic deciphering of the types of structure of vegetation cover, coniferous forests, degree of soil moisture according to CI and topographic maps, followed by combining the decoding results and their meaningful analysis made it possible to quite accurately identify syntaxonomic affiliation mapped units. The maps obtained by the method considered make it possible to analyze the rarity, vulnerability, floristic-phytocenotic significance, proximity to the boundary of the range of vegetation cover components, determine their area and give a cadastral assessment of the lands of a specific protected area.

Conclusion

As a result of the work carried out and the analysis of the information studied, a number of conclusions can be drawn regarding the material studied.

Currently, there is increasing interest in obtaining satellite images, as the possibilities for the practical use of the results of this activity are expanding. The active introduction of space and geoinformation technologies into the information structure contributes to:

Increased efficiency of regional management;

Gives impetus to the modern development of the economy of the Russian Federation.

Geoinformation technologies are necessary in the field of agricultural and forestry management, urban management, socio-economic planning of regional development and in solving environmental problems.

Thanks to innovative space technologies, the following opportunities have become reality:

Efficiency of receipt and reliability of information;

The accuracy of calculations and assessments of regular monitoring has increased;

Reduced mapping costs;

Increased quality when making management decisions on assigned tasks;

Increasing the investment attractiveness and competitiveness of the territory by publishing promising investment sites and projects on the Internet.

Most importantly, organizational and administrative prerequisites have emerged for the widespread introduction of integrated space monitoring technologies in the regions:

Regional leaders have come to understand the need for serious work in this direction, which is, among other things, due to the active position of the country's top political leadership on this issue;

In most regions, organizational structures responsible for informatization have been created. They have an organizational and legal form, scope of authority and are responsible for the development of modern information technologies;

- the creation process is underway federal systems based on space monitoring technologies, it becomes possible to organize interdepartmental interaction at the federal and regional levels.

Positive experience has emerged from the implementation of integrated space monitoring technologies in a number of regions and has become obvious economic effect from the creation of such systems.

List of used literature

1. Andersson L., Alekseeva N.M., Koltsov D.B., Kuksina N.V., Kutepov D.Zh., Mariev A.N., Neshataev V.Yu. Identification and survey of biologically valuable forests in the North-West of the European part of Russia. T.1. Methodology for identification and mapping. Study guide. / Rep. ed. Andersson L.,. Alekseeva N.M. St. Petersburg, 2009.

2. Berlyant A.M. Geoinformation mapping, M., 2010.

3. Geoinformatics: a textbook for universities: in 2 books// edited by Tikunov V.S., M., 2010.

4. Zhuravleva S. E. Syntaxonomic justification for the selection of protected plant communities. Using the example of some communities of the Republic of Bashkorostan. Author's abstract. Ph.D. diss.03.00.05. Ufa, 1999, 20 p.

5. Ilyinsky N. D., Obiralov A. I., Fostikov A. A. Photogrammetry and image decryption: a textbook for universities. M., 2009.

6. Kashkin V. B. Sukhinin A. I. Remote sensing of the Earth from space. Digital image processing: tutorial. M., 2011.

7. Klebanovich N.V. Land cadastre: a textbook for universities specializing in Geography. Mn., 2010.

8. Kutepov D.Zh., Mariev A.N., Neshataev V.Yu. Identification and survey of biologically valuable forests in the North-West of the European part of Russia. T.1. Methodology for identification and mapping. Study guide./ Answer. Ed. Anlersson L., Alekseeva N. M., Kuznetsova E. S. St. Petersburg, 2009.

9. Kravtsova V.I. Space methods for soil research: a textbook for university students. M., 2011.

10. Labutina A.I. Deciphering aerospace images: a textbook for university students. M., 2010.

11. Myasnikovich M.V. Space technologies in the control system. M., 2012.

12. Olshevsky A. Selection of the optimal method for classifying space images for the purpose of automated decoding of land types. M., 2012.

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Space geography and modern sciences

Images of the Earth's surface from space are of great interest for science and the national economy. They provide new information about the planet.

Meteorologists were the first to use images of the Earth from space. Photographs of cloudiness convinced them of the correctness of their hypotheses about physical condition atmosphere, the presence of cells with ascending and descending flows air masses. Based on satellite images and their use, meteorologists solve the most difficult task of science - compiling 2-3 week weather forecasts.

Space photographs are also successfully and effectively used in geology. They help supplement and clarify geological maps and help develop new methods for searching for minerals. For example, observations from space helped to detect large faults in Kazakhstan and Altai, and this indicates their ore potential. Scientists, having such information, drew up a master plan for search work.

Studying earth's crust According to space photographs, hidden deep faults and huge ring formations were discovered. Scientists continue to study the geological structure of ocean shallows and the continental shelf.

A view of the Earth from above provides information about the characteristics of regions, allows you to clarify existing information or draw up new geological maps.

Space observations help in solving agricultural problems - using images you can monitor:

moisture reserves in the soil,
the condition of the crops,
use of pastures.

In arid regions, it is possible to detect groundwater at shallow depths.

With the help of space information, it becomes possible to keep records and assess land, and to determine areas affected by agricultural pests. In forestry, satellite imagery helps to develop a method of forest accounting, this is a problem facing forestry. Using images, they not only conduct an inventory of forest resources, but even calculate wood reserves.

Space methods are used in the study of the World Ocean; the images clearly show ocean currents and the speed of their movement, the presence sea disturbances in the ocean. Ice maps compiled from images are used in navigation, maps of the ocean surface help in organizing fishing.

Archaeologists also did not stand aside, extracting scientifically valuable information from the images. Traces of the past, buried from the eyes of scientists, also help to discover space images; for example, in the Kalmyk Trans-Volga region, thanks to photographs from orbit, numerous ancient settlements located underground were discovered. The photographs show once-paved roads and flowing rivers.

Today, for filming from space, the multispectral space camera MKF-6 is widely used, in the development of which specialists from the USSR and the GDR took part.

The device has 6 cameras and conducts spectrozonal photography in 6 ranges of the electromagnetic spectrum. In photographs taken by this device, only those objects that reflect electromagnetic waves a certain length.

Space cartography

Images from space have found application in cartography, and this is completely natural, because they capture the surface of the Earth in great detail, and specialists quite easily transfer these images to a map.

Note 3

Satellite images are deciphered using identification features, the main of which are the shape of the object, its size and tone.

For example, water bodies – lakes, rivers – are depicted in photographs in dark (black) tones, with the banks clearly visible. Forest vegetation has less dark tones of a fine-grained structure, and mountain relief stands out in sharp contrasting tones due to the different illumination of the slopes. Roads and settlements have their own decoding signs.

By comparing a map and a satellite image, you can find out additional information about the area - the information from the satellite image is more detailed and up-to-date.

Maps are compiled from photographs in the same way as from aerial photographs, using various methods using photogrammetric instruments.

A simpler option is to make a map to the scale of the photograph - objects are first copied onto tracing paper, and then transferred from tracing paper to paper. They, however, show only the contours of the area, are not tied to a cartographic grid, and their scale is arbitrary, which is why they are called map diagrams.

Space images are used in cartography to create small-scale maps, and today a variety of thematic maps have already been created.

Map information is gradually becoming outdated because the appearance of the Earth is constantly changing. Images from space make it possible to correct maps and update information, since it is reliable and the latest.

Space photographs are used not only to map the surface of the Earth; they are used to create maps of the Moon and Mars. Despite the fact that the lunar map is more detailed, the map of Mars quite clearly and accurately depicts the Martian surface.

The department compiles maps of space subject and information states Maps of near and deep space.

This is roughly the same as cartography, topography and geodesy. It is necessary to distinguish the laws of terrestrial cartography from space cartography. On the planet, we map the species in space, we map the state according to the laws of cosmic information sign exchange. This rule is dangerous to break. If this rule is violated, the natural metabolism of the human body is destroyed. An endless, uncertain image of cosmic subject and information states destroys the natural information exchange of a person. Defined subject-shaped units must be transformed into scientific definitions over time, and the sign of this measurement must be registered, archived and consolidated in the education system.

It has been established that the space of space is objective and at the same time informational. Consequently, it is possible to make maps of two kinds, where pairs of units are in a natural relationship. Maps of visible space and maps of its non-visible information states must correspond when superimposed.

Space cartography in solar life systems should develop as a separate scientific direction. The reason is paramount - if the figurative expression of an information state or object corresponds to reality, then the entire information nature of exchange in the human body is in the natural norm. Secondly, natural cosmic nature cannot be consistently studied without the subject of space cartography. Our vision, as well as technical (telescope, observatory) capabilities, are limited, but with knowledge of information exchange cosmic states, we have the opportunity to correctly determine distant cosmic expanses and compose accurate maps. According to the latest data, we have discovered maps and diagrams of deep space, both their substantive and informational types. These maps have replaced the concept of cosmic infinity and in the time of earthly development must be constantly supplemented as the cosmic environment is studied. According to the systemic cosmic information exchange, we receive units of schemes for distant cosmic information and subject states. After receiving the entire total amount of information, we will receive a detailed view of the general cosmic information map. This is enough for initial study information space. Scientific consistency is imperative to develop simultaneously in two directions - external and internal. Macrocosm and microcosm - knowledge must develop in balance. The general cosmic law says - Life is preserved with a firm relationship between objective and information units and their names. The law of the “soul” - the soul is always calm with completed units of relationship. Developing one-sidedly, objects without a name are formed, which gain search power and a shift in solid memory occurs in a person. Conventionally, the soul independently strives to determine the name of the object and (the soul) leaves the body. The conclusion is to strengthen the study of the microcosm and correctly name new subject states or phenomena. Remember the time scale and date the definition of a new subject name and subject-figurative names. This law should also be strictly applied to macrocosmic states. The map compiler needs to know the laws of the natural information counter-exchange state of the human body. With sign thinking, human consciousness is directed towards triple logical zeroing - this is informational (spiritual) zero, moral and material zero. Zero is independence. The dependent form of relationships dominates on the planet. This needs to be fixed. Relationships between people must be independent. Figuratively, follow the rule - “When leaving, turn off the light.” With the wind, there is a person's desire.

Human spaceflight has made it possible to get to know our planet even better. The information provided about her is numerous and varied. But we are, of course, interested in those that relate to human habitats - the air basin and subsoil, vegetation cover and soils.

Using images from space in cartography

As the flow of cosmic energy intensifies, the scope of its application expands. Currently, to one degree or another, it is used in almost all sectoral and complex geographical studies. As for cartography, space images are just beginning to be studied. Nevertheless, it is already possible to indicate areas where it will find application in the near future. This is primarily in the depiction of the coastal zone of seas and lakes, flooded areas and coastal vegetation, as well as settlements, communication routes, etc.

It is estimated that the use of satellite images for these purposes provides significant savings in costs, labor costs and time.

Abroad, for example in the USA, there is experience in creating general geographic maps of little-explored territories using satellite images, in particular in. Based on satellite images, a map was made at a scale of 1:250,000.

Space images have found application in the production of intermediate cartographic documents - photo maps. They can only contain a photographic (from space) image of the earth’s surface, supplemented with elements from traditional maps: general geographical, geological, geomorphological, etc.

Photo maps have independent significance as sources for studying the earth's surface for various purposes of its economic use. They serve to update and improve traditional nature maps, but cannot replace them themselves.

Although satellite images are currently widely used in various studies of natural phenomena and processes, however experimental work do not reach the point of creating fundamental maps of large spatial coverage. Conditions are apparently not yet ripe for this. Nevertheless, there is some experience in compiling nature maps using satellite images. It is known that the television program “Time” ends with a message from the Russian Hydrometeorological Center about the weather forecast. Often, synoptic maps are shown, which are compiled taking into account data received from satellites.

Today, meteorological research in our country is carried out with the widespread use of information received from meteorological satellites of the Earth. The Hydrometeorological Center of Russia compiles global maps of cloudiness for different dates. And analysis of cloud cover using maps helps to study many atmospheric processes: jet streams in the subtropics, air currents in the upper troposphere, tropical storms, etc. Using cloud cover maps, a method for estimating monthly precipitation amounts has been proposed. Abroad, maps of ocean surface temperatures have been compiled using satellite images.

However, all this work relates to the so-called operational mapping, i.e., to obtaining maps for immediate and short-term use in the interests of a particular government service or department.

As for the compilation of fundamental thematic maps of large territorial coverage from space images, back in the USSR, on the initiative of Soviet geologists, work was carried out to create a map of faults of the USSR and neighboring countries on a scale of 1: 2,500,000. This, in essence, was the first experience in using space information in thematic cartography. This work was carried out at the State Research and Production Center “Priroda”.